Prof. M. M.

Solanki
Electronics Engineering Dept.
B.V.M. Engineering College
Time Response Analysis of Systems
• Time domain analysis refers to the analysis of system performance
in time i.e., the study of evolution of system variables (specifically
output) with time
• There are two common ways of analyzing the response of systems:
1. Natural response and forced response
2. Transient response and steady state response
• In both cases, the complete response of the system is given by the
combination of both responses i.e., natural and forced responses
or transient and steady state responses

3
• Natural response (Zero input response) :
– System's response to initial conditions with all external forces set
to zero
– E.g. In RLC circuits, this would be the response of the circuit to
initial conditions (inductor currents or capacitor voltages) with all
the independent voltage and current sources set to zero
• Forced response (Zero state response) :
– System's response to external forces with zero initial conditions
– E.g. In RLC circuits, this would be the response of the circuit to only
external voltage and current source, and zero initial conditions

Module 3: Lecture 2 4
• Transient response 𝒚𝒕𝒓(𝒕):
– Part of the time response that goes to zero as time tends to be large
– Transient response can be tied to any event that affects the equilibrium
of a system viz. switching, disturbance, change in input, etc.
lim 𝑦𝑡 𝑟 (𝑡) = 0
𝑡 →∞
• Steady state response 𝒚𝒔𝒔(𝒕):
– Steady state response is the time response of a system after transient
practically vanishes and as time goes to infinity
𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑦𝑡 𝑟 𝑡 + 𝑦𝑠𝑠 (𝑡)

5
• In most cases, the input signals to a control system are not known
prior to design of control system
• Hence to analyse the performance of a control system, it is excited
with standard test signals
• In general, control system design specifications are also based on
the response of the system to such test signals
• Standard test signals include:
– Unit impulse, unit step (sudden change), ramp (constant velocity),
parabolic (constant acceleration) and sinusoidal
– These inputs are chosen because they capture many of the possible
variations that can occur in an arbitrary input signal

7
• Unit impulse signal:

𝛿 𝑡
– A signal which is non-zero only at 𝑡 = 0
and integrates to one
∞
∫ 𝛿 𝑡 =1
−∞
𝑓 𝛿 𝑡 =1
𝑡
• Unit step signal:
– A signal that switches to one at a time

𝑥 𝑡
instant and stays there indefinitely
1∀𝑡>0
𝑥 𝑡 =
0∀𝑡<0
1
𝑓 𝑥 𝑡 =
𝑠
8
𝑡
• Ramp signal:

𝑥 𝑡
– A signal which increases linearly with
time
𝐴𝑡 ∀ 𝑡 ≥ 0
𝑥 𝑡 = 0∀𝑡<0
𝐴
𝑓 𝑥𝑡 = 2 𝑡
𝑠
• Parabolic signal:

𝑥 𝑡
𝐴𝑡 2
𝑥 𝑡 = 2 ∀𝑡≥0
0∀𝑡<0
𝐴
𝑓 𝑥 𝑡 = 3
𝑠 𝑡
9
• Systems with only one pole are called 1st order systems

𝑅(𝑠) 1 𝑌(𝑠)
+ 𝑌𝑠 1
− T𝑠 𝑇𝐹 =
𝑅 𝑠 = T𝑠 + 1

T: System time constant

1
– It characterizes the speed of
response of a system to an input
Standard block diagram of a 1st order system
– Higher the time constant, slower
the response and vice-versa

10
  The first order system given below.
10
G( s ) 
3s  1
• D.C gain is 10 and time constant is 3 seconds.

• For the following system

3 3/ 5
G( s )  
s5 1 / 5s  1

• D.C Gain of the system is 3/5 and time constant is 1/5 seconds.
 Unit impulse: 𝑅 𝑠 = 1

r 𝑡 , 𝑦(𝑡)
1 1
𝑌 𝑠 = 𝑅 𝑠 =
T𝑠 + 1 T𝑠 + 1
1 −𝑡
𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑓 −1
𝑌 𝑠 = 𝑒 T
T
• T is the time constant of the system
𝑡
• 1
T
−𝑡
𝑒 is the transient term 𝑦𝑡 𝑟 (𝑡) while
T 𝑟 𝑡 and 𝑦(𝑡) when T = 1, T = 2
the steady state term 𝑦𝑠𝑠 𝑡 = 0

