Case Studies in Construction Materials 19 (2023) e02512

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Case Studies in Construction Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/cscm

Effect of waste glass powder as partial replacement of cement &

sand in concrete
Daban A. Muhedin *, Rahel K. Ibrahim
Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Koya University, Koya, KOY45, Kurdistan Region, Iraq

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The use of waste materials in concrete is now a global trend for effective waste management in
Waste glass powder order to create a sustainable, eco-friendly concrete. This has the added benefits of protecting
Sustainability natural resources by means of producing more sustainable concrete that has better mechanical
Compressive strength
properties. This study investigates the characteristics of concrete that contains waste glass powder
Split tensile strength
Microstructure
(WGP) as partial replacement of cement and sand. Laboratory tests were performed to determine
the compressive strength and split tensile strength of concrete with 0%, 5%, 10%, 15% and 20%
partial replacement of cement and sand separately by WGP after 7, 28, 60 and 90 days of moist
curing. Microstructural investigations of X-ray diffractometry (XRD) and scanning electron mi­
croscopy (SEM) were performed to determine the effect of WGP on the microstructure of con­
crete. Results has shown that compressive strength of concrete can be improved to a considerable
value at 7, 28, 60 and 90 days when WGP is used as partial replacement of cement by 5%, 10%
and 15%, which can be considered as a reasonable amount in producing sustainable concrete.
Further replacement percentages resulted in a decrease in compressive strength. WGP enhances
the microstructure of concrete in the term of pozzolanic activity and decreasing the microcracks.

1. Introduction

Concrete is one of the most used materials in the world, due to its superior properties such as strength, durability and economy.
Because of the emphasis on sustainable construction, the construction community is becoming more interested in employing waste
materials in concrete [19]. One of the most effective ways to make the concrete industry more sustainable is to employ waste materials
instead of consuming natural resources. The construction sector, being a significant user of natural resources, accounts for the
extraction of approximately 60% of these resources [17].
Around the world, massive amounts of waste glass powder (WGP) are produced, there was about 200 million tons of solid waste and
about 7% of it was glass waste [9]. In the United States, a total of 11.5 million tons of WG has been produced, with a recycling rate of
27% as of 2010. In contrast, it was anticipated that the overall WG produced in European countries would reach 4.1 million tons by
2008, with a recycling rate of approximately 60% [12].
It is uncertain to say when, where, or how the human population was taught to produce glass. Around 4000 years ago, hand-made
glass was discovered in Iraq and Egypt [1]. In recent years, due to an ever-increasing use of glass items, the amount of waste glass
produced has significantly increased. The majority of waste glass is dumped into landfills. The process of dumping glass waste is
undesirable because it has serious environmental problems, and may cause harm to humans and animals [14]. In addition, glass waste

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (D.A. Muhedin).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cscm.2023.e02512
Received 22 June 2023; Received in revised form 22 August 2023; Accepted 24 September 2023
Available online 26 September 2023
2214-5095/© 2023 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
D.A. Muhedin and R.K. Ibrahim Case Studies in Construction Materials 19 (2023) e02512

is leading to significant global environmental concerns, which can be traced back to the fact that glass is not biodegradable.[21].
Concrete, which is a prime construction material around the world, is growing day by day. This high demand of concrete results in
using high amounts of river sand as a fine aggregate, the process that leads to the exploitation of this natural resource and lowering of
the water table of rivers. So, there is a persistent need for reusing or recycling more and more waste materials instead of consuming
natural resources. Attempts have been made to use glass waste as replacement of natural river sand [24]. Apart from material and
energy conservation, reuse of some solid wastes could lead to improved concrete performance in a variety of areas. For example, using
glass waste as fine aggregates increases the resistance of concrete to chloride penetration [16]. Glass powders can improve the me­
chanical properties of concrete by the means of pozzolanic activity [10]. It’s noteworthy to mention that waste glass powder, with
particle size of 100 micrometers or less, exhibits a reactive property similar to pozzolanic reaction in concrete [2]. Furthermore, in
contrast to other industrial byproducts like slag which is obtained from large steel mills and fly ash that obtained from power stations,
recycled glass powder offers several advantages as it is more readily available in nearly all urban areas since it is obtained from smaller,
localized facilities [20]. Waste glass powder was used successfully as well in producing geopolymer concrete as sand replacement.
Taher et al., ($year$) [23].
On the other hand, Portland cement is generally recognized to be an energy-intensive industry and accounts for around 5–8% of
global anthropogenic CO2 emissions [13]. Depending on the type of fuels used, an estimated 0.9–1.0 ton of CO2 is generated in
producing 1 ton of cement clinker [18]. Using glass waste powder as a cement replacement can have a possessive effect on the
reduction of CO2 emission and saving energy, which can be considered as a significant step in producing sustainable. eco-friendly
concrete.
The objective of this study is to describe the findings of experimental research by means of the physical, mechanical and micro­
structural properties of concrete made by partial replacing cement and sand with different amounts of glass powder for the purpose of
increasing the sustainability of concrete.

