Chapter four

Actuators and drive system

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 Functional Units of Robot

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 Actuators

• Actuation is the process of conversion of energy to

mechanical form. A device that accomplishes this
conversion is called actuator.
• Actuator plays a very important role while
implementing control. The controller provides
command signal to the actuator for actuation.
• The control codes aims at “ deriving the actuator when
an event has occurred”

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 Actuators

Simple sensor actuator connection

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 ACTUATORS
 Actuators are the devices which provide the actual motive force for the robot

joints.

 Actuators are the muscles of robots. If you imagine that the links and the joints

are the skeleton of the robot, the actuators act as muscles, which moves or
rotate the links to change the configuration of robots. The actuators must have
enough power to accelerate and decelerate the links and to carry the loads, yet
be light, economical, accurate, responsive, reliable and easy to maintain.

 Actuators in robotic system basically consists of :

 A power supply.

 A power amplifier.

 A servomotor.

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 Actuator system
Pp : Primary source of power (Electric, Press fluid,
compress Air)
Pc : Input control power usually electric .
Pa : Input power to motor Electric, Hydraulic, or Pneumatic.
Pm: Power output from motor.
Pu : mechanical power required

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 Motion transmission gears

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 Transmission in Robotics

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 Issues/characteristics of an actuator
 Load (e.g. torque to overcome own inertia)
 Speed (fast enough but not too fast)
 Accuracy (will it move to where you want?)
 Resolution (can you specify exactly where?)
 Repeatability (will it do this every time?)
 Reliability (mean time between failures)
 Power consumption (how to feed it)
 Energy supply & its weight.

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Types of actuators
 Based on the source of Input Power actuators
are classified in to three groups :
1. Pneumatic Actuators.
 These utilize pneumatic energy provided by the
compressor and transforms it into mechanical energy by
means of pistons or turbines.
2. Hydraulic Actuators.
 These Transform the energy stored in reservoir into
mechanical energy by means of suitable pumps.
3. Electric Actuators.
 Electric actuators are simply electro-mechanical devices
which allow movement through the use of an
electrically controlled systems of gears

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 Pneumatic and Hydraulic Actuators
 Both these actuators are powered by moving
fluids.
 In the first case, the fluid is compressed air and
in the second case, the fluid is pressurized oil.
 Pneumatic systems typically operate at about
100lb/in2
 Hydraulic systems at 1000 to 3000 lb/in2.
 Both Hydraulic and Pneumatic actuators are classified as
 linear Actuators (Cylinders).
 Rotary Actuators (Motors).
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 Pneumatic and Hydraulic Actuators
 The simplest power device
linear Actuators
could be used to actuate a
linear joint by means of a
moving piston.
 There are two relationships
of particular interest when
discussing actuators:
1. The velocity of the
actuator with respect
to input power and
2. Force of the actuator
with respect to the
input power.

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 Pneumatic and Hydraulic Actuators
linear Actuators

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 Pneumatic and Hydraulic Actuators
Rotary Actuators

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 Pneumatic and Hydraulic Actuators
Rotary Actuators
 There is a relationship of particular interest when
discussing Rotary actuator:
 The angular velocity, ω, and Torque, T.

 R, outer radius of the vane., r, inner radius, h, thickness of

the vane., ω, angular velocity, T, torque.
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 Parts of hydraulic system
1. Hydraulic linear or rotary cylinders and rams to provide the force or torque
needed to move the joints and are controlled by servo valve or manual valve.
2. A hydraulic pump to provide high pressure fluid to the system
3. Electric motor to operate the hydraulic pump.
4. Cooling system to get rid of heat (cooling fans, radiators, and cooled air).
5. Reservoir to keep fluid supply available to the system.
6. Servo valve which is a very sensitive valve that controls the amount and the rate
of the fluid to the cylinders. The servo valve is generally driven by a hydraulic
servomotor.
7. Sensors to control the motion of the cylinders (position, velocity, magnetic,
touch,..)
8. Connecting hoses to transport the pressurized fluid.
9. Safety check valves, holding valves.

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 Advantages and limitations of Pneumatic
actuators
ADVANTAGES LIMITATIONS
 It is cheapest form of all actuators.
 Since air is compressible, precise
Components are readily available and
control of speed and position is
compressed air normally is an readily
not easily obtainable unless
available facility in factories.
much more complex electro
 Compressed air can be stored and conveyed mechanical devices are
easily over long distances. incorporated in to system.
 They have few moving parts making them  If mechanical stops are used
inherently reliable and reducing maintenance resetting the system can be slow.
costs.
 If moisture penetrates the units
 They have quick action and response time and ferrous metals have been
thus allowing for fast work cycles. used then damage to individual
 No mechanical transmission is usually components may happen.
requir18ed.
 These systems are usually compact thus the
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often used.
 Advantages and limitations of
Hydraulic actuators
ADVANTAGES LIMITATIONS
 High efficiency and high power to
 Leakages can occur causing a
size ratio.
loss in performance and
 Complete and accurate control over
speed position and direction of
general contamination of the
actuators are possible. work area. There is also a
 No mechanical linkage is required higher fire risk.
i.e., a direct drive is obtained with  The power pack can be noisy
mechanical simplicity. typically about 70 decibel or
 They generally have a greater load louder if not protected by an
carrying capacity than electric and acoustic muffler.
pneumatic actuators.
 Self lubricating and non corrosive.  Changes in temp alter the
 Hydraulic robots are more capable viscosity of hydraulic fluid.
of with standing shock loads than Thus at low temperatures fluid
electric robots. viscosity will increase
possibly causing sluggish
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 Electric Actuators
 There are a variety of types of motors used
in robots. The most common types are
Servomotors and Stepper motors.
 Electric actuators are simply electro-
mechanical devices which allow movement
through the use of an electrically controlled
systems of gear.