12
 1
Unit step: 𝑅 𝑠 =
𝑠

r 𝑡 , 𝑦(𝑡)
1 1
𝑌 𝑠 = 𝑅 𝑠 =
T𝑠 + 1 𝑠(T𝑠 + 1)
1 T
= −
𝑠 T𝑠 + 1
−𝑡
𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑓 −1 𝑌 𝑠 = 1−𝑒 T
𝑡
−𝑡
• In this case, 𝑡𝑡𝑟 𝑡 = −𝑒 T and 𝑡𝑠𝑠 𝑡 = 1 𝑟 𝑡 and 𝑦(𝑡) when T = 1, T = 2

13
  The first order system given below.
10
G( s ) 
3s  1
• D.C gain is 10 and time constant is 3 seconds.

• For the following system

3 3/ 5
G( s )  
s5 1 / 5s  1

• D.C Gain of the system is 3/5 and time constant is 1/5 seconds.
 Time Constant: If t= , So the step response is
C() = (1− 0.37) = 0.63

 is referred to as the time constant of the response. In other words, the time
constant is the time it takes for the step response to rise to 63% of its final value.
Because of this, the time constant is used to measure how fast a system can
respond. The time constant has a unit of seconds.
 The following figure gives the measurements of the step response of a first-order
system, find the transfer function of the system.

Rise Time Tr:

The rise-time (symbol Tr units s) is defined as the time taken for the step response
to go from 10% to 90% of the final value.
Tr  2.31  0.11  2.2
Settling Time Ts:
Defined the settling-time (symbol Ts units s) to be the time taken for the step
response to come to within 2% of the final value of the step response.
Ts  4

1
 
a
• If K=10 and T=1, 3, 5, 7 c(t )  K 1  e 
t / T

K*(1-exp(-t/T))
11
10
T=1s
9

8 T=3s
7
T=5s
6
c(t)

5 T=7s

4
3
2
1
0
0 5 10 15
Time
• If K=1, 3, 5, 10 and T=1 c(t )  K 1  e 
t / T

K*(1-exp(-t/T))
11
10
K=10
9

8
7
6
K=5
c(t)

5
4
K=3
3
2
K=1
1
0
0 5 10 15
Time
 Rise Time Tr:
The rise-time (symbol Tr units s) is defined as the time
taken for the step response to go from 10% to 90% of the
final value.
Tr  2.31  0.11  2.2

Settling Time Ts:

Defined the settling-time (symbol Ts units s) to be the
time taken for the step response to come to within 2% of
the final value of the step response.
Ts  4
21
 1
 
a

22
 The step response of the first order system is

 
c(t )  K 1  e t / T  K  Ke t / T

 Differentiating c(t) with respect to t yields

dc(t )
dt

d
dt

K  Ke t / T 
dc(t ) K t / T
 e
dt T
 Impulse response of a 1st order system is given
below. 0.5t
c(t )  3e

 Find out
◦ Time constant T
◦ D.C Gain K
◦ Transfer Function
◦ Step Response
 The Laplace Transform of Impulse response of a system is
actually the transfer function of the system.
 Therefore taking Laplace Transform of the impulse response
given by following equation.

c(t )  3e0.5t
3 3
C( s )  1    (s)
S  0.5 S  0.5
C( s ) C( s ) 3
 
 (s) R( s ) S  0.5
C( s ) 6

R( s ) 2S  1
 Impulse response of a 1st order system is given
below. 0.5t
c(t )  3e

 Find out
◦ Time constant T=2 C( s ) 6

◦ D.C Gain K=6 R( s ) 2S  1
◦ Transfer Function
◦ Step Response
 For step response integrate impulse
response c(t )  3e0.5t

