COMMUNICATION AND COMPUTER SKILLS

1.1 Introduction to Computer

Computer is an advanced electronic device that takes raw data as input from the user and processes it
under the control of set of instructions (called program), gives the result (output), and saves it for the
future use.

This Computer Fundamentals tutorial covers a foundational understanding of computer hardware,

software, operating systems, peripherals etc.

These notes provide a general introduction to computers systems. A computer system is made up
of both hardware and software. Software is another term for computer program. Software controls
the computer and makes it do useful work. Without software a computer is useless. Hardware
refers to the physical components that make up a computer system. These include the computer's
processor, memory, monitor, keyboard, mouse, disk drive, printer and so on. In these notes we
take a brief look at the functions of the different hardware components. In addition we describe the
some of the essential software required for the operation of a computer system.

1.1.1Functionalities of a computer

Any digital computer carries out five functions in gross terms:

• Takes data as input.

• Stores the data/instructions in its memory and use them when required.
• Processes the data and converts it into useful information.
• Generates the output
• Controls all the above four steps.

Definition

Computer is an electronic data processing device which

• accepts and stores data input,

• processes the data input, and
• generates the output in a required format.
1.1.3Advantages

Following list demonstrates the advantages of computers in today's arena.

1) High Speed

• Computer is a very fast device.

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• It is capable of performing calculation of very large amount of data.

• The computer has units of speed in microsecond, nanosecond, and even the picosecond.
• It can perform millions of calculations in a few seconds as compared to man who will spend many
months for doing the same task.

2)Accuracy • In addition to being very fast, computers are very

accurate.

• The calculations are 100% error free.

• Computers perform all jobs with 100% accuracy provided that correct input has been given.

3)Storage Capability

• Memory is a very important characteristic of computers.

• A computer has much more storage capacity than human beings.
• It can store large amount of data.
• It can store any type of data such as images, videos, text, audio and many others.

4)Diligence

• Unlike human beings, a computer is free from monotony, tiredness and lack of concentration.
• It can work continuously without any error and boredom.
• It can do repeated work with same speed and accuracy.

5)Versatility

• A computer is a very versatile machine.

• A computer is very flexible in performing the jobs to be done.
• This machine can be used to solve the problems related to various fields.
• At one instance, it may be solving a complex scientific problem and the very next moment it may be
playing a card game.

6)Reliability

• A computer is a reliable machine.

• Modern electronic components have long lives.
• Computers are designed to make maintenance easy.

7)Automation
• Computer is an automatic machine.
• Automation means ability to perform the given task automatically.
• Once a program is given to computer i.e., stored in computer memory, the program and instruction
can control the program execution without human interaction.

8)Reduction in Paper Work

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• The use of computers for data processing in an organization leads to reduction in paper work and
results in speeding up a process.
• As data in electronic files can be retrieved as and when required, the problem of maintenance of large
number of paper files gets reduced.

9)Reduction in Cost

• Though the initial investment for installing a computer is high but it substantially reduces the cost of
each of its transaction.

1.1.4Disadvantages

Following list demonstrates the disadvantages of computers in today's arena

1)No I.Q • A computer is a machine that has no intelligence to perform any

task.

• Each instruction has to be given to computer.

• A computer cannot take any decision on its own.

2)Dependency

• It functions as per a user’s instruction, so it is fully dependent on human being

3)Environment

• The operating environment of computer should be dust free and suitable.

4)No Feeling

• Computers have no feelings or emotions.

• It cannot make judgement based on feeling, taste, experience, and knowledge unlike a human being.

1.1.5 Components of computer

All types of computers follow a same basic logical structure and perform the following five basic
operations for converting raw input data into information useful to their users.

Sr.No. Operation Description

The process of entering data and instructions into the computer
1 Take Input
system
Saving data and instructions so that they are available for
2 Store Data
processing as and when required.
Performing arithmetic, and logical operations on data in order to
3 Processing Data

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convert them into useful information.

Output The process of producing useful information or results
4
Information for the user, such as a printed report or visual display.
Control the Directs the manner and sequence in which all of the
5
workflow above operations are performed.

Input Unit

This unit contains devices with the help of which we enter data into computer. This unit makes link
between user and computer. The input devices translate the information into the form
understandable by computer.

CPU (Central Processing Unit)

CPU is considered as the brain of the computer. CPU performs all types of data processing
operations. It stores data, intermediate results and instructions(program). It controls the operation of
all parts of computer.

CPU itself has following three components

• ALU(Arithmetic Logic Unit)

• Memory Unit
• Control Unit

Output Unit

Output unit consists of devices with the help of which we get the information from computer. This
unit is a link between computer and users. Output devices translate the computer's output into the
form understandable by users.

1.1.6 Types of Computer

Computers can be broadly classified by their speed and computing power.

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Sr.No. Type Specifications

PC (Personal It is a single user computer system having moderately
1
Computer) powerful microprocessor
2 WorkStation It is also a single user computer system which is similar to
personal computer but have more powerful microprocessor. It is a
multi-user computer system which is capable of
3 Mini Computer
supporting hundreds of users simultaneously.
It is a multi-user computer system which is capable of
4 Main Frame supporting hundreds of users simultaneously. Software technology is different from
minicomputer.
It is an extremely fast computer which can execute hundreds of
5 Supercomputer
millions of instructions per second.

1)PC (Personal Computer)

A PC can be defined as a small, relatively inexpensive computer designed for an individual user.
PCs are based on the microprocessor technology that enables manufacturers to put an entire CPU on
one chip. Businesses use personal computers for word processing, accounting, desktop publishing,
and for running spreadsheet and database management applications. At home, the most popular use
for personal computers is playing games and surfing Internet.

Although personal computers are designed as single-user systems, these systems are normally linked
together to form a network. In terms of power, now-a-days High-end models of the Macintosh and PC
offer the same computing power and graphics capability as low-end workstations by Sun Microsystems,
Hewlett-Packard, and Dell.

2)Workstation

Workstation is a computer used for engineering applications (CAD/CAM), desktop publishing,

software development, and other such types of applications which require a moderate amount of
computing power and relatively high quality graphics capabilities.

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Workstations generally come with a large, high-resolution graphics screen, large amount of RAM,
inbuilt network support, and a graphical user interface. Most workstations also have a mass storage
device such as a disk drive, but a special type of workstation, called a diskless workstation, comes
without a disk drive.

Common operating systems for workstations are UNIX and Windows NT. Like PC, Workstations
are also single-user computers like PC but are typically linked together to form a local-area
network, although they can also be used as stand-alone systems.

3)Minicomputer

It is a midsize multi-processing system capable of supporting up to 250 users simultaneously.

4)Mainframe

Mainframe is very large in size and is an expensive computer capable of supporting hundreds or
even thousands of users simultaneously. Mainframe executes many programs concurrently and
supports many simultaneous execution of programs

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5)Supercomputer

Supercomputers are one of the fastest computers currently available. Supercomputers are very
expensive and are employed for specialized applications that require immense amount of
mathematical calculations (number crunching). For example, weather forecasting, scientific
simulations, (animated) graphics, fluid dynamic calculations, nuclear energy research, electronic
design, and analysis of geological data (e.g. in petrochemical prospecting).

1.2 Computer System Hardware

Hardware represents the physical and tangible components of a computer i.e. the components that can
be seen and touched.

Examples of Hardware are following:

Input devices -- keyboard, mouse etc.

Output devices -- printer, monitor etc.

Secondary storage devices -- Hard disk, CD, DVD etc.

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Internal components -- CPU, motherboard, RAM etc.

1.2.1 Relationship between Hardware and Software

• Hardware and software are mutually dependent on each other. Both of them must work together to
make a computer produce a useful output.
• Software cannot be utilized without supporting hardware.
• Hardware without set of programs to operate upon cannot be utilized and is useless.
• To get a particular job done on the computer, relevant software should be loaded into the hardware
• Hardware is a one-time expense.
• Software development is very expensive and is a continuing expense.
• Different software applications can be loaded on a hardware to run different jobs.
• A software acts as an interface between the user and the hardware.
• If hardware is the 'heart' of a computer system, then software is its 'soul'. Both are complimentary to
each other.

1.3 Computer Memory

• Memory is used to store the information (programs and data) that the computer is currently using. It
is sometimes called main or primary memory. One form of memory is called
• RAM - random access memory. This means that any location in memory may be accessed in the
same amount of time as any other location. Memory access means one of two things, either the CPU
is reading from a memory location or the CPU is writing to a memory location. When the CPU reads
from a memory location, the contents of the memory location are copied to a CPU register. When the
CPU writes to a memory location, the CPU copies the contents of a CPU register to the memory
location, overwriting the previous contents of the location. The CPU cannot carry out any other
operations on memory locations.

