UNIT-I

DRIVE CHARACTERISTICS
Electrical Drives

Motion control is required in large number of industrial and domestic applications like
transportation systems, rolling mills, paper machines, textile mills, machine tools, fans, pumps, robots,
washing machines etc.
Systems employed for motion control are called DRIVES, and may employ any of prime movers
such as diesel or petrol engines, gas or steam turbines, steam engines, hydraulic motors and electric
motors, for supplying mechanical energy for motion control. Drives employing electric motors are known
as ELECTRICAL DRIVES.
An ELECTRIC DRIVE can be defined as an electromechanical device for converting electrical
energy into mechanical energy to impart motion to different machines and mechanisms for various kinds
of process control.

Classification of Electric Drives

According to Mode of Operation
• Continuous duty drives
• Short time duty drives
• Intermittent duty drives
According to Means of Control
• Manual
• Semi-automatic
• Automatic
According to Number of machines
• Individual drive
• Group drive
• Multi-motor drive
According to Dynamics and Transients
• Uncontrolled transient period
• Controlled transient period
 According to Methods of Speed Control
• Reversible and non-reversible uncontrolled constant speed.
• Reversible and non-reversible step speed control.
• Variable position control.
• Reversible and non-reversible smooth speed control.

Advantages of Electrical Drive

1. They have flexible control characteristics. The steady state and dynamic characteristics of electric drives
can be shaped to satisfy the load requirements.
2. Drives can be provided with automatic fault detection systems. Programmable logic controller and
computers can be employed to automatically control the drive operations in a desired sequence.
3. They are available in wide range of torque, speed and power.
4. They are adaptable to almost any operating conditions such as explosive and radioactive environments
5. It can operate in all the four quadrants of speed-torque plane
6. They can be started instantly and can immediately be fully loaded
7. Control gear requirement for speed control, starting and braking is usually simple and easy to operate.
Choice (or) Selection of Electrical Drives

Choice of an electric drive depends on a number of factors. Some of the important factors are.
1. Steady State Operating conditions requirements
Nature of speed torque characteristics, speed regulation, speed range, efficiency, duty cycle, quadrants of
operation, speed fluctuations if any, ratings etc
2. Transient operation requirements
Values of acceleration and deceleration, starting, braking and reversing performance.
3. Requirements related to the source
Types of source and its capacity, magnitude of voltage, voltage fluctuations, power factor, harmonics and
their effect on other loads, ability to accept regenerative power
4. Capital and running cost, maintenance needs life.
5. Space and weight restriction if any.
6. Environment and location.
7. Reliability.
CLASSIFICATION OF ELECTRIC DRIVES WITH FACTOR

The choice of the electric drives

There are three classification namely

• Group drive
• Individual drive
• Multi motor drive

Group drive

One motor is used as a drive for two or more than machines. The motor is connected to a long
shaft. All the other machines are connected to this shaft through belt and pulleys.

Advantages:

• Group drive is most economical because, the rating of the motor used may be
comparatively less than the aggregate of the individual motors required to drive each
equipment, because all of they may not be working simultaneously.
• Group drive reduces the initial cost of installing a particular industry.
• Cost is less because of investment in one motor which is lesser in HP rating.

Disadvantages:

The use of this kind of drive is restricted due to the following reasons:
• It is not possible to install any machine as per our wish. so, flexibility of lay out is lost.
• The possibility of installation of additional machines in an existing industry is limited.
• In case of any fault to the main driving motor, all the other motors will be stopped
immediately.
• so, all systems will remain idle and is not advisable for any industry.
• Level of noise produced at the site is high.
• Because of the restrictions in placing other motors, this kind of drive will result in untidy
appearance, and it is also less safe to operate.
• Since all the motors has to be connected through belts and pulleys, large amount of energy
is wasted in transmitting mechanisms. Therefore, power loss is high.
Individual drive

In this drive, there will be a separate driving motor for each process equipment.
One motor is used for transmitting motion to various parts or mechanisms belonging to signal
equipment.
Ex: Lathe
One motor used in lathe which rotates the spindle, moves feed with the help of gears and imparts
motion to the lubricating and cooling pumps).
Advantages:
• Machines can be located at convenient places.
• Continuity in the production of the processing industry is ensured to a high level of
reliability.
• If there is a fault in one motor, the effect on the production or output of the industry will
not be appreciable.
Disadvantages:

Initial cost is very high.