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 Electric motors
 Electric motors usually have a small rating,
ranging up to a few horsepower.
 They are used in small appliances, battery
operated vehicles, for medical purposes and
in other medical equipment like x-ray
machines.
 Electric motors are also used in toys, and in
automobiles as auxiliary motors for the
purposes of seat adjustment, power windows,
sunroof, mirror adjustment, blower motors,
engine cooling fans.
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 Types of Electric motors
 DC motors :In DC motors, the stator is a set of fixed permanent
magnets, creating a fixed magnetic field, while the rotor carries a
current. Through brushes and commutators, the direction of current is
changed continuously, causing the rotor to rotate continuously.

 AC motors : These are similar to DC motors except that the rotor is

permanent magnet, the stator houses the windings, and all
commutators and brushes are eliminated.

 A Servomotor is a DC,AC, brushless, or even stepper motor with

feedback that can be controlled to move at a desired speed (and
consequently, torque), for a desired angle of rotation. To do this, a
feedback device sends signals to the controller circuit of the
servomotor reporting its angular position and velocity.
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 Stepper motor
 When incremental rotary motion is required in a robot,
it is possible to use stepper motors.
 A stepper motor possesses the ability to move a
specified number of revolutions or fraction of a
revolution in order to achieve a fixed and consistent
angular movement.
 This is achieved by increasing the numbers of poles on
both rotor and stator
 Additionally, soft magnetic material with many teeth on
the rotor and stator cheaply multiplies the number of
poles(reluctance motor)
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 Characteristics of Stepper Motors
 Stepper motors are another kind of motors that do not
require feedback
 A stepper motor can be incrementally driven, one step at a
time, forward or backward
 Number of steps per revolution (e.g. 200 steps per revolution =
1.8° per step)
 Max. number of steps per second (“stepping rate” = max speed)
 Driving a stepper motor requires a 4 step switching
sequence for full-step mode
 Stepper motors can also be driven in 8 step switching
sequence for half-step mode (higher resolution)
 Step sequence can be very fast, the resulting motion
appears to be very smooth

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 Stepper motor

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 stepper motors

Advantages of Stepper Motors Disadvantages of Stepper Motors

 Rough performance at low speeds
 Low cost (unless you use micro-stepping)
 Can work in an open loop (no  Consume current regardless of
feedback required) load
 Excellent holding torque  Limited sizes available
(eliminated brakes/clutches)  Noisy
 Excellent torque at low speeds  Torque decreases with speed (you
 Low maintenance (brushless) need an oversized motor for
higher torque at higher speeds)
 Very rugged - any environment
 Stepper motors can stall or lose
 Excellent for precise
position
positioning control
 running without a control loop
 No tuning required

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 servomotor
 A servomotor (servo) is an electromechanical device in which an
electrical input determines the position of the armature of a motor.

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 Types of Servo motors

 AC servo motors, based on induction motor designs;

 DC servo motors, based on dc motor designs;
 AC brushless servo motors, based on synchronous motor designs.
 Servo motors are special category of motors, designed for
applications involving position control, velocity control and torque
control.
These motors are special in the following ways:
1. Lower mechanical time constant.
2. Lower electrical time constant.
3. Permanent magnet of high flux density to generate the field.
4. Fail-safe electro-mechanical brakes.

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 Difference between Stepper and Servo
 The basic difference between a traditional stepper and a servo based system is the
type of motor and how it is controlled.
 Steppers typically use 50 to 100 pole brushless motors while typical servo motors
have only 4 to 12 poles..
 Steppers don't require encoders since they can accurately move between their
many poles whereas servos, with few poles, require an encoder to keep track of
their position.
 Steppers simply move incrementally using pulses [open loop] while servo's read
the difference between the motors encoder and the commanded position [closed
loop], and adjust the current required to move
 Traditional steppers operate in the open loop constant current mode. This is a cost
savings, since no encoder is necessary for most positioning applications.
However, stepper systems operating in a constant current mode creates a
significant amount of heat in both the motor and drive, which is a consideration
for some applications. Servo control solves this by only supplying the motor
current required to move or hold the load.