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• RAM is a form of short term or volatile memory. Information stored in short term storage is lost
when the computer is switched off (or when power fails e.g. if you pull out the power lead!). There is
therefore a requirement for permanent or long term storage which is also referred to as secondary
storage or auxiliary storage. This role is fulfilled by disk and tape storage.

1.3.1 Random Access Memory (RAM)

RAM(Random Access Memory) is the internal memory of the CPU for storing data, program and
program result. It is read/write memory which stores data until the machine is working. As soon as
the machine is switched off, data is erased.

Access time in RAM is independent of the address that is, each storage location inside the memory is
as easy to reach as other locations and takes the same amount of time. Data in the RAM can be
accessed randomly but it is very expensive.

RAM is volatile, i.e. data stored in it is lost when we switch off the computer or if there is a power
failure. Hence a backup uninterruptible power system(UPS) is often used with computers. RAM is
small, both in terms of its physical size and in the amount of data it can hold.

RAM is of two types

• Static RAM (SRAM)

• Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

1)Static RAM (SRAM)

The word static indicates that the memory retains its contents as long as power is being supplied.
However, data is lost when the power gets down due to volatile nature. SRAM chips use a matrix
of 6-transistors and no capacitors. Transistors do not require power to prevent leakage, so SRAM
need not have to be refreshed on a regular basis.
Because of the extra space in the matrix, SRAM uses more chips than DRAM for the same amount of
storage space, thus making the manufacturing costs higher. So SRAM is used as cache memory and
has very fast access.

Characteristic of the Static RAM

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• It has long life

• There is no need to refresh
• Faster
• Used as cache memory
• Large size
• Expensive
• High power consumption

2)Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

DRAM, unlike SRAM, must be continually refreshed in order to maintain the data. This is done
by placing the memory on a refresh circuit that rewrites the data several hundred times per second.
DRAM is used for most system memory because it is cheap and small. All DRAMs are made up of
memory cells which are composed of one capacitor and one transistor.

Characteristics of the Dynamic RAM

• It has short data lifetime

• Need to be refreshed continuously
• Slower as compared to SRAM
• Used as RAM
• Lesser in size
• Less expensive
• Less power consumption

1.3.2 - Read Only Memory (ROM)

ROM stands for Read Only Memory. The memory from which we can only read but cannot write
on it. This type of memory is non-volatile. The information is stored permanently in such
memories during manufacture. A ROM, stores such instructions that are required to start a
computer. This operation is referred to as bootstrap. ROM chips are not only used in the computer
but also in other electronic items like washing machine and microwave

oven.

Following are the various types of ROM

1)MROM (Masked ROM)

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The very first ROMs were hard-wired devices that contained a pre-programmed set of data or instructions.
These kind of ROMs are known as masked ROMs which are inexpensive.

2)PROM (Programmable Read only Memory)

PROM is read-only memory that can be modified only once by a user. The user buys a blank
PROM and enters the desired contents using a PROM program. Inside the PROM chip there are
small fuses which are burnt open during programming. It can be programmed only once and is not
erasable.

3)EPROM(Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)

The EPROM can be erased by exposing it to ultra-violet light for a duration of up to 40 minutes.
Usually, an EPROM eraser achieves this function. During programming, an electrical charge is
trapped in an insulated gate region. The charge is retained for more than ten years because the
charge has no leakage path. For erasing this charge, ultra-violet light is passed through a quartz
crystal window(lid). This exposure to ultra-violet light dissipates the charge. During normal use
the quartz lid is sealed with a sticker.

4)EEPROM(Electrically Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)

The EEPROM is programmed and erased electrically. It can be erased and reprogrammed about
ten thousand times. Both erasing and programming take about 4 to 10 ms (milli second). In
EEPROM, any location can be selectively erased and programmed. EEPROMs can be erased one
byte at a time, rather than erasing the entire chip. Hence, the process of reprogramming is flexible
but slow.

Advantages of ROM

The advantages of ROM are as follows:

• Non-volatile in nature
• These cannot be accidentally changed
• Cheaper than RAMs
• Easy to test
• More reliable than RAMs
• These are static and do not require refreshing
• Its contents are always known and can be verified

1.4 Input/Output Devices:

1.4.1Input Devices

Following are few of the important input devices which are used in a computer:

• Keyboard

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• Mouse
• Joy Stick
• Light pen
• Track Ball
• Scanner
• Graphic Tablet
• Microphone
• Magnetic Ink Card Reader(MICR)
• Optical Character Reader(OCR)
• Bar Code Reader
• Optical Mark Reader(OMR)

1)Keyboard

Keyboard is the most common and very popular input device which helps in inputting data to the
computer. The layout of the keyboard is like that of traditional typewriter, although there are some
additional keys provided for performing additional functions.

Keyboards are of two sizes 84 keys or 101/102 keys, but now keyboards with 104 keys or 108 keys are
also available for Windows and Internet.

2)Mouse

Mouse is most popular pointing device. It is a very famous cursor-control device having a small
palm size box with a round ball at its base which senses the movement of mouse and sends
corresponding signals to CPU when the mouse buttons are pressed.
Generally it has two buttons called left and right button and a wheel is present between the
buttons. Mouse can be used to control the position of cursor on screen, but it cannot be used to
enter text into the computer.

Advantages

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• Easy to use
• Not very expensive
• Moves the cursor faster than the arrow keys of keyboard.

3)Joystick

Joystick is also a pointing device which is used to move cursor position on a monitor screen. It is a
stick having a spherical ball at its both lower and upper ends. The lower spherical ball moves in a
socket. The joystick can be moved in all four directions.

The function of joystick is similar to that of a mouse. It is mainly used in Computer Aided Designing(CAD)
and playing computer games.

4)Light Pen

Light pen is a pointing device which is similar to a pen. It is used to select a displayed menu item or
draw pictures on the monitor screen. It consists of a photocell and an optical system placed in a small
tube. When the tip of a light pen is moved over the monitor screen and pen button is pressed, its
photocell sensing element detects the screen location and sends the corresponding signal to the CPU.

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5)Track Ball

Track ball is an input device that is mostly used in notebook or laptop computer, instead of a mouse.
This is a ball which is half inserted and by moving fingers on ball, pointer can be moved. Since the
whole device is not moved, a track ball requires less space than a mouse. A track ball comes in
various shapes like a ball, a button and a square.

6)Scanner

Scanner is an input device which works more like a photocopy machine. It is used when some
information is available on a paper and it is to be transferred to the hard disc of the computer for
further manipulation. Scanner captures images from the source which are then converted into the
digital form that can be stored on the disc. These images can be edited before they are printed.

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7)Digitizer

Digitizer is an input device which converts analog information into digital form. Digitizer can
convert a signal from the television or camera into a series of numbers that could be stored in a
computer. They can be used by the computer to create a picture of whatever the camera had been
pointed at. Digitizer is also known as Tablet or Graphics Tablet because it converts graphics and
pictorial data into binary inputs. A graphic tablet as digitizer is used for doing fine works of
drawing and image manipulation applications.

8)Microphone

Microphone is an input device to input sound that is then stored in digital form. The microphone is
used for various applications like adding sound to a multimedia presentation or for mixing music.

9)Magnetic Ink Card Reader(MICR)

MICR input device is generally used in banks because of a large number of cheques to be processed
every day. The bank's code number and cheque number are printed on the cheques with a special
type of ink that contains particles of magnetic material that are machine readable. This reading
process is called Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR). The main advantages of MICR is
that it is fast and less error prone.

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Optical Character Reader(OCR)

OCR is an input device used to read a printed text. OCR scans text optically character by character,
converts them into a machine readable code and stores the text on the system memory.

10)Bar Code Readers

Bar Code Reader is a device used for reading bar coded data (data in form of light and dark lines).
Bar coded data is generally used in labelling goods, numbering the books etc. It may be a hand
held scanner or may be embedded in a stationary scanner. Bar Code Reader scans a bar code
image, converts it into an alphanumeric value which is then fed to the computer to which bar code
reader is connected.

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1.4.2 Output Devices

Following are few of the important output devices which are used in a computer.

• Monitors
• Graphic Plotter
• Printer

1.4.3Monitors
Monitors, commonly called as Visual Display Unit (VDU), are the main output device of a
computer. It forms images from tiny dots, called pixels that are arranged in a rectangular form.
The sharpness of the image depends upon the number of pixels.

There are two kinds of viewing screen used for monitors.

• Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT)

• Flat- Panel Display

1)Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT) Monitor

The CRT display is made up of small picture elements called pixels. The smaller the pixels, the
better the image clarity, or resolution. It takes more than one illuminated pixel to form whole
character, such as the letter ‘e’ in the word help.