0.5t
 c(t )dt  3 e dt

cs (t )  6e 0.5t  C

• We can find out C if initial condition is known e.g.

cs(0)=0 0  6e 0.50  C
C 6
cs (t )  6  6e 0.5t
 If initial conditions are not known then partial
fraction expansion is a better choice
C( s ) 6

R( s ) 2S  1
1
since R( s ) is a stepinput, R( s ) 
s
6
C( s ) 
s 2 S  1

6 A B
 
s 2S  1 s 2s  1

6 6 6
 
s 2 S  1 s s  0.5

c(t )  6  6e 0.5t
Unit ramp: 𝑟 𝑡 = 𝑡 ⟹ 𝑅 𝑠 = 1
𝑠2

𝑟 𝑡 , 𝑦(𝑡)
1 1
𝑌 𝑠 = 𝑅 𝑠 = 2
T𝑠 + 1 𝑠 (T𝑠 + 1)
1 T T2
= 2− +
𝑠 𝑠 T𝑠 + 1
−𝑡
𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑓 −1 𝑌 𝑠 =𝑡 − T+ T𝑒 T 𝑡
−𝑡
𝑡 𝑡𝑟 𝑡 = T𝑒 T ; 𝑡𝑠𝑠 𝑡 = 𝑡 − T
𝑟 𝑡 and 𝑦(𝑡) when T = 1, T = 2

29
 2
Unit parabolic: 𝑟 𝑡 = 𝑡 ⟹ 𝑅 𝑠 = 1

𝑟 𝑡 , 𝑦(𝑡)
2 𝑠3
1 1
𝑌 𝑠 = 𝑅 𝑠 = 3
T𝑠 + 1 𝑠 (T𝑠 + 1)
1 T T2 T3
= 3− 2+ −
𝑠 𝑠 𝑠 T𝑠 + 1
𝑡 2 𝑡 𝑡
−1 2 2 −
𝑦 𝑡 =𝑓 𝑌 𝑠 = − T𝑡 + T − T 𝑒 T
2 𝑟 𝑡 and 𝑦(𝑡) when T = 1, T = 2
𝑡 𝑡 2
−
𝑡 𝑡𝑟 𝑡 = −T2 𝑒 T ; 𝑡𝑠𝑠 𝑡 = − T𝑡 + T2
2

30
An Important property of linear time invariant system
 Impulse
A t 0
  (t )   d
0 t 0
 dt
A t 0
 Step u( t )  
0 t 0 d
 dt
 At t 0
 Ramp r(t )  
0 t 0 d
  At 2
dt

 Parabolic 
p( t )   2
0
t 0

 t 0
• Systems with two poles are called 2nd order systems
• E.g. An RLC circuit or mass-spring-damper system
1
• For an RLC circuit : 𝑇𝐹 = 𝑠 2 𝐿𝐶 +𝑠𝑅𝐶+1
1
• For an MSD system : 𝑇𝐹 =
𝑀 𝑠 2 +𝐵𝑠 +𝐾
• In general, the transfer function of a 2nd order system can be
written as: 𝑇𝐹 = 2 𝑏
𝑠 +𝑎 𝑠 +𝑏
• To study and understand the response of a 2nd order system, its
transfer function is written in terms of certain system parameters

33
𝑅(𝑠) 𝜔𝑛2 𝑌(𝑠) 𝑌𝑠 𝜔𝑛2
+ 𝑇𝐹 = = 2
− 𝑠(𝑠 + 2𝜁𝜔𝑛 ) 𝑅𝑠 𝑠 + 2𝜁𝜔𝑛𝑠 + 𝜔𝑛2

Standard form of transfer function

Block diagram of a 2nd order system 𝜔𝑛 : System natural frequency

𝜁: System damping ratio

34
• System damping ratio 𝜁 : a dimensionless quantity describing the
decay of oscillations during a transient response
• It is the ratio of actual damping to critical damping of a system
• System natural frequency 𝜔 𝑛 : angular frequency at which system
tends to oscillate in the absence of damping force
• System damped frequency 𝜔 𝑑 : angular frequency at which system
tends to oscillate in the presence of damping force
𝜔 𝑑 = 𝜔𝑛 1 − 𝜁2