2. Experimental Investigation

2.1. Materials used

Ordinary Portland cement obtained from Mass cement factory, its specific gravity 3.15. Waste window glass which was collected
locally, washed and crushed for passing sieve No.4 (size; 4.75 mm) to have the same particle size as sand was used as sand replacement.
For replacing cement by waste glass powder, the crushed glass particles were grinded by Los Angles machine [6]to pass through sieve
No.100 (150 µm). The fine and coarse aggregate were natural and locally available obtained from river beds. Fine aggregate and glass
particles are sieved and shown in Fig. 1 [7] they are graded within the limit [3], and their specific gravities are 2.65 and 2.5
respectively [5]. The maximum size for the coarse aggregate is 20 mm and its specific gravity is 2.75 [4]. In addition, the chemical
composition for the used Portland cement and WGP is given in Table 1.

Fig. 1. Particle size distribution of fine aggregate and WGP.

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Table 1
Chemical composition of WGP and cement.
Composition % SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 MgO CaO K2 O Na2O SO3

Cement 19.58 4.59 3.67 2.53 63.19 0.9 0.96 2.22

WGP 59.7 1.31 0.77 3.59 18.2 0.348 14.7 0.243

2.2. Mix Proportions and Tests

In order to obtain the aim of this study nine various mixes were used. The first mix was a control mix and did not contain any
amount of waste glass powder while for the other eight mixes the cement and sand partially were replaced by waste glass powder in the
ratios of 5%, 10%, 15% and 20% respectively. All mixes were prepared based on ACI 211.1 concrete mix design report. A total of 240
(100 ×100 ×100 mm) cubes and (100 *200) mm cylinders were casted and subjected to compression and splitting tensile testes after
moist curing periods of 7, 28, 60 and 90 days. For studying the microstructural changes through partial replacing cement by WGP; XRD
and SEM investigations were performed on 28 day cured samples. For this purpose, cement paste samples containing 0%, 5%, 10% and
15% WGP for XRD test and 0%, 5% and 15% For SEM test as cement replacement were prepared. The experimental work was per­
formed in Koya University Materials of construction lab. The mixing quantities of materials are shown in Table 2.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Compressive Strength

Compressive strength is the most crucial component from a structural point view when determining the ability of concrete
structures to support a given load. The compressive strength of concrete cubes (100 ×100 ×100 mm), containing 0,5,10, 15 & 20%
WGP as a partial replacement of cement and moist cured for 7, 28, 60 and 90 is shown in Fig. 2.
As it can be seen from Fig. 2, the compressive strength for the specimens increases by increasing the replacement percentages to up
to 15% with respect to the control specimens. The strength increases rates for 7 day cured specimens are 32%, 21% and 7% for 5%,
10% and 15% replacement percentages of cement by WGP respectively. For 28 days cured specimens, the strength increase rates are
14%, 9.5% and 2.3% when cement is replaced by 5%, 10% and 15% of WGP respectively. The 60 day cured samples, have compressive
strength increase rates of 23.4%, 19.1% and 6.3% as cement is replaced by 5%, 10% and 15% of WGP respectively. The 90, day cured
specimens show similar trend of compressive strength as 7, 28 and 60 days cured specimens in a way that the compressive strength
increase rates for 90 day cured specimens are 18%, 10.9% and 1.8% when cement is replaced by 5%, 10% and 15% of WGP
respectively.
The strength increases among replacing up 15% of cement by WGP is highly attributed with the filler effect and the pozzolanic
activity for the material. WGP particles tend to fill the pores in the concrete structure. Besides, the WGP activates pozzolanicaly.
According to [8] a pozzolanic material must have a minimum strength activity index of 75%. It can be seen from test results that three
mixes containing 5%, 10% and 15% satisfy the minimum value of 75%. The reason why compressive strength increased smoothly in
Fig. 2 is because WGP acts as a pozzolanic material. Thus, more calcium silicate hydrate (CSH) forms while calcium hydroxide (CH)
decreases.
All the specimens show a significant decrease in compressive strength when cement is replaced by 20% WGP for all curing periods.
Fig. 3 shows the compressive strength of concrete cubes containing 0,5,10, 15 & 20% WGP as a partial replacement of sand and
cured for 7, 28, 60 and 90 days. It can be observed that the compressive strength depends on the percentage of WGP and curing age.
The compressive strength of cube samples decreases with increasing WGP percentages except for specimens containing 5% WGP as
sand replacement. The strength increase rate for 7, 28, 60 and 90 day cured specimen are 14.71%, 2.38%, 2.13% and 1.82% when sand
is replaced by 5% of WGP.
The compressive strength for the specimens decreases significantly in higher replacement percentages of sand by WGP. The
compressive strength decreases rates for 7 day cured specimens are 14.29% and 21.43% as sand replaced by WGP by 15, 20%