A finite number of characters can be displayed on a screen at once. The screen can be divided into
a series of character boxes - fixed location on the screen where a standard character can be placed.
Most screens are capable of displaying 80 characters of data horizontally and 25 lines vertically.
There are some disadvantages of CRT:

• Large in Size
• High power consumption

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2)Flat-Panel Display Monitor

The flat-panel display refers to a class of video devices that have reduced volume, weight and power
requirement in comparison to the CRT. You can hang them on walls or wear them on your wrists.
Current uses of flat-panel displays include calculators, video games, monitors, laptop computer,
graphics display.

The flat-panel display is divided into two categories:

• Emissive Displays - The emissive displays are devices that convert electrical energy into light.
Example are plasma panel and LED(Light-Emitting Diodes).
• Non-Emissive Displays - The Non-emissive displays use optical effects to convert sunlight or
light from some other source into graphics patterns. Example is
LCD(Liquid-Crystal Device)

1. 4.4Printers

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Printer is an output device, which is used to print information on paper.

There are two types of printers:

• Impact Printers
• Non-Impact Printers

A)Impact Printers

The impact printers print the characters by striking them on the ribbon which is then pressed on the
paper.

Characteristics of Impact Printers are the following:

• Very low consumable costs

• Very noisy
• Useful for bulk printing due to low cost
• There is physical contact with the paper to produce an image
These printers are of two types

• Character printers
• Line printers

Character Printers

Character printers are the printers which print one character at a time.

These are further divided into two types:

• Dot Matrix Printer(DMP)

• Daisy Wheel

1)Dot Matrix Printer

In the market one of the most popular printers is Dot Matrix Printer. These printers are popular
because of their ease of printing and economical price. Each character printed is in form of pattern
of dots and head consists of a Matrix of Pins of size (5*7, 7*9, 9*7 or 9*9) which come out to
form a character that is why it is called Dot Matrix Printer.

Advantages

• Inexpensive
• Widely Used
• Other language characters can be printed

Disadvantages

• Slow Speed

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• Poor Quality

2)Daisy Wheel

Head is lying on a wheel and pins corresponding to characters are like petals of Daisy (flower name)
that is why it is called Daisy Wheel Printer. These printers are generally used for word-processing in
offices which require a few letters to be sent here and there with very nice quality.

Advantages

• More reliable than DMP

• Better quality
• The fonts of character can be easily changed

Disadvantages

• Slower than DMP

• Noisy
• More expensive than DMP

3)Line Printers

Line printers are the printers which print one line at a time.

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These are of further two types

• Drum Printer
• Chain Printer

4)Drum Printer

This printer is like a drum in shape so it is called drum printer. The surface of drum is divided into
number of tracks. Total tracks are equal to size of paper i.e. for a paper width of 132 characters,
drum will have 132 tracks. A character set is embossed on track. The different character sets
available in the market are 48 character set, 64 and 96 characters set. One rotation of drum prints
one line. Drum printers are fast in speed and can print 300 to 2000 lines per minute.

Advantages

• Very high speed

Disadvantages

• Very expensive
• Characters fonts cannot be changed

5)Chain Printer

In this printer, chain of character sets are used so it is called Chain Printer. A standard character set
may have 48, 64, or 96 characters.

Advantages

• Character fonts can easily be changed.

• Different languages can be used with the same printer.

Disadvantages

• Noisy

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B)Non-impact Printers

Non-impact printers print the characters without using ribbon. These printers print a complete page at a
time so they are also called as Page Printers.

These printers are of two types

• Laser Printers
• Inkjet Printers

Characteristics of Non-impact Printers

• Faster than impact printers.
• They are not noisy.
• High quality.
• Support many fonts and different character size.

1)Laser Printers

These are non-impact page printers. They use laser lights to produce the dots needed to form the
characters to be printed on a page.

Advantages

• Very high speed

• Very high quality output
• Give good graphics quality
• Support many fonts and different character size

Disadvantages

• Expensive.
• Cannot be used to produce multiple copies of a document in a single printing.

2)Inkjet Printers

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Inkjet printers are non-impact character printers based on a relatively new technology. They print
characters by spraying small drops of ink onto paper. Inkjet printers produce high quality output
with presentable features.
They make less noise because no hammering is done and these have many styles of printing modes
available. Colour printing is also possible. Some models of Inkjet printers can produce multiple copies
of printing also.

Advantages

• High quality printing

• More reliable

Disadvantages

• Expensive as cost per page is high

• Slow as compared to laser printer

1.5 Definition of computer virus

A computer virus is a program or piece of code that is loaded onto your computer without your
knowledge and runs against your wishes. Viruses can also replicate themselves. All computer
viruses are man-made. A simple virus that can make a copy of itself over and over again is
relatively easy to produce. Even such a simple virus is dangerous because it will quickly use all
available memory and bring the system to a halt. An even more dangerous type of virus is one
capable of transmitting itself across networks and bypassing security systems.
In computers, a virus is a program or programming code that replicates by being copied or initiating its
copying to another program, computer boot sector or document.

A computer virus is a program designed to harm or cause harm on an infected computer. Its spreads
through e-mail attachments, portable devices, websites containing malicious scripts and file
downloads. A computer virus attaches itself to the host files and always activate whenever you

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open the infected files. The virus can replicate itself and then infect the other files on your computer
causing more damage. Below is a list of different types of computer viruses and what they do.

7.1.1 Types of computer virus

1. Resident Viruses

This type of virus is a permanent which dwells in the RAM memory. From there it can overcome and
interrupt all of the operations executed by the system: corrupting files and programs that are opened,
closed, copied, renamed etc.

Examples include: Randex, CMJ, Meve, and MrKlunky.

2. Multipartite Viruses

Multipartite viruses are distributed through infected media and usually hide in the memory.
Gradually, the virus moves to the boot sector of the hard drive and infects executable files on the
hard drive and later across the computer system.

3. Direct Action Viruses

The main purpose of this virus is to replicate and take action when it is executed. When a specific
condition is met, the virus will go into action and infect files in the directory or folder that it is in
and in directories that are specified in the AUTOEXEC.BAT file PATH. This batch

file is always located in the root directory of the hard disk and carries out certain operations when the
computer is booted.

4. Overwrite Viruses

Virus of this kind is characterized by the fact that it deletes the information contained in the files that
it infects, rendering them partially or totally useless once they have been infected.

The only way to clean a file infected by an overwrite virus is to delete the file completely, thus
losing the original content.

Examples of this virus include: Way, Trj.Reboot, Trivial.88.D.

5. Boot Virus

This type of virus affects the boot sector of a floppy or hard disk. This is a crucial part of a disk, in which
information on the disk itself is stored together with a program that makes it possible to boot (start) the
computer from the disk.

The best way of avoiding boot viruses is to ensure that floppy disks are write-protected and never
start your computer with an unknown floppy disk in the disk drive.

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Examples of boot viruses include: Polyboot.B, AntiEXE.

6. Macro Virus

Macro viruses infect files that are created using certain applications or programs that contain
macros. These mini-programs make it possible to automate series of operations so that they are
performed as a single action, thereby saving the user from having to carry them out one by one.

Examples of macro viruses: Relax, Melissa.A, Bablas, O97M/Y2K.

7. Directory Virus

Directory viruses change the paths that indicate the location of a file. By executing a program (file
with the extension .EXE or .COM) which has been infected by a virus, you are unknowingly running
the virus program, while the original file and program have been previously moved by the virus.

Once infected it becomes impossible to locate the original files.

8. Polymorphic Virus

Polymorphic viruses encrypt or encode themselves in a different way (using different algorithms and
encryption keys) every time they infect a system.

This makes it impossible for anti-viruses to find them using string or signature searches (because
they are different in each encryption) and also enables them to create a large number of copies of
themselves.

Examples include: Elkern, Marburg, Satan Bug, and Tuareg.

9. File Infectors

This type of virus infects programs or executable files (files with an .EXE or .COM extension).
When one of these programs is run, directly or indirectly, the virus is activated, producing the
damaging effects it is programmed to carry out. The majority of existing viruses belongs to this
category, and can be classified depending on the actions that they carry out.

10. Encrypted Viruses

This type of viruses consists of encrypted malicious code, decrypted module. The viruses use encrypted
code technique which make antivirus software hardly to detect them. The antivirus program usually can
detect this type of viruses when they try spread by decrypted themselves.

11. Companion Viruses

Companion viruses can be considered file infector viruses like resident or direct action types. They
are known as companion viruses because once they get into the system they "accompany" the other
files that already exist. In other words, in order to carry out their infection routines, companion

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viruses can wait in memory until a program is run (resident viruses) or act immediately by making
copies of themselves (direct action viruses).