Multi motor drive

In this type of drive, separate motors are provided for actuating different parts of the driven
mechanism.
Ex: cranes, drives used in paper mills, rolling mills etc.,
In cranes, separate motors are used for hoisting, long travel motion and cross travel motion.

General Electric Drive System

Block diagram of an electric drive system is shown in the figure below.

Source Power Motor Load

Modulator

Control Sensing
Unit Unit

(Input Command)
A modern variable speed electrical drive system has the following components
• Electrical machines and loads
• Power Modulator
• Sources
• Control unit
• Sensing unit

Electrical Machines

Most commonly used electrical machines for speed control applications are the following
DC Machines
Shunt, series, compound, separately excited DC motors and switched reluctance machines.
AC Machines
Induction, wound rotor, synchronous, PM synchronous and synchronous reluctance machines.
Special Machines
Brush less DC motors, stepper motors, switched reluctance motors are used.

Power Modulators
Functions:
• Modulates flow of power from the source to the motor in such a manner that motor is imparted
speed-torque characteristics required by the load

• During transient operation, such as starting, braking and speed reversal, it restricts source and
motor currents with in permissible limits.

• It converts electrical energy of the source in the form of suitable to the motor
• Selects the mode of operation of the motor (i.e.) Motoring and Braking.

Types of Power Modulators

In the electric drive system, the power modulators can be any one of the following
▪ Controlled rectifiers (ac to dc converters)
▪ Inverters (dc to ac converters)
▪ AC voltage controllers (AC to AC converters)
▪ DC choppers (DC to DC converters)
▪ Cyclo converters (Frequency conversion)
Electrical Sources

Very low power drives are generally fed from single phase sources. Rest of the drives is powered
from a 3 phase source. Low and medium power motors are fed from a 400v supply. For higher ratings,
motors may be rated at 3.3KV, 6.6KV and 11 KV. Some drives are powered from battery.

Sensing Unit
• Speed Sensing (From Motor)
• Torque Sensing
• Position Sensing
• Current sensing and Voltage Sensing from Lines or from motor terminals or from Load

• Torque sensing
• Temperature Sensing
Control Unit
Control unit for a power modulator are provided in the control unit. It matches the motor and power
converter to meet the load requirements.
Classification of Electrical Drives
Another main classification of electric drive is
• DC drive
• AC drive
Comparison between DC and AC drives
DC DRIVES AC DRIVES
The power circuit and control circuit The power circuit and control circuit are
is simple and inexpensive complex
It requires frequent maintenance Less Maintenance
The commutator makes the motor bulky, These problems are not there in these motors
costly and heavy and are inexpensive, particularly squirrel cage induction
motors
Fast response and wide speed range of In solid state control the speed range is wide and conventional
method is stepped and limited.
control, can be achieved smoothly by
conventional and solid state control.
Speed and design ratings are limited Speed and design ratings have upper limits
due to commutations
Applications
• Paper mills
• Cement Mills
• Textile mills
• Sugar Mills
• Steel Mills
• Electric Traction
• Petrochemical Industries
• Electrical Vehicles

Dynamics of Motor Load System

Fundamentals of Torque Equations

A motor generally drives a load (Machines) through some transmission system. While
motor always rotates, the load may rotate or undergo a translational motion.
Load speed may be different from that of motor, and if the load has many parts, their speed
may be different and while some parts rotate others may go through a translational motion. Equivalent
rotational system of motor and load is shown in the figure.