35
• Response of 2nd order systems mainly depends on the damping ratio 𝜁
• For any test input, the response of a 2nd order system can be studied in
four cases depending on the damping effect created by value of 𝜁:
1. 𝜁 > 1: Overdamped system
2. 𝜁 = 1: Critically damped system
3. 0 < 𝜁 < 1: Underdamped system
4. 𝜁 = 0: Undamped system

• Note: We do not consider negative damping ratio 𝜁 because negative

damping actually means the oscillations are increasing in amplitude which
results in unstable systems
36
• Damping is an effect created in an oscillatory system that reduces,
restricts or prevents the oscillations in the system
• Systems can be classified as follows depending on damping effect:
– Overdamped systems: Transients in the system exponentially decays to
steady state without any oscillations
– Critically damped systems: Transients in the system decay to steady
state without any oscillations in shortest possible time
– Underdamped systems: System transients oscillate with the amplitude
of oscillation gradually decreasing to zero
– Undamped systems: System keeps on oscillating at its natural
frequency without any decay in amplitude

37
 Underdamped
Critically damped Overdamped
𝑦(𝑡)

Undamped

20
𝑡
 Order Systems
Unit impulse: 𝑅 𝑠 = 1

𝑦(𝑡)
𝜔𝑛2
𝑌 𝑠 = 2
𝑠 + 2𝜁𝜔𝑛𝑠 + 𝜔 𝑛2

Case 1: 𝜁 = 0 − Undamped system

𝜔𝑛2 𝑡
𝑌 𝑠 = 2
𝑠 + 𝜔𝑛2 𝑦(𝑡) when 𝜁 = 0, 𝜔𝑛 = 5
𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑓 −1 𝑌 𝑠 = 𝜔𝑛 sin(𝜔𝑛𝑡)

39
 Order Systems
Case 2: 0 < 𝜁 < 1 − Underdamped system
𝜔𝑛2

𝑦(𝑡)
𝑌 𝑠 = 2
𝑠 + 2𝜁𝜔𝑛𝑠 + 𝜔 𝑛2
𝜔 2
𝑛
𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑓 −1
(𝑠 + 𝜁𝜔𝑛 − 𝑗𝜔𝑑)(𝑠 + 𝜁𝜔𝑛 + 𝑗𝜔 𝑑 )
𝜔𝑛
𝜔𝑑
1−𝜁 2
= 𝑓 −1 𝑡
𝑠 + 𝜁𝜔𝑛 2 + (𝜔𝑑2)
𝜔𝑛 𝑦(𝑡) when 𝜁 = 0.5, 𝜔𝑛 = 5
𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑒 −𝜁𝜔 𝑛 𝑡 sin(𝜔 𝑑 𝑡)
1 − 𝜁2

40
 Order Systems
Case 3: 𝜁 = 1 − Critically damped system

𝑦(𝑡)
𝜔𝑛2
𝑌 𝑠 = 2
𝑠 + 2𝜔𝑛𝑠 + 𝜔 2𝑛
𝜔 2
𝑛
𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑓 −1
𝑠 + 𝜔𝑛 2

𝑦 𝑡 = 𝜔𝑛2 𝑡𝑒 −𝜔 𝑛 𝑡
𝑡
𝑦(𝑡) when 𝜁 = 1, 𝜔𝑛 = 5

41
 Order Systems
Case 4: 𝜁 > 1 − Overdamped system

𝑦(𝑡)
𝜔𝑛2
𝑌 𝑠 =
𝑠 2 + 2𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑠 + 𝜔𝑛2
𝑦𝑡
𝜔𝑛2
= 𝑓 −1
(𝑠 + 𝜁𝜔𝑛 − 𝜔𝑛 𝜁2 − 1)(𝑠 + 𝜁𝜔𝑛 + 𝜔𝑛 𝜁2 − 1)