Some examples include: Stator, Asimov.1539, and Terrax.1069

12. Network Virus

Network viruses rapidly spread through a Local Network Area (LAN), and sometimes throughout
the internet. Generally, network viruses multiply through shared resources, i.e., shared drives and
folders. When the virus infects a computer, it searches through the network to attack its new
potential prey. When the virus finishes infecting that computer, it moves on to the next and the
cycle repeats itself.

The most dangerous network viruses are Nimda and SQLSlammer.

13. Nonresident Viruses

This type of viruses is similar to Resident Viruses by using replication of module. Besides that,
Nonresident Viruses role as finder module which can infect to files when it found one (it will select
one or more files to infect each time the module is executed).

14. Stealth Viruses

Stealth Viruses is some sort of viruses which try to trick anti-virus software by intercepting its
requests to the operating system. It has ability to hide itself from some antivirus software
programs. Therefore, some antivirus program cannot detect them.

15. Sparse Infectors

In order to spread widely, a virus must attempt to avoid detection. To minimize the probability of
its being discovered a virus could use any number of different techniques. It might, for example,
only infect every 20th time a file is executed; it might only infect files whose lengths are within
narrowly defined ranges or whose names begin with letters in a certain range of the alphabet.
There are many other possibilities.

16. Spacefiller (Cavity) Viruses

Many viruses take the easy way out when infecting files; they simply attach themselves to the end
of the file and then change the start of the program so that it first points to the virus and then to the
actual program code. Many viruses that do this also implement some stealth techniques so you
don't see the increase in file length when the virus is active in memory.

A spacefiller (cavity) virus, on the other hand, attempts to be clever. Some program files, for a
variety of reasons, have empty space inside of them. This empty space can be used to house virus
code. A spacefiller virus attempts to install itself in this empty space while not damaging the
actual program itself. An advantage of this is that the virus then does not increase the length of the
program and can avoid the need for some stealth techniques. The Lehigh virus was an early
example of a spacefiller virus.

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17. FAT Virus

The file allocation table or FAT is the part of a disk used to connect information and is a vital part of
the normal functioning of the computer.

This type of virus attack can be especially dangerous, by preventing access to certain sections of the
disk where important files are stored. Damage caused can result in information losses from
individual files or even entire directories.

18. Worms

A worm is technically not a virus, but a program very similar to a virus; it has the ability to self-replicate,
and can lead to negative effects on your system and most importantly they are detected and eliminated
by antiviruses.

Examples of worms include: PSWBugbear.B, Lovgate.F, Trile.C, Sobig.D, Mapson.

19. Trojans or Trojan Horses

Another unsavory breed of malicious code (not a virus as well) are Trojans or Trojan horses, which
unlike viruses do not reproduce by infecting other files, nor do they self-replicate like worms.

20. Logic Bombs

They are not considered viruses because they do not replicate. They are not even programs in their
own right but rather camouflaged segments of other programs.

Their objective is to destroy data on the computer once certain conditions have been met. Logic
bombs go undetected until launched, and the results can be destructive.

1.7.2Use of Antivirus software

Antivirus or anti-virus software (often abbreviated as AV), sometimes known as antimalware

software, is computer software used to prevent, detect and remove malicious software.

Antivirus (or anti- virus)software is used to safeguard a computer from malware, including viruses,
computer worms, and Trojan horses
Antivirus software may also remove or prevent spyware and adware, along with other forms of
malicious programs. Free antivirus software generally only searches your computer using
signature-based detection which involves looking for patterns of data that are known to be related
to already-identified malware. Paid antivirus software will usually also include heuristics to catch
new, or zero-day threats, by either using genetic signatures to identify new variants of existing
virus code or by running the file in a virtual environment (also called a sandbox), and watching
what it does to see if it has malicious intent.

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Virus designers, however, usually test their malicious code against the major antivirus types of
malware, specifically ransomware, use polymorphic code to make it difficult to be detected by
antivirus software. Besides using antivirus software to keep your computer safe and running
smoothly, it is also always a good idea to be proactive: make sure your web browser is updated to
the latest version, use a firewall, only download programs from websites you trust and always surf
the web using a standard user account, rather than your administrator one.

2 .Basics Of Operating System

2.1 Definition of
Operating System:
“An Operating system is a program that controls the execution of application programs and acts
as an interface between the user of a computer and the computer hardware.” A more common
definition is that the operating system is the one program running at all times on the computer
(usually called the kernel), with all else being applications programs.

An Operating system is concerned with the allocation of resources and services, such as
memory, processors, devices and information. The Operating System correspondingly
includes programs to manage these resources, such as a traffic controller, a scheduler,
memory management module, I/O programs, and a file system
2.3 Functions of an Operating System:
Following are some of important functions of an operating System

• Memory Management
• Processor Management
• Device Management
• File Management
• Security
• Control over system performance
• Job accounting
• Error detecting aids
• Coordination between other software and users

1) Memory Management
Memory management refers to management of Primary Memory or Main Memory. Main memory
is a large array of words or bytes where each word or byte has its own address. Main memory
provides a fast storage that can be access directly by the CPU. So for a program to be executed, it
must in the main memory. Operating System does the following activities for memory
management.
• Keeps tracks of primary memory i.e. what part of it are in use by whom, what part are not in use.
• In multiprogramming, OS decides which process will get memory when and how much.
• Allocates the memory when the process requests it to do so.
• De-allocates the memory when the process no longer needs it or has been terminated.
2) Processor Management
In multiprogramming environment, OS decides which process gets the processor when and how
much time. This function is called process scheduling. Operating System does the following
activities for processor management.

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• Keeps tracks of processor and status of process. Program responsible for this task is known as traffic
controller.
• Allocates the processor (CPU) to a process.
• De-allocates processor when processor is no longer required.

3) Device Management
OS manages device communication via their respective drivers. Operating System does the following
activities for device management.
• Keeps tracks of all devices. Program responsible for this task is known as the I/O controller.
• Decides which process gets the device when and for how much time.
• Allocates the device in the efficient way.
• De-allocates devices.
4)File Management
A file system is normally organized into directories for easy navigation and usage. These
directories may contain files and other directions. Operating System does the following
activities for file management.
• Keeps track of information, location, uses, status etc. The collective facilities are often known
as file system.
• Decides who gets the resources.
• Allocates the resources.
• De-allocates the resources
5)Other Important Activities
Following are some of the important activities that Operating System does.
• Security -- By means of password and similar other techniques, preventing unauthorized
access to programs and data.
• Control over system performance -- Recording delays between request for a service and
response from the system.
• Job accounting -- Keeping track of time and resources used by various jobs and users.
• Error detecting aids -- Production of dumps, traces, error messages and other debugging and
error detecting aids.
• Coordination between other software and users -- Coordination and assignment of
compilers, interpreters, assemblers and other software to the various users of the computer
systems.

4 Importance of networking

4.1 Introduction

Information and communication are two of the most important strategic issues for the success of
every enterprise.
While today nearly every organization uses a number of computers and communication tools (like
telephone or fax), they are often still isolated. While managers today are able to use applications
like wordprocessors or spreadsheets, not very many of them use computer-based tools to
communicate with other departments or information retrieval programs. To overcome these
obstacles in an effective usage of information technology, computer networks are necessary. They
are a new kind of organization of computer systems produced by the need to merge computers

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and communications. Computer networks can manage to put down the barriers between
information held on several systems. Only with the help of computer networks can a borderless
communication and information environment be built.

4.2 Importance of Networking

Computer networks allow the user to access remote programs and remote databases either of the
same organization or from other enterprises or public sources. Computer networks provide
communication possibilities faster than other facilities. Because of these optimal information and
communication possibilities, computer networks may increase the organizational learning rate
there are other reasons why any organization should have a computer network

• cost reduction by sharing hardware and software resources

• high reliability by having multiple sources of supply
• cost reduction by downsizing to microcomputer-based networks instead of using mainframes
• greater flexibility because of possibility to connect devices from various vendors

A network is two or more computers connected together to share information and files between
them. Businesses aren't the only ones that can benefit from creating a network. Home users can
enjoy sharing music, movies and printers from any computer.

File Sharing : Computers connected to a network can share files and documents with each other.
Personal computers connected to a business network can choose which files and folders are
available to share on the network.

Printers : Computers can print pages to another computer with a printer on the network.
Additionally, printers can be connected using a print server, which allows direct printing from all
computers.

4.3 Computer Network

4.3.1 Types of Networks

A)Local Area Networks

Local area networks (LANs) are used to connect networking devices that are in a very close geographic
area, such as a floor of a building, a building itself, or a campus environment.