Tl

Motor Load

Notations Used:
J = Moment of inertia of motor load system referred to the motor shaft kg − m 2
m = Instantaneous angular velocity of motor shaft, rad/sec.
T = Instantaneous value of developed motor torque, N-m.
Tl = Instantaneous value of load torque, referred to the motor shaft N-m

Load torque includes friction and wind age torque of motor. Motor-load system shown in figure
can be described by the following fundamental torque equation.
 d(Jωm )⁄ dωm dJ
T − Tj = − − − − − − − − − − − (1)
dt = J dt + ωm dt

Equation (1) is applicable to variable inertia drives such as mine winders, reel drives, Industrial robots.
dJ
=0
For drives with constant inertia dt

𝑑𝜔𝑚
𝑇 = 𝑇𝑙 + 𝐽 −−−−−()
𝑑𝑡

Equation (2) shows that torque developed by motor is counter balanced by load torque Tl and a
dynamic torque.
𝑑𝜔𝑚
Torque component 𝐽 is called dynamic torque because it is present only during the transient operations.
𝑑𝑡
 Classification of Load Torques:

Various load torques can be classified into broad categories.

• Active load torques
• Passive load torques

Load torques which has the potential to drive the motor under equilibrium conditions are called active load
torques. Such load torques usually retain their sign when the drive rotation is changed (reversed)
Eg: Torque due to force of gravity, Torque due to tension, Torque due to compression and
torsion etc

Load torques which always oppose the motion and change their sign on the reversal of motion
are called passive load torques
Eg: Torque due to friction, cutting etc.

Components of Load Torques:

The load torque Tl can be further divided in to following components

(i) Friction Torque (TF)
Friction will be present at the motor shaft and also in various parts of the load. T F is the equivalent value
of various friction torques referred to the motor shaft.
(ii) Windage Torque (TW)
When motor runs, wind generates a torque opposing the motion. This is known as windage torque.
(iii) Torque required to do useful mechanical work.
Nature of this torque depends upon particular application. It may be constant and independent of speed. It
may be some function of speed, it may be time invariant or time variant, its nature may also change with
the load’s mode of operation.
Value of friction torque with speed is shown in figure below

m

TF
Its value at stand still is much higher than its value slightly above zero speed. Friction at zero speed is
called stiction or static friction. In order to start the drive the motor should at least exceed stiction.

Friction torque can also be resolved into three components

Tv
Speed Tc

Ts

Torque

Component Tv varies linearly with speed is called VISCOUS friction and is given by
Tv = Bm
Where B is viscous friction co-efficient.
Another component TC, which is independent of speed, is known as COULOMB friction. Third component
Ts accounts for additional torque present at stand still. Since Ts is present only at stand still it is not taken
into account in the dynamic analysis. Windage torque, TW which is proportional to speed squared is given
by
T = C 2 C is a constant
Characteristics of Different types of Loads

One of the essential requirements in the section of a particular type of motor for driving a machine
is the matching of speed-torque characteristics of the given drive unit and that of the motor. Therefore the
knowledge of how the load torque varies with speed of the driven machine is necessary. Different types
of loads exhibit different speed torque characteristics. However, most of the industrial loads can be
classified into the following four categories.

• Constant torque type load

• Torque proportional to speed (Generator Type load)
• Torque proportional to square of the speed (Fan type load)
• Torque inversely proportional to speed (Constant power type load)

Constant Torque characteristics:

Most of the working machines that have mechanical nature of work like shaping, cutting, grinding or
shearing, require constant torque irrespective of speed. Similarly cranes during the hoisting and
conveyors handling constant weight of material per unit time also exhibit this type of characteristics.
T=K

Speed

TL

Torque

Torque Proportional to speed:

Separately excited dc generators connected to a constant resistance load, eddy current

brakes have speed torque characteristics given by T N
 Speed TL

Torque

Torque proportional to square of the speed:

Another type of load met in practice is the one in which load torque is proportional to the square
of the speed. Eg Fans rotary pumps, compressors and ship propellers.

TL
Speed
K 2 T=

Torque

Torque Inversely proportional to speed:

Certain types of lathes, boring machines, milling machines, steel mill coiler and electric traction
load exhibit hyperbolic speed-torque characteristics
 Speed TL
1
T

Torque

Multi quadrant Operation:

For consideration of multi quadrant operation of drives, it is useful to establish suitable conventions
about the signs of torque and speed. A motor operates in two modes – Motoring and braking. In motoring,
it converts electrical energy into mechanical energy, which supports its motion. In braking it works as a
generator converting mechanical energy into electrical energy and thus opposes the motion. Motor can
provide motoring and braking operations for both forward and reverse directions. Figure shows the torque
and speed co-ordinates for both forward and reverse motions. Power developed by a motor is given by the
product of speed and torque. For motoring operations power developed is positive and for braking
operations power developed is negative.