𝜔𝑛 𝑡
𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑒 −(𝜁𝜔 𝑛 −𝜔 𝜁 2 −1)𝑡
2 𝜁2 − 1 𝑦(𝑡) when 𝜁 = 2, 𝜔𝑛 = 5
𝑛
𝜔𝑛 𝜁 2 −1)𝑡
− 𝑒 −(𝜁𝜔 𝑛 +𝜔 𝑛
2 𝜁2 − 1
42
 Order Systems
1
Unit step: 𝑅 𝑠 =

𝑟 𝑡 , 𝑦(𝑡)
𝑠

𝜔𝑛2
𝑌 𝑠 =
𝑠(𝑠2 + 2𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑠 + 𝜔2𝑛)

Case 1: 𝜁 = 0 − Undamped system

𝑡
𝜔𝑛2 1 𝑠
𝑌𝑠 = = − 𝑟(𝑡) and 𝑦(𝑡) when 𝜁 = 0, 𝜔𝑛 = 5
𝑠(𝑠 + 𝜔𝑛 ) 𝑠 𝑠 2 − 𝜔𝑛2
2 2

𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑓 −1 𝑌 𝑠 = 1 − cos(𝜔𝑛𝑡)
43
 Order Systems
Case 2: 0 < 𝜁 < 1 − Underdamped system
𝜔𝑛2 1 𝑠 + 2𝜁𝜔𝑛
𝑌 𝑠 = ⟹ 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑓 −1 − 2
𝑠(𝑠 2 + 2𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑠 + 𝜔𝑛2 ) 𝑠 𝑠 + 2𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑠 + 𝜔𝑛2
1 − 𝜁2 𝜔𝑑
𝜁𝜔 𝑛
1 𝑠 + 𝜁𝜔𝑛 1 − 𝜁 2
= 𝑓 −1 − −
𝑠 𝑠 + 𝜁𝜔𝑛 2 + 𝜔𝑑2 𝑠 + 𝜁𝜔 𝑛 2 + 𝜔𝑑2

𝜁
𝑦 𝑡 = 1 − 𝑒 −𝜁𝜔 𝑛 𝑡 cos 𝜔𝑑 𝑡 − 𝑒 −𝜁𝜔 𝑛 𝑡 sin(𝜔𝑑 𝑡)
1 − 𝜁2
𝑒 −𝜁𝜔 𝑛 𝑡
𝑦 𝑡 =1− 1 − 𝜁 2 cos 𝜔𝑑 𝑡 + 𝜁 sin 𝜔𝑑 𝑡
1 − 𝜁2
44
 𝑒 −𝜁𝜔 𝑛 𝑡
𝑦 𝑡 = 1− [sin 𝜃 cos 𝜔𝑑 𝑡 + cos 𝜃 sin 𝜔𝑑 𝑡
1 − 𝜁2
𝑒 −𝜁𝜔 𝑛 𝑡
𝑦 𝑡 =1− sin(𝜔𝑑𝑡 + 𝜃)

𝑟 𝑡 , 𝑦(𝑡)
1 − 𝜁2
where 𝜃 = cos−1 𝜁 = sin−1 1 − 𝜁2

𝑡
𝑟 𝑡 and 𝑦(𝑡) when 𝜁 = 0.5, 𝜔𝑛 = 5
45
 Order Systems
Case 3: 𝜁 = 1 − Critically damped system

𝑟 𝑡 , 𝑦(𝑡)
𝜔𝑛2
𝑌 𝑠 =
𝑠(𝑠2 + 2𝜔𝑛𝑠 + 𝜔2𝑛)
−1
𝜔𝑛2
𝑦 𝑡 =𝑓
𝑠 𝑠 + 𝜔𝑛 2
1 1 𝜔𝑛
−1
𝑦 𝑡 =𝑓 − − 2
𝑠 𝑠 + 𝜔𝑛 𝑠 + 𝜔𝑛 𝑡