B)Wide Area Networks

C)Wide area networks (WANs) are used to connect LANs together. Typically, WANs are used
when the LANs that must be connected are separated by a large distance.

D)Metropolitan Area Networks

A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a hybrid between a LAN and a WAN.

.
A computer network is an interconnection of various computer systems located at different places.

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In computer network two or more computers are linked together with a medium and data
communication devices for the purpose of communicating data and sharing resources. The computer
that provides resources to other computers on a network is known as server In the network the
individual computers, which access shared network resources, are known as workstations or nodes.

Computer Networks may be classified on the basis of geographical area in two broad categories.
1. Local Area Network (LAN)
2. Wide Area Network (WAN)

I. Local Area Network:

Networks used to interconnect computers in a single room, rooms within a building or buildings on
one site are called Local Area Network (LAN).
LAN links computers, i.e., software and hardware, in the same area for the purpose of sharing
information. Usually LAN links computers within a limited geographical area because they must be
connected by a cable, which is quite expensive.

Major Characteristics of LAN are as follows:

1 Every computer has the potential to communicate with any other computers of the network
2 High degree of interconnection between computers
3 Easy physical connection of computers in a network
4 Inexpensive medium of data transmission

5 High data transmission rate

Advantages of LAN are as follows:

• The reliability of network is high because the failure of one computer in the network does not
effect the functioning for other computers.

• Addition of new computer to network is easy.

• High rate of data transmission is possible.

• Peripheral devices like magnetic disk and printer can be shared by other computers.

Disadvantages of LAN is

• If the communication line fails, the entire network system breaks down.

Use of LAN : Followings are the major areas where LAN is normally used

• File transfers and Access

• Word and text processing
• Electronic message handling
• Remote database access
• Personal computing

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• Digital voice transmission and storage

4.5 Network Topology

Topology refers to the way in which the network of computers is connected. Each topology
is suited to specific tasks and has its own advantages and disadvantages. The choice of
topology is dependent upon type and number of equipment being used, planned applications
and rate of data transfer required, response time, and cost. Topology can also be defined as
the geometrically interconnection pattern by which the stations (nodes/computers) are
connected using suitable transmission media (which can be point-to-point and broadcast).

Think of a topology as a network's virtual shape or structure. This shape does not necessarily
correspond to the actual physical layout of the devices on the network. For example, the
computers on a home LAN may be arranged in a circle in a family room, but it would be
highly unlikely to find a ring topology there. Network topologies are categorized into the
following basic types:
• bus
• ring
• star
• mesh

More complex networks can be built as hybrids of two or more of the above basic topologies.

1)Bus Topology

Bus networks (not to be confused with the system bus of a computer) use a common
backbone to connect all devices. A single cable, the backbone functions as a shared
communication medium that devices attach or tap into with an interface connector. A
device wanting to communicate with another device on the network sends a broadcast
message onto the wire that all other devices see, but only the intended recipient actually
accepts and processes the message. bus networks work best with a limited number of
Networking made it easy 2 Compiled by devices. If more than a few dozen computers are
added to a network bus, performance problems will likely result. In addition, if the
backbone cable fails, the entire network effectively becomes unusable

Bus Topology Diagram

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2)Ring Topology

In a ring network, every device has exactly two neighbors for communication purposes. All
messages travel through a ring in the same direction (either "clockwise" or
"counterclockwise"). A failure in any cable or device breaks the loop and can take down the
entire network. To implement a ring network, one typically uses FDDI, SONET, or Token
Ring technology. Ring topologies are found in some office buildings or school campuses.

Definition: Token Ring is a data link technology for local area networks (LANs). It operates
at layer 2 of the OSI model.

How Token Ring Works

Unlike all other standard forms of LAN interconnects, Token Ring maintains one or
more common data frames that continuously circulates through the network. These
frames are shared by all connected devices on the network as follows: • a frame
(packet) arrives at the next device in the ring sequence

that device checks whether the frame contains a message addressed to it. If so, the device
removes the message from the frame. If not, the frame is empty (called a token frame).
• the device holding the frame decides whether to send a message. If so, it inserts message
data into the token frame and issues it back onto the LAN. If not, the device releases the
token frame for the next device in sequence to pick up
• the above steps are repeated continuously for all devices in the token ring

3)Star Topology

Many home networks use the star topology. A star network features a central connection
point called a "hub" that may be a hub, switch or router. Devices typically connect to the
hub with Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Ethernet. Compared to the bus topology, a star
network generally requires more cable, but a failure in any star network cable will only take
down one computer's network access and not the entire LAN. (If the hub fails, however, the
entire network also fails.)

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5)Mesh Topology

Mesh topologies involve the concept of routes. Unlike each of the previous topologies,
messages sent on a mesh network can take any of several possible paths from source to
destination. (Recall that even in a ring, although two cable paths exist, messages can only
travel in one direction.) Some WANs, most notably the Internet, employ mesh routing. A
mesh network in which every device connects to every other is called a full mesh. As shown
in the illustration below, partial mesh networks also exist in which some devices connect
only indirectly to others.

Mesh Topology Diagram

4.5.1Wireless networking

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Wireless networking is a method by which homes, telecommunications networks and

enterprise (business) installations avoid the costly process of introducing cables into a
building, or as a connection between various equipment locations.

• Do not require physical cabling

• Particularly useful for remote access for laptop users
• Eliminate cable faults and cable breaks.
• Signal interference and security issue.

Moving data through a wireless network involves three separate elements: the radio
signals, the data format, and the network structure. Each of these elements is independent
of the other two. In terms of the OSI reference model, the radio signal operates at the
physical layer, and the data format controls several of the higher layers. The network
structure includes the wireless network interface adapters and base stations that send and
receive the radio signals. In a wireless network, the network interface adapters in each
computer and base station convert digital data to radio signals, which they transmit to
other devices on the same network, and they receive and convert incoming radio signals
from other network elements back to digital data.

A wireless network enables people to communicate and access applications and information
without wires. This provides freedom of movement and the ability to extend applications to
different parts of a building, city, or nearly anywhere in the world. Wireless networks allow
people to interact with e-mail or browse the Internet from a location that they prefer.

Many types of wireless communication systems exist, but a distinguishing attribute of a

wireless network is that communication takes place between computer devices. These
devices include personal digital assistants (PDAs), laptops, personal computers (PCs),
servers, and printers. Computer devices have processors, memory, and a means of interfacing
with a particular type of network. Traditional cell phones don't fall within the definition of a
computer device; however, newer phones and even audio headsets are beginning to
incorporate computing power and network adapters. Eventually, most electronics will offer
wireless network connections.
As with networks based on wire, or optical fiber, wireless networks convey information
between computer devices. The information can take the form of e-mail messages, web
pages, database records, streaming video or voice. In most cases, wireless networks transfer
data, such as e-mail messages and files, but advancements in the performance of wireless
networks is enabling support for video and voice communications as well.

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Types of Wireless Networks

WLANS: Wireless Local Area Networks

WLANS allow users in a local area, such as a university campus or library, to form a network
or gain access to the internet. A temporary network can be formed by a small number of users
without the need of an access point; given that they do not need access to network resources.

WPANS: Wireless Personal Area Networks

The two current technologies for wireless personal area networks are Infra Red (IR) and
Bluetooth (IEEE 802.15). These will allow the connectivity of personal devices within an
area of about 30 feet. However, IR requires a direct line of site and the range is less.

WMANS: Wireless Metropolitan Area Networks

This technology allows the connection of multiple networks in a metropolitan area such as
different buildings in a city, which can be an alternative or backup to laying copper or fiber
cabling.

WWANS: Wireless Wide Area Networks

These types of networks can be maintained over large areas, such as cities or countries, via
multiple satellite systems or antenna sites looked after by an ISP. These types of systems are
referred to as 2G (2nd Generation) systems.Comparison of Wireless Network Types

Type Coverage Performance Standards Applications

Wireless PAN Within
reach of a person Moderate
Wireless Within reach Bluetooth, IEEE 802.15, Cable replacement
Moderate
PAN of a person and IrDa Cable for peripherals
replacement for
peripherals
Within a
Wireless IEEE 802.11, Wi-Fi, and Mobile extension of
building or High
LAN HiperLAN wired networks
campus
Fixed wireless
Wireless Proprietary, IEEE 802.16, between homes and
Within a city High
MAN and WIMAX businesses and the
Internet
Mobile access to
Wireless CDPD and Cellular 2G,
Worldwide Low the Internet from
WAN 2.5G, and 3G
outdoor areas

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1.5 Working with E-mail:

E-mail (electronic mail) is the exchange of computer-stored messages by

telecommunication. (Some publications spell it email; we prefer the currently more
established spelling of e-mail.) E-mail messages are usually encoded in ASCII text.
However, you can also send non-text files, such as graphic images and sound files, as
attachments sent in binary streams. E-mail was one of the first uses of the Internet and is still
the most popular use. A large percentage of the total traffic over the Internet is e-mail. E-
mail can also be exchanged between online service provider users and in networks other
than the Internet, both public and private.