Speed

Forward
Braking Motoring

II
Torque

III IV

Reverse
Motoring
 In quadrant I, developed power is positive, hence machine works as a motor supplying mechanical
energy. Operation in quadrant I is therefore called Forward Motoring. In quadrant II, power developed is
negative. Hence, machine works under braking opposing the motion. Therefore operation in quadrant II is
known as forward braking. Similarly operation in quadrant III and IV can be identified as reverse motoring
and reverse braking since speed in these quadrants is negative. For better understanding of the above
notations, let us consider operation of hoist in four quadrants as shown in the figure. Direction of motor
and load torques and direction of speed are marked by arrows.

Tl
m Tl
m

Motion
Motion

Counter
weight Empty Counter
Cage II weight
Cage

III IV
Tl Tl
m
m

Motion
Motion

Empty
Cage
Cage

Counter
weight
Counter
weight Load Torque with Load Torque with loaded
empty cage cage

A hoist consists of a rope wound on a drum coupled to the motor shaft one end of the rope is tied
to a cage which is used to transport man or material from one level to another level . Other end of the rope
has a counter weight. Weight of the counter weight is chosen to be higher than the weight of empty cage
but lower than of a fully loaded cage. Forward direction of motor speed will be one which gives upward
motion of the cage. Load torque line in quadrants I and IV represents speed-torque characteristics of the
loaded hoist. This torque is the difference of torques due to loaded hoist and counter weight.
The load torque in quadrants II and III is the speed torque characteristics for an empty hoist. This
torque is the difference of torques due to counter weight and the empty hoist. Its sigh is negative because
the counter weight is always higher than that of an empty cage.
The quadrant I operation of a hoist requires movement of cage upward, which corresponds to the
positive motor speed which is in counter clockwise direction here. This motion will be obtained if the
motor products positive torque in CCW direction equal to the magnitude of load torque TL1. Since
developed power is positive, this is forward motoring operation. Quadrant IV is obtained when a loaded
cage is lowered. Since the weight of the loaded cage is higher than that of the counter weight .It is able to
overcome due to gravity itself.
In order to limit the cage within a safe value, motor must produce a positive torque T equal to T L2
in anticlockwise direction. As both power and speed are negative, drive is operating in reverse braking
operation. Operation in quadrant II is obtained when an empty cage is moved up. Since a counter weigh is
heavier than an empty cage, its able to pull it up. In order to limit the speed within a safe value, motor must
produce a braking torque equal to TL2 in clockwise direction. Since speed is positive and developed power
is negative, it’s forward braking operation.
Operation in quadrant III is obtained when an empty cage is lowered. Since an empty cage has a
lesser weight than a counter weight, the motor should produce a torque in CW direction. Since speed is
negative and developed power is positive, this is reverse motoring operation.
HEATING AND COOLING CURVES

A machine can be considered as a homogeneous body developing heat internally at uniform rate
and dissipating heat proportionately to its temperature rise,

RELATION SHIP BETWEEN TEMPERATURE RISE AND TIME

Let,
P =heat developed, joules/sec or watts
G =weight of active parts of machine, kg
h =specific heat per kg per deg cell
S = cooling surface, m2
 = specific heat dissipation (or) emissivity, J per sec per m2 of
Surface per deg cell difference between surface and ambient cooling medium
 = temperature rise, deg cell
m =final steady temperature rise, deg cell
t =time, sec
 =heating time constant, seconds
' =cooling time constant, seconds

Assume that a machine attains a temperature rise after the lapse of time t seconds.
In an element of time “dt” a small temperature rise “d” takes place. Then,
Heat developed = p.dt Heat
developed = Gh.d
Heat dissipated = S. dt
Therefore, total heat developed=heat stored + heat dissipated

Ghd + S. dt= p.dt

d s p
+ . =
dt Gh Gh

This is a differential equation and solution of this equation is,

+ K e−(s / Gh)t
p
=
s

Where K is a constant of integration determined by initial conditions.