𝑦 𝑡 = 1 − 𝑒 −𝜔 𝑛 𝑡 − 𝜔 𝑛 𝑡𝑒 −𝜔 𝑛 𝑡 𝑟 𝑡 and 𝑦(𝑡) when 𝜁 = 1, 𝜔𝑛 = 5

46
 Order Systems
Case 4: 𝜁 > 1 − Overdamped system
𝜔𝑛2 𝜔𝑛2
𝑌 𝑠 = ⟹ 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑓 −1 𝑠 𝑠 2 + 2𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑠 + 𝜔 2
𝑠(𝑠 2 + 2𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑠 + 𝜔𝑛2 ) 𝑛

𝜁 𝜁
1+ −1
1 −1 𝜁2 −1 𝜁2
= 𝑓 −1 − −
𝑠 2(𝑠 + 𝜁𝜔𝑛 − 𝜔𝑛 𝜁 2 − 1 ) 2(𝑠 + 𝜁𝜔𝑛 + 𝜔𝑛 𝜁2 − 1 )
1 𝜁 𝜁 2 −1 𝑡
𝑦 𝑡 =1− 1+ 𝑒− 𝜁𝜔𝑛−𝜔𝑛
2 𝜁2 − 1
1 𝜁
+ − 1 𝑒 −(𝜁𝜔 𝑛 +𝜔 𝑛 𝜁 2 −1 )𝑡
2 𝜁2 − 1
47
 Order Systems
Case 4: 𝜁 > 1 − Overdamped system

𝑟 𝑡 , 𝑦(𝑡)

𝑡
𝑟 𝑡 and 𝑦(𝑡) when 𝜁 = 2, 𝜔𝑛 = 5

48
 Determine the un-damped natural frequency and damping
ratio of the following second order system.
C( s ) 4
 2
R( s ) s  2s  4

• Compare the numerator and denominator of the given transfer

function with the general 2nd order transfer function.
C( s ) n2
 2
R( s ) s  2 n s  n2

 n2  4  n  2
 2 n s  2s
  n  1
s 2  2 n s  n2  s 2  2s  4
   0.5 49
 C( s ) n2
 2
R( s ) s  2 n s  n2

• Two poles of the system are

  n   n  2
1

  n   n  2
1

50
   n   n  2
1

  n   n  2
1
• According the value of  , a second-order system can be set
into one of the four categories
1. Overdamped - when the system has two real distinct poles (  >1).

jω

δ
-c -b -a

51
   n   n  2
1

  n   n  2
1
• According the value of  , a second-order system can be set
into one of the four categories
2. Underdamped - when the system has two complex conjugate poles (0 <  <1)

jω

δ
-c -b -a

52
   n   n  2
1

  n   n  2
1
• According the value of  , a second-order system can be set
into one of the four categories
3. Undamped - when the system has two imaginary poles (  = 0).
jω

δ
-c -b -a

53
   n   n  2
1

  n   n  2
1
• According the value of  , a second-order system can be set
into one of the four categories
4. Critically damped - when the system has two real but equal poles (  = 1).
jω

δ
-c -b -a

54
 C ( s) n 2
T ( s)   2
s  2 n s  n
2
R( s )

Mapping the poles into s-plane

55
   
 n t cos  d t 
c( t )  1  e sin  d t 
 1 2 
 
if   0.1 and n  3
1.8

1.6

1.4

1.2

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0 56
0 2 4 6 8 10
   
 n t cos  d t 
c( t )  1  e sin  d t 
 1 2 
 
if   0.5 and n  3
1.4

1.2

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0 57
0 2 4 6 8 10
   
 n t cos  d t 
c( t )  1  e sin  d t 
 1 2 
 
if   0.9 and n  3
1.4

1.2

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0 58
0 2 4 6 8 10
59
Increasing ξ

60