Table 2
Mixing quantities of materials in (Kg/m3).
Groups Mix No. WGP ratio WGP (Kg/m3) Cement (Kg/m3) Water (Kg/m3) W/C Sand (Kg/m3) Gravel (Kg/m3)

Cement replacement 1 0% 0 465 200 0.48 715 1030

2 5% 23.25 441.75 200 0.48 715 1030
3 10% 46.5 418.5 200 0.48 715 1030
4 15% 69.75 395.25 200 0.48 715 1030
5 20% 93 372 200 0.48 715 1030
Sand replacement 6 0% 0 400 200 0.50 780 1000
7 5% 20 380 200 0.50 780 1000
8 10% 40 360 200 0.50 780 1000
9 15% 60 340 200 0.50 780 1000
10 20% 80 320 200 0.50 780 1000

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Fig. 2. Compressive strength of concrete containing different WGP as cement replacement.

Fig. 3. Compressive strength of concrete containing different WGP as sand replacement.

respectively. 28 day cured specimens exhibit compressive strength decrease rates of 4.7, 23.81% and 33.33% for 10%, 15%, and 20%
replacement percentages respectively. Similar trend can be seen for 60 and 90 day cured specimens containing 10%, 15% and 20%
WGP as sand replacement. 60 day cured specimens show compressive strength decrease rates of 8.51%, 25.53% and 34% while, the
90 day cured specimens show decrease rates of 5.45%, 27.27% and 36.36% when sand was replaces by 10%, 15%, and 20% of WGP
respectively.
The reason behind compressive strength decreases among replacing 10%, 15% and 20% of sand by WGP is the poor connection
between the glass aggregate and the hydrated cement paste, which governs the compressive failure in higher percentage replacements
of sand by WGP. In addition, natural sand has greater resistance against fracturing compare to glass. The fracture toughness of natural
sand [KIC= 1.77 MPa – m 0.5] which is greater than glass [KIC= 0.70 MPa – m 0.5] [25].

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D.A. Muhedin and R.K. Ibrahim Case Studies in Construction Materials 19 (2023) e02512

3.2. Split tensile strength

A common and indirect method to assess the tensile strength of concrete is the split tensile strength test. Fig. 4 shows the tensile
strength results for concrete cylinders containing 0,5,10%, 15% and 20% of WGP as a partial replacement of cement and cured for 7,
28, 60 and 90 days. The strength increases rates for 7 days curing specimens is 10% when cement replaced by 5% of WGP. While,
strength increase for 28 days of curing is 2.38% when 5% of cement replaced by WGP.
As it can be seen from Fig. 4, the performance of the specimens under splitting tensile strength test is similar to that of compressive
strength test with regard to replacement percentages of cement by WGP for curing conditions of 60 and 90 days that, the strength
increases for replacement percentages to up to 15%. While, 7 and 28 day cured specimens show splitting tensile strength increase for
up to 10% level of replacing cement by WGP. This behavior is due to the pozzolanic activity which the strength contribution can be
seen in later ages duly. The peak recorded splitting tensile strength is for 5% replacement percentages in all curing periods.
The splitting tensile strength for specimens containing 0,5,10%, 15% and 20% of WGP as partial replacement of sand and cured for
7, 28, 60 and 90 days is shown in the Fig. 5. Once again, the concrete specimens exhibit almost similar performance in splitting tensile
strength as that of compressive strength when sand was replaced by WGP. The strength peaks for 5% replacement percentages and
decrease gradually to dip in specimens containing 20% WGP as sand replacement.