Let the initial temperature rise to be zero at t=0.

p
Then, 0 = +k
s
−p 𝑝 −𝑠𝜆
𝑡
k= 𝜃= (1 − 𝑒 𝐺ℎ ) ……………….(1)
s 𝑠𝜆
 When t=  p
, = = , the final steady temperature rise.
s
m

p Gh
=
Represent
s
mand s =  - - - - - - - - - - - - - -(2)

Equation 1 can be written as

 = m(1− e−1)
Where  is called as heating time constant and it has the dimensions of time.
Heating time constant
Heating time constant is defined as the time taken by the machine to attain 0.623 of its
final steady temperature rise.
When t=  ,

 = m(1− e−1)
 = 0.632m
➢ The heating time constant of the machine is the index of time taken by the machine to attain
its final steady temperature rise.

Gh
➢ We know that  = , therefore, the time constant is inversely proportional to has a larger
s

value for ventilated machines and thus the value of their heating time constant is small.

The value of heating time constant is larger for poorly ventilated machines with large or totally
enclosed machines, the heating time constant may reach several hours or even days.

➢ When a hot body is cooling due to reduction of the losses developed in it, the temperature
time curve is again an exponential function
−
 =  f + (i − f ) e-t/
Where,

 f =final temperature drop (the temperature at which whatever heat is generated is

dissipated)

p
= where,  is rate of heat dissipation while cooling
s '
i = the temperature rise above ambient in the body at time t=0

 ' = cooling time constant=

Gh

s '
 If motor where disconnected from supply during cooling, there would be no losses taking place and
hence, final temperature reached will be the ambient temperature.
There fore,  f =0 and hence equation (4) becomes
1
𝜃 = 𝜃𝑖 𝑒 𝜏′
Cooling time constant
At t= ', = 0.368i
Cooling time constant is, therefore, defined as the time required cooling the machine down to
0.368 times the initial temperature rise above ambient temperature.
CLASSES OF MOTOR DUTY

Various load time variations encountered into eight classes as

(i) continuous duty
(ii) short time duty
(iii) intermittent periodic duty
(iv) intermittent periodic duty with starting
(v) intermittent periodic duty with starting & braking
(vi) continuous duty with intermittent periodic loading
(vii) continuous duty with starting & braking
(viii) Continuous duty with periodic speed changes.
1. Continuous duty:
➢ This type drive is operated continuously for a duration which is long enough to reach its steady
state value of temperature.
➢ This duty is characterized by constant motor torque and constant motor loss operation.
➢ This type of duty can be accomplished by single phase/ three phase induction motors and DC
shunt motors.
Examples:
Paper mill drives ,
Compressors
Conveyors,
Centrifugal pumps and
Fans ,

2. Short time duty:

➢ In this type drive operation, Time of operation is less than heating time constant and motor
is allowed to cool off to room temperature before it is operated again.
➢ Here the motor can be overloaded until the motor temperature reaches its permissible
limit. Depicted in fig.2 (a) & (b).
➢ This type of duty can be accomplished by single phase/ three phase induction motors and
DC shunt motors, DC series motors, universal motors.

Examples:
Crane drives ,
Drives for house hold appliances
Turning bridges
Sluice gate drives
Valve drives and
Machine tool drives.

3. Intermittent periodic duty:

➢ In this type drive operation, It consists of a different periods of duty cycles
➢ I.e. a period of rest and a period of running, a period of starting, a period of braking.
➢ Both a running period is not enough to reach its steady state temperature and a rest period
is not enough to cool off the machine to ambient temperature.
➢ In this type drive operation, heating due to starting and braking is negligible.
➢ This type of duty can be accomplished by single phase/ three phase induction motors and
DC shunt motors, universal motors.

Examples:
Pressing
Cutting
Drilling machine drives.
 4. Intermittent periodic duty with starting:
➢ This is intermittent periodic duty where heating
➢ Due to starting can‟t be ignored.
➢ It consists of a starting period; a running period, a braking period & a rest period are being
too short to reach their steady state value.
➢ In this type of drive operation, heating due to braking is negligible.
➢ This type of duty can be accomplished by three phase induction motors and DC series
motors, DC compound motors, universal motors.

Examples:
Metal cutting,
Drilling tool drives,
Drives for forklift trucks,
Mine hoist etc.