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 Servomotor type Max.
Features
Performance
Step Motor • Open control circuit
1 kW • Heating during standstill
• Poor dynamics

DC-Brush • Good controllability by armature current

5 kW • High starting torque
• Wear by brushing

DC-Brushless • Maintenance
10 kW • Communication by resolvers, Hall-Effect or the
optical sensor
• High power with the permanent magnet

AC- 20 kW
Synchronous
AC- • Maintenance
80 kW • Very robust
Asynchronous
•High Speed Expensive control
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 DC-motor control
 Controller + H-bridge
 PWM-control
 Speed control by
controlling motor current
torque
 Efficient small components
 PID control

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 H-Bridge

and Stepper

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 Brushless DC-Motors
(pm synchronous motor)
 no brushes  no wearing parts  high speeds
 coils on cover => better cooling
 excellent power/weight ratio
 simple
 needs both speed and angle feedback
 more complicated controller
 From small to medium power (10W – 50kW)

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 Advantages & limitations of electric
actuators
LIMITATIONS
ADVANTAGES
 Wide spread availability of power  Electric actuators often require
supply. some sort of mechanical
transmission system this
 The basic dive element in an electric the unwanted
increases
motor is usually lighter than that for movement, additional power
fluid power. and may complicate control.
 High power conversion efficiency.  Due to increased complexity of
 No pollution of working environment the transmission system
 The accuracy and repeatability of additional cost is incurred for
electric power driven robots are their procurement and
normally better than fluid power robots maintenance.
in relation to cost.  Electric motors are not
 Easily maintained and repaired.
intrinsically safe. They cannot
therefore be used in for
 The drive system is well suited to example explosive
electronic control. atmospheres.
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 Comparison of actuating systems
Hydraulic Electric Pneumatic
+ Good for large robots + Good for all size of + Many components are
and heavy payload Robots usually off-the-shelf
+Highest Power/Weight +Better control, good for +Reliable components.
Ratio high precision robots
+Stiff system, High +Higher Compliance that +No leaks or sparks
accuracy, better response Hydraulics
+Inexpensive and simple
+No reduction gear +Reduction gears used
needed reduce inertia on the
+Can work in wide range motor +Low pressure compared
of speeds without to hydraulics
+does not leak, good for
difficulty
clean room + Good for on-off
+Can be left in position applications and for pick
+Reliable, low
without any damage maintenance and place
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 Comparison of actuating systems
Hydraulic Electric Pneumatic
- May leak. Not fit for clean +Can be spark-free. Good for +Complaint systems.
room application explosive environment.
-Requires pump, reservoir, -Noisy systems.
-Low stiffness
motor, hoses etc.
-Needs reduction gears,
-Can be expensive and noisy, - Require air pressure, filter,
increased backlash, cost,
requires maintenance. etc.
weight, etc.
-Viscosity of oil changes with
-Motor needs braking device -Difficult to control their
temperature
when not powered. linear position
Otherwise, the arm will fail.
-Very susceptible to dirt and -Deform under load
other foreign material in oil constantly
-Low compliance -
-Very low stiffness. Inaccurate
- response.
-High torque, High pressure,
large inertia on the actuator. -
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 Dynamics of Single-Axis Drive Systems
 DC motors and other types of actuators are used to drive
individual axes of a robotic system. Figure shows a schematic
diagram of a single-axis drive system consisting of a DC
motor, a gear head, and arm links1. An electric motor, such as a
DC motor, produces a relatively small torque and rotates at a
high speed, whereas a robotic joint axis in general rotates
slowly, and needs a high torque to bear the load. In other
words, the impedance of the actuator

is much smaller than that of the load.

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  To fill the gap we need a gear reducer, as shown in Figure . Let r  1 be a
gear reduction ratio (If d1 and d2 are diameters of the two gears, the gear
reduction ratio is r  d2 / d1 ). The torque and angular velocity are changed
to:

where  load and load are the torque and angular velocity at the joint axis, as
shown in the figure.
Note that the gear reducer of gear ratio r increases the impedance r2 times
larger than that of the motor axis Zm:

Let Im be the inertia of the motor rotor. From the free body diagram of the motor rotor,

is the torque acting on the motor shaft from the joint axis through the
gears, and is the time rate of change of angular
velocity, i.e. the angular acceleration.
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 Let Il be the inertia of the arm link about the joint axis, and b the damping
coefficient of the bearings supporting the joint axis. Considering the free body
diagram of the arm link and joint axis yields

Eliminating  load from the above two equations and using torque speed
characteristics yields
where applied voltage u and I, B, k are the effective inertia, damping, and input
gain reflected to the joint axis :

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  Note that the effective inertia of the motor rotor is r2 times larger than the
original value Im when reflected to the joint axis. Likewise, the motor constant
becomes r2 times larger when reflected to the joint axis.

 The gear ratio of a robotic system is typically 20 ~ 100, which means that
the effective inertia and damping becomes 400 ~ 10,000 times larger than
those of the motor itself.
 For fast dynamic response, the inertia of the motor rotor must be small.
This is a critical requirement as the gear ratio gets larger, like robotics
applications.
 There are two ways of reducing the rotor inertia in motor design. One is
to reduce the diameter and make the rotor longer. The other is to make
the motor rotor very thin, like a pancake.

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