3.3. XRD

The XRD spectra for cement paste samples containing 0%, 5%, 10% and 15% WGP as a cement replacement and cured for 28 days
are shown in the Fig. 6. The main significant crystal content that can be detected by XRD technique is calcium hydroxide (CH). As
shown in the figure, the intensity of CH at (2) angle for 0% WGP contained samples is 18000 which is the maximum recorded value
with respect to all the other replacement rates. At 5% WGP the intensity of CH is decreased to the value (around 12500), which is
considered as the minimum recorded intensity of the CH content. This phenomenon explains the pozzolanic activity occurring between
cement and WGP particles to produce more C-S-H gel, which is good evidence for compressive strength improvement at this
replacement rate. The intensity of CH content for 10% had increased to around 15300, with respect to 5% WGP contained samples and
decreased when compared to control samples with 0% WGP. 15% WGP contained samples show a similar trend as 10% WGP contained
samples. This trend clarifies the compressive strength enhancements for 10% and 15% WGP contained concrete with respect to control
specimens with 0% WGP. A previous study stated that the intensity of CH content decreased as the amount of WGP increased due to the
consumption of CH in the pozzolanic reaction with silica in the secondary hydration reaction [15]. Moreover, another research
confirmed that CH reacts with silica from the glass powder to form more C-S-H gel [11].

3.4. Scanning electron microscope (SEM)

The SEM images for control, 5% and 15% WGP contained specimens are shown in Fig. 7(a, b, c and d) respectively. From the figure,
calcium hydroxide (CH) can be observed as large crystalline hexagonal plates. In addition, the ettringite shows itself as needle shaped
material at this magnification level. The C-S-H gel which is the main binder material in concrete can be seen as a small fibrous shape in
the SEM images. Dark color lines and holes represent cracks and voids in the structure. In plain concrete with no WGP replacement,
large pores and cracks can be noticed (Fig. 7a and b), while, when cement was replaced by WGP, a decrease in CH crystals, denser and
more homogenous structure can be seen (Fig. 7c and d). This phenomenon is due to the pozzolanic activity for the WGP which CH

Fig. 4. Splitting tensile strength of concrete containing different WGP as cement replacement.

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D.A. Muhedin and R.K. Ibrahim Case Studies in Construction Materials 19 (2023) e02512

Fig. 5. Splitting tensile strength of concrete containing different WGP as sand replacement.

Fig. 6. XRD spectra for of the sample with different percentage of WGP as cement replacement.

turned to C-S-H gel, beside the filler effect of the material in which the small particles of WGP fill the micro pores in the structure. As a
result, the number of large pores is much less noticeable in the structure. The increase in compressive strength among replacing cement
for up to 15% WGP is highly attributed to this phenomenon. 5% WGP contained specimens show denser structure than 15% specimens,

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D.A. Muhedin and R.K. Ibrahim Case Studies in Construction Materials 19 (2023) e02512

Fig. 7. SEM images for control samples (a) &(b), (c) for 5% of WGP and (d) for 15% of WGP as cement replacement.

due to the fact that higher replacement percentages lead to the decrease in the cement content in the specimens where less binder
product is produced. Moreover, the intensity for converting CH to C-S-H decreases at higher replacement rates. These findings meet
with the findings of [11] and [22] Regarding Fig. 2 compressive strength 5% of WGP replacement had the highest value for curing ages.

4. Conclusions

This study presented experimental findings on the replacement waste glass powder to concrete as a cementitious material. Based on
the results the following points can be drawn.

1. The sustainability of concrete is increased significantly by replacing up to 15% of cement and sand separately without having any
negative effect on the compressive strength of concrete.
2. Regarding the strength activity index and based on 28 days of compressive strength, glass powder can be used as cement
replacement until 15%, which can be considered as a reasonable amount in producing sustainable concrete.
3. The performance of concrete in splitting tensile strength when WGP is used either by cement or sand replacement is almost similar
to that of compressive strength.
4. SEM images confirms that the microstructure of concrete improves; more C-S-H and less cracks form as a result of secondary
hydration.
5. The amount of CH calcium hydroxide content decreases as glass content increases due to its consumption by glass powder in
pozzolanic reaction as XRD investigations emphasize.

Declaration of Competing Interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to
influence the work reported in this paper.

Data Availability

Data will be made available on request.

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