5. Intermittent periodic duty with starting & braking:

➢ This is an intermittent periodic duty where heating during starting & braking can‟t be
ignored.
➢ It consists of a starting period, a running period; a braking period & a rest period are
being too short to reach their steady state temperature value.
➢ This type of duty can be accomplished by single phase/ three phase induction motors and
DC shunt motors, DC series motors, DC compound motors, universal motors.
Examples:
Billet mill drive
Manipulator drive
Ingot buggy drive
Screw down mechanism of blooming mill
Several machine tool drives
Drives for electric suburban trains and
Mine hoist

6. Continuous duty with intermittent periodic loading:

➢ This type of drive operation consists a period of running at constant load and a period of
running at no load with normal voltage to the excitation winding in separately excited
machines.
➢ Again the load and no load periods are not enough to reach their respective temperature
limits.
➢ This duty is distinguished from intermittent periodic duty by running at no load instead of
rest period.
➢ This type of duty can be accomplished by single phase/ three phase induction motors and
DC compound motors, universal motors.

Examples:
Pressing Cutting Shearing and Drilling machine drives.
7. Continuous duty with starting & braking:
➢ It consists a period of starting, a period of running & a period of electrical braking.
➢ Here period of rest is negligible.
➢ This type of duty can be accomplished by single phase/ three phase induction motors.

Examples:
The main drive of a blooming mill.

8. Continuous duty with periodic speed changes:

➢ It consists a period of running in a load with a particular speed and a period of running at different
load with different speed which are not enough to reach their respective steady state
temperatures.
➢ Further here is no period of rest.
➢ This type of duty can be accomplished by single phase/ three phase induction motors and DC
series motor in traction.

Examples:
All variable speed drives.

SELECTION OF POWER RATING OF MOTORS

From the point of view of motor rating for various duty cycles in section 1.6 can be broadly classified
as:
❖ Continuous duty and constant load
❖ Continuous duty and variable load
❖ Short time rating

Continuous duty and constant load

If the motor has load torque of T N-m and it is running at  radians/seconds, if efficiency in
 , then power rating of the motor is
T
P= KW
1000
Power rating is calculated and then a motor with next higher power rating from commercially
available rating is selected.
Obviously, motor speed should also match loads speed requirement .It is also necessary to
check whether the motor can fulfill starting torque requirement also.

Continuous duty and variable load

➢ The operating temperature of a motor should never exceed the maximum permissible
temperature, because it will result in deterioration and breakdown of insulation and will shorten
the service life of motors.
➢ It is general practice to base the motor power ratings on a standard value of temperature, say 35

c.
➢ Accordingly, the power given on the name plate of a motor corresponds to the power which the
motor is capable of delivering without overheating at an ambient temperature of 35  c. the duty
 cycle is closely related to temperature and is generally taken to include the environmental factors
also.
➢ The rating of a machine can be determined from heating considerations.
➢ However the motor so selected should be checked for its overload capacity and starting torque.
➢ This is because, the motor selected purely on the basis of heating may not be able to meet the
mechanical requirements of the basis of heating may not be able to meet the mechanical
requirements of the load to be driven by it.
➢ The majority of electric machines used in drives operate continuously at a constant or only
slightly variable load.
➢ The selection of the motor capacity for these applications is fairly simple in case the approximate
constant power input is known
➢ In many applications, the power input required for a motor is not known before hand and
therefore certain difficulties arise in such cases.
➢ For the determination of ratings of machines whose load characteristics have not been thoroughly
studied, it becomes necessary to determine the load diagram i.e., diagram shown the variation of
power output versus time.

The temperature of the motor changes continuously when the load is variable. On account of this, it
becomes difficult to select the motor rating as per heating.

➢ The analytical study of heating becomes highly complicated if the load diagram is irregular in
shape or when it has a large number of steps.
➢ Therefore it becomes extremely difficult to select the motor capacity through analysis of the
load diagram due to select the motor capacity through analysis of the load diagram due to lack
of accuracy of this method.

On the other hand it is not correct to select the motor according to the lowest or highest load because
the motor would be overloaded in the first case and under loaded in the second case. Therefore it
becomes necessary to adopt suitable methods for the determination of motor ratings.