1
1.5 Use of Email

Email is one of the most important forms of communication in today's digital age. It's the
way that millions (if not billions) of people stay in touch with each other. Luckily, this form
of near-instant communication is completely free. Make a free email account today to start
sending and receiving email immediately. Read on below the jump for detailed instructions
on registering a new email account with several of the internet's most popular email
providers.
Go to Gmail.com. The first step to creating an email account with Gmail, Google's free email
service, is to visit Gmail's main site. Type "gmail.com" into your browser's navigation bar, or,
alternatively, type "Gmail" into your search engine of choice and click the relevant result.

The email is actually used to transfer messages between one to another. It is also used for :-

1. Group discussion by making groups in hotmail, yahoo, etc

2. Stay in touch with users attached in the group.
3. Transmitting documents through attachments
4. Group email to multiple users
5. Convineint way of sending job application.
6. Easy method of advertisement.
7. Receiving conformation of service.
8. Service subscription

Difference between DOS and Windows

DifferencesWindowsGUI-Programming

Both DOS and Windows are types of operating systems. DOS is a single-tasking, single-user and
CLI-based OS; whereas Windows is a multitasking, multiuser and GUI-based OS. Read this tutorial
to find out more about DOS and Windows and how these two operating systems are different from
each other.

What is DOS?
DOS (Disk Operating System) is a character-based operating system that was developed in the
1980s for IBM-compatible computers. DOS is one of the oldest and widely used computer operating
systems. It is a set of computer programs. DOS can perform major functions like file management,

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allocation of system resources, providing essential features to control hardware devices in a

computer system.
It is a command-line based system that allows users to enter commands to execute programs or
manipulate files.
Here is a list of some of the important characteristics of DOS (Disk Operating System) −
 DOS is a single user system.
 DOS is a command line interface operating system.
 DOS is machine independence.
 DOS provides command processing facilities.
 DOS operates with Assembler.
In DOS, commands can be typed in either upper case or lower case.

What is Windows?
Windows is a graphical operating system that was first released by Microsoft in 1985. It is a multi-
user, multi-tasking operating system that provides a graphical user interface (GUI) for users to
interact with the computer. Windows allows users to launch and use multiple programs at the same
time, and it supports a wide range of hardware and software.
The windows operating system is basically the extension of the disk operating system. Windows is
the most popular and simplest operating system because it makes use of graphics and colors to
create a screen for the user interaction with the computer system. The greatest advantage of the
Windows operating system is that it does not require any special training to use it.
The Windows operating system needs DOS to run various application programs initially. Because
of this reason, DOS should be installed into the computer memory first and then Windows can be
executed.
Here are some important characteristics of the Windows operating system −
 Windows is a Graphical User Interface based computer operating system.
 It uses icons (pictures, documents, application, program icons, etc.) for user interaction.
 Windows operating system has a taskbar.
 It has a start button as a main menu button.
 It supports pointing devices like mouse, joystick, touchpad, etc.
Difference between DOS and Windows
The following table highlights the major differences between DOS and Windows −

Key DOS Windows

DOS stands for Windows stands for Windows, no specific form.

Definition Disk Operating
System.

DOS is single- Windows is multi-tasking OS.

Tasking Nature
tasking OS.

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DOS consumes Windows consumes high power.

Power Consumption
quite low power.

DOS memory Windows memory requirements are quite high as compared to D

Memory consumption requirements
are quite low.

DOS has no Windows supports networking.

Networking support support for
networking.

DOS is complex Windows usages is user-friendly and is quite simple to use.

in usage. You
need to
Usage remember
commands to
use DOS
properly.

DOS is a CLI- Windows is a GUI-based OS.

User interface
based OS.

Multimedia is Windows supports multimedia likes games, videos, audios etc.

Multimedia not supported in
DOS.

DOS command Windows operations are slower as compared to DOS.

execution is
Speed
faster than
Windows.

DOS supports Windows supports multiple window at a time.

Multi window single window
at a time.

Conclusion
Both DOS and Windows are types of computer operating systems, but they are completely different
from each other in many aspects. The most significant difference between DOS and Windows is
that DOS is a single-user character-based (Command Line Interface) operating system, while
Windows is a multiuser, graphical user-interface based operating system.
In general, Windows is a more modern and user-friendly operating system than DOS. It is more
widely used today and supports a much wider range of programs and hardware than DOS.

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Chapter 4 - Transmission Media

Transmission Media:
• Transmission media are the physical infrastructure components that carry data from one computer to
another. They are at the basis of data communications. Example of simple forms of transmission media
are telephone wires that connect telephone wires that connect telephones to the central offices (i.e.
telephone exchanges), and coaxial cables that carry the cable television transmission to home.
• Transmission media can be divided into two main categories: Guided media and unguided media.

Selection Criteria:
1. Bandwidth: The greater bandwidth of the signal, the higher the data rate can be achieved.
2. Attenuation: Attenuation limit the distance (repeater spacing) for guided media. Twisted pair
generally suffer more impairment than co-axial cable.
3. Interference: In overlapping frequency bands from competing signals can distort or wipe out a signal.
This is an interference which is a problem for both guided and unguided media. For guided media
interference is caused by emissions from nearby cables. Since they are bounded together. Proper
shielding of guided media can minimize this problem.
4. Cost: Selection of transmission media can be depend upon cost factor. Select the media which provide
less initial, expansion, & maintenance cost.
5. Type: Depending on the type of application and geographical situation suitable transmission media is
chosen. For long distance point-to-point transmission guided media are suitable. For long distance
broadcasting transmission unguided media like microwave links are chosen.
6. Length: Media should be selected which can cover longer distance in terms of length.
7. Security: Chose the media which provide more security. Select the media which provide better
encryption for signal or data.
8. Ease of Installation: Select media which can be easily installed.
9. Speed: There are two different forms of speed which should be provided by transmission media.
Propagation speed: time to send first bit across the medium. Data transfer speed: the time to transmit
the remaining bits in the message. Media should be selected by these speed factors. Chose the media
which provides good propagation and data transfer speed.
10. Flexibility: Chose the media which provide flexibility with the respect of expandability, noiseless and
can be access easily.

Guided media:
• Guided media, which are those that provide a conduit from one device to another, include twisted-pair
cable, coaxial cable, and fiber-optic cable.
• A signal traveling along any of these media is directed and contained by the physical limits of the
medium.
Twisted-pair and coaxial cable use metallic (copper) conductors that accept and transport signals in
the form of electric current. Optical fiber is a cable that accepts and transports signals in the form of
light.

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1) Twisted Pair:
• A twisted pair consists of two conductors (normally copper), each with its own plastic insulation,
twisted together, as shown in Figure.

Figure 28 Twisted Pair Cable

• One of the wires is used to carry signals to the receiver, and the other is used only as a ground reference.
The receiver uses the difference between the two.
• In addition to the signal sent by the sender on one of the wires, interference (noise) and crosstalk may
affect both wires and create unwanted signals.
• Twisted pair can carry both analog and digital signals. Actually, they carry only analog signals.
However, the “analog” signals can very closely correspond to the square waves representing bits, so
we often think of them as carrying digital data.
• In twisted pair data rates of several Mbps. It spans distances of several kilometers.
• Data rate determined by wire thickness and length. In addition, shielding to eliminate interference
from other wires impacts signal-to-noise ratio, and ultimately, the data rate.
• There are two types of twisted pairs:
1. Shielded Twisted-Pair (STP)
2. Unshielded Twisted-Pair (UTP).

1. Unshielded Twisted-Pair (STP):

• UTP is a set of twisted pairs of cable within a plastic sheet. UTP is ordinary telephone wire. This is
the least expensive of all the transmission media commonly used for LAN, and is easy to work and
simple install.
• UTP is subject to external electromagnetic interface. Category 3 and Category 5 UTP are commonly
used in computer networks. UTP can transfer data at 1 to 100 mbps over a distance of 100 meters. The
difference between cat 3 and cat 5 is the number of twists in the cable per unit distance. Cat 5 is much
more tightly twisted.
• Figure shows UTP cable.

Figure 29 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)

• Characteristics of UTP:
1. Transmission rate of 10-100 Mbps.
2. UTP is less expensive than fiber optic cable and coaxial cable.
3. UTP cable is very flexible and easy to work.

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4. UTP uses RJ45 connector.

5. Most susceptible to electrical interface or cross talk.

Advantages:
1. UTP is easy to terminate.
2. Cost of installation is less.
3. High installed base.

Disadvantages:
1. It is very noisy.
2. It covers less distance.
3. UTP suffers from interference.

2. Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable:

• STP offers a protective sheathing around the copper wire. STP provides better performance at lower
data rates. They are not commonly used in networks.
• Figure shows STP cable.

Figure 30 Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)

• Installation of STP is easy. Special connectors are required for installation. Cost is moderately
expensive. Distance is limited to 100 meters to 500 meters. STP suffers from outside interference but
not as much UTP.

• Applications of Twisted Pair Cable:

1. Twisted pair cable used for both analog and digital signals.
2. Twisted pair cable are used in telephone network.
3. In LAN, twisted pair mainly use for low cost, low performance application.

Comparison of UTP and STP.

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2) Co-axial Cable:
• Coaxial cable (or coax) carries signals of higher frequency ranges than those in twisted pair cable, in
part because the two media are constructed quite differently.
• Instead of having two wires, coax has a central core conductor of solid or stranded wire (usually
copper) enclosed in an insulating sheath, which is, in turn, encased in an outer conductor of metal foil,
braid, or a combination of the two.
• The outer metallic wrapping serves both as a shield against noise and as the second conductor, which
completes the circuit. This outer conductor is also enclosed in an insulating sheath, and the whole
cable is protected by a plastic cover as shown in figure.

Figure 31 Co-axial cable

• Co-axial cable is used to transmit both analog and digital signals. Data transfer rate of co-axial cable
is used to transmit both analog and digital signals. Data transfer rate of co-axial cable is in between
twisted pair and fiber optic cable.
• Co-axial is relatively inexpensive. The cost for thin co-axial cable is less than STP. Thick co-axial is
more expensive than STP. Installation is relatively simple.
• A typical data rate for today’s co-axial network is 10 Mbps, although potential is higher. It suffers
from attenuation.

Characteristics of Co-axial Cable:

1. 10 Mbps is the transmission rate.
2. Maximum cable length for thinnet is 185 meters and for thicknet is 500 meters.
3. Flexible and easy to work with thinnet.
4. Ethernet designation to 10 base 2 (thinnet) or 10 base 5 (thicknet).
5. Less expensive than fiber optics but more expensive than twisted pair.
6. Good resistance to electrical interference.

Advantages:
1. Co-axial used for both data transmission i.e. analog and digital data transmission.
2. It has higher bandwidth.
3. Easy to handle and relatively inexpensive as compared to fiber optic cables.
4. It uses for longer distances at higher data rates.
5. Excellent noise immunity.

Disadvantages:
1. Distance is limited.
2. Number of node connection is limited.
3. Proper connectors and termination is must.

Applications of Co-axial Cable:

1. In analog and digital data transmission.
2. In telephone networks.

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3. In Ethernet LANs.
4. In cable television network.

3) Fiber Optic Cable (FOC):

• A fiber-optic cable is made of glass or plastic and transmits signals in the form of light.
• A fiber optic cable is a light pipe which is used to carry a light beam from one place to another.
• Light is an electromagnetic signal and can be modulated by information. Since the frequency of light
is extremely high it can accommodate wide bandwidth of information, also higher data rate can be
achieved with excellent reliability.
• The modulated light travel along the fiber and at the far end, are converted to an electrical signal by
means of a photo electric cell. Thus the original input signal is recovered at the far end. Figure shows
FOC.

• Fiber optic cables are similar to coax, except without the braid. Figure (a) shows a single fiber viewed
from the side. At the center is the glass core through which the light propagates. In multimode fibers,
the core is typically 50 microns in diameter, about the thickness of a human hair. In single-mode fibers,
the core is 8 to 10 microns. The core is surrounded by
a glass cladding with a lower index of refraction than the core, to keep all the light in the core. Next
comes a thin plastic jacket to protect the cladding. Fibers are typically grouped in bundles, protected
by an outer sheath. Figure (b) shows a sheath with three fibers.
• FOC transmit light signals rather than electrical signals. Each fiber has an inner core of glass or plastic
that conducts light. The inner core is surrounded by cladding, a layer of glass that reflects the light
back into core.
• A cable may contains a single fiber, but often fibers are bundled together in the centre of the cable.

Characteristics of fiber-optic cable:

1. Transmission rate of 100 Mbps.
2. Not affected by the electric interference.
3. Most expensive cable.
4. FOC support cable length of 2 km or more.
5. It supports voice, video and data.
6. It provides most secured media.
7. Commonly used as backbones between buildings and token ring networks.
8. Not very flexible, difficult to work.

Advantages:
1. Very high data rate, low error rate. 1000 Mbps (1 Gbps) over distances of kilometers common. Error
rates are so low they are almost negligible.

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2. Fiber cables are more secure than other cables. It is almost impossible to tap into a fiber cable as they
do not radiate signals.
3. Much thinner (per logical phone line) than existing copper circuits. Because of its thinness, phone
companies can replace thick copper wiring with fibers having much more capacity for same volume.
This is important because it means that aggregate phone capacity can be upgraded without the need
for finding more physical space to hire the new cables.
4. Not susceptible to electrical interference (lightning) or corrosion (rust).
5. Greater repeater distance than coax.
6. Fiber cables are light weight because they are made of silica glass or plastic which is much lighter than
copper or aluminum cables. Light weight fiber cables are cheaper to transport.

Disadvantages:
1. The initial installation or setting up cost is very high compared to all other systems.
2. The maintenance and repairing of fiber optic system is not only difficult but expensive also.
3. Difficult to tap. It really is point-to-point technology. In contrast, tapping into coax is trivial. No special
training or expensive tools or parts are required.
4. One-way channel. Two fibers needed to get full duplex (both ways) communication.

Comparison between guided media’s.

Unguided Media:
• Unguided media, also called as wireless communication, transport electromagnetic waves without
using a physical conductor.
• Unguided transmission is used when running a physical cable (either fiber or copper) between two end
points is not possible. For example, running wires between buildings is probably not legal if the
building is separated by a public street.
• The signals propagates through air (or sometimes water). Signals are normally broadcast through free
space and thus are available to anyone who has a device capable of receiving them.
• Figure 7.17 shows the part of the electromagnetic spectrum, ranging from 3 kHz to 900 THz, used for
wireless communication.

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Figure 32 Electromagnetic spectrum for wireless communication

• Unguided signals can travel from the source to destination in several ways: ground propagation, sky
propagation, and line-of-sight, space propagation as shown in figure.

Figure 33 Propagation methods

• In ground propagation, radio waves travel through the lowest portion of the atmosphere, hugging the
earth. These low-frequency signals emanate in all directions from the transmitting antenna and follow
the curvature of the planet. Distance depends on the amount of power in the signal: The greater the
power, the greater the distance.
• In sky propagation, higher-frequency radio waves radiate upward into the ionosphere (the layer of
atmosphere where particles exist as ions) where they are reflected back to earth. This type of
transmission allows for greater distances with lower output power.
• In line-or-sight propagation, very high-frequency signals are transmitted in straight lines directly from
antenna to antenna. Antennas must be directional, facing each other, and either tall enough or close
enough together not to be affected by the curvature of the earth. Line-of-sight propagation is tricky
because radio transmissions cannot be completely focused.
• The section of the electromagnetic spectrum defined as radio waves and microwaves is divided into
eight ranges, called bands, each regulated by government authorities. These bands are rated from very
low frequency ( VLF) to extremely high frequency (EHF ).
• Unguided transmission media is divided into three broad groups:
Microwave Communication, Radio wave Communication, and Satellite Communication.

1) Microwave Communication:
• Electromagnetic waves having frequencies between 1 and 300 GHz are called microwaves.
• Microwaves are unidirectional. When an antenna transmits microwave waves, they can be narrowly
focused. This means that the sending and receiving antennas need to be aligned. A pair of antennas
can be aligned without interfering with another pair of aligned antennas.
• Microwave signals travels only in one direction at a time. This means that for two-way communication
such as in telephony, two frequencies need to be allocated.

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• At both ends, a transceiver is used which is a combination of a transmitter and receiver operating at
the two respective frequencies. Therefore, only one antenna can serve both the functions and cover
both the frequencies.
• Figure shows microwave communication.

Figure 34 Microwave Communication

• Repeaters are used along with the antennas to enhance the signal.
• The data rates offered are 1 Mbps to 1 Gbps.

Characteristics of Microwave Communication:

1. Microwave is relatively inexpensive as compared to fiber optics system.
2. Microwave systems permit data transmission rates of about 16 Gbps. At such high frequencies,
microwave can carry 250,000 voice channels at the same time. They are mostly used to link big
metropolitan cities where have heavy telephone traffic between them.
3. Very high-frequency microwaves cannot come through walls. This characteristic can be a
disadvantage if receivers are inside buildings.
4. The microwave band is relatively wide, almost 299 GHz. Therefore wider sub bands can be assigned,
and a high data rate is possible.

Advantages:
1. Relatively inexpensive as compared to fiber optics cable.
2. Provides high data transmission rates of about 16 Gbps.

Disadvantages:
1. Very high-frequency microwaves cannot come through walls.

Applications:
1. Mobile telephone networks uses microwave communication.
2. Wireless LAN.
3. Point-to-point communication between stations.
4. Line of sight communication.

2. Radio wave Communication:

• Electromagnetic waves ranging in frequencies between 3 kHz and 1 GHz are normally called radio
waves.

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• Radio waves, for the most part, are omnidirectional. When an antenna transmits radio waves, they are
propagated in all directions. This means that the sending and receiving antennas do not have to be
aligned.
• A sending antenna sends waves that can be received by any receiving antenna. The radio waves
transmitted by one antenna are susceptible to interference by another antenna that may send signals
using the same frequency or band.
• Radio waves, particularly those waves that propagate in the sky mode, can travel long distances. This
makes radio waves a good candidate for longdistance broadcasting such as AM radio.
• Radio waves, particularly those of low and medium frequencies, can penetrate walls. This
characteristic can be both an advantage and a disadvantage. It is an advantage because, for example,
an AM radio can receive signals inside a building. It is a disadvantage because we cannot isolate a
communication to just inside or outside a building.
• The radio wave band is relatively narrow, just under 1 GHz, compared to the microwave band. When
this band is divided into sub bands, the sub bands are also narrow, leading to a low data rate for digital
communications.
• In the Very Low Frequency (VLF), Low Frequency (LF) and Middle Frequency ( MF) bands, radio
wave follows the ground, as illustrated in figure (a ).

• In the High Frequency (HF) and Very High Frequency (VHF) bands, radio wave bounce off the
ionosphere i.e. they follow sky propagation.
• Radio waves are used for multicast communications, such as radio and television, and paging systems.

Advantages of Radio Wave:

1. Radio waves are easy to generate.
2. They travel long distances.
3. They can come through buildings easily so they are widely used for communication both indoors and
outdoors.
4. Radio waves are omnidirectional, meaning that they travel in all directions from the source, so that the
transmitter and receiver do not have to be carefully aligned physically.

Disadvantages:
1. The properties of radio waves are frequency dependent. At low frequencies, radio waves pass through
obstacles well, but the power falls off sharply with distance from the source.
2. Low frequency and medium frequency range cannot be used for data transfer because of their very
small bandwidth.
3. Applications:
4. The omnidirectional characteristics of radio waves make them useful for multicasting, in which there
is one sender but many receivers. AM and FM radio, television, maritime radio, cordless phones, and
paging are examples of multicasting.

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3) Satellite Communication:
• Satellite communication is similar to the terrestrial microwave, except that the satellite acts as one of
the stations.
• Figure shows illustrate satellite communication.

Figure 35 Satellite Communication

• The satellite does the functions of an antenna and the repeater together. For instance figure illustrates,
ground station A can send the information to ground station B via the satellite.
• This, however, poses a problem. If the earth along with its ground stations is revolving and the satellite
is stationery, the sending and receiving earth stations and the satellite can be out of sync over time.
Therefore, normally
Geosynchronous Satellites are used, which move at the same Revolution Per Minute (RPM) as that
of the earth in the same direction, exactly like earth. Thus, both the earth and the satellite complete
one revolution exactly in the same time: the relative position of the ground station with respect to the
satellite never changes.
• Normally, Super High Frequency (SHF), which covers the frequency range of 3 Ghz to 30 Ghz, is
used for satellite communications.
• Two frequency bands are used for signals from the earth to the satellite called uplink, and from the
satellite to earth called downlink.
• There are three methods for communication using satellites. These three methods use principle that
are similar in concept to normal wired communication. Like the wired world, satellite communication
is also based on modulation techniques. Three primary modulation techniques used are: Frequency
Division Multiple Access (FDMA), Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) and Code Division
Multiple Access (CDMA).

Applications:
1. Television broadcasting.
2. Regional, national and international global communications.
3. Telephone and data circuits.
4. Mobile telephone services.
5. Private networks for corporations, government agencies.
6. Military applications.

Latest Technologies in Wireless Network:

1) Bluetooth:
• Bluetooth is a wireless LAN technology designed to connect devices of different functions such as
telephones, notebooks, computers (desktop and laptop), cameras, printers, coffee makers, and so on.
• A Bluetooth LAN is an ad hoc network, which means that the network is formed spontaneously; the
devices, sometimes called gadgets, find each other and make a network called a piconet.

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• A Bluetooth LAN can even be connected to the Internet if one of the gadgets has this capability.
• A Bluetooth LAN, by nature, cannot be large. They can cover up to range of 10 meters.
• Bluetooth technology is the implementation of a protocol defined by the IEEE 802.15 standard. The
standard defines a wireless personal-area network (PAN) operable in an area the size of a room or a
hall.

Advantages:
1. It is cheap.
2. Easy to install.
3. It makes connecting to different devices convenient.
4. It is free to use if the device is installed with it.

Disadvantages:
1. If installed on a cellphone it is possible to receiving cell phone viruses
2. It only allows short range communication between devices
3. It can only connect two devices at once
4. It can lose connection in certain conditions

Applications:
1. Peripheral devices such as a wireless mouse or keyboard can communicate with the computer through
this technology.
2. Monitoring devices can communicate with sensor devices in a small health care center.
3. Home security devices can use this technology to connect different sensors to the main security
controller.
4. Conference attendees can synchronize their laptop computers at a conference with the help of
Bluetooth.

2) Wi-Fi:
• Wi-Fi is a popular technology that allows an electronic device to exchange data or connect to the
internet wirelessly using radio waves.
• Wi-Fi is based on IEEE 802.11 standards.
• Many devices can use Wi-Fi, e.g. personal computers, video-game consoles, smartphones, some
digital cameras, tablet computers and digital audio players.
• These can connect to a network resource such as the Internet via a wireless network access point. Such
an access point (or hotspot) has a range of about 20 meters (65 feet) indoors and a greater range
outdoors. Hotspot coverage can comprise an area as small as a single room with walls that block radio
waves, or as large as many square miles achieved by using multiple overlapping access points.
• Wi-Fi can be less secure than wired connections (such as Ethernet) because an intruder does not need
a physical connection. Web pages that use SSL are secure but unencrypted internet access can easily
be detected by intruders. Because of this, Wi-Fi has adopted various encryption technologies such as
WEP, WPA, WPA2, etc.
• Wi-Fi networks have limited range. A typical wireless access point using 802.11 b or 802.11g with a
stock antenna might have a range of 35 m (120 ft) indoors and 100 m (300 ft) outdoors. IEEE 802.11n,
however, can more than double the range.
• Range also varies with frequency band. Wi-Fi in the 2.4 GHz frequency block has slightly better range
than Wi-Fi in the 5 GHz frequency block which is used by 802.11a and optionally by 802.11n.

Advantages:

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1. Convenience: The wireless nature of such networks allows users to access network resources from
nearly any convenient location within their primary networking environment (a home or office). With
the increasing saturation of laptop-style computers, this is particularly relevant.
2. Mobility: With the emergence of public wireless networks, users can access the internet even outside
their normal work environment. Most chain coffee shops, for example, offer their customers a wireless
connection to the internet at little or no cost.
3. Productivity: Users connected to a wireless network can maintain a nearly constant affiliation with
their desired network as they move from place to place. For a business, this implies that an employee
can potentially be more productive as his or her work can be accomplished from any convenient
location.
4. Deployment: Initial setup of an infrastructure-based wireless network requires little more than a single
access point. Wired networks, on the other hand, have the additional cost and complexity of actual
physical cables being run to numerous locations (which can even be impossible for hard-to-reach
locations within a building).
5. Expandability: Wireless networks can serve a suddenly-increased number of clients with the existing
equipment. In a wired network, additional clients would require additional wiring.
6. Cost: Wireless networking hardware is at worst a modest increase from wired counterparts. This
potentially increased cost is almost always more than outweighed by the savings in cost and labor
associated to running physical cables.

Disadvantages:
1. Security: To combat this consideration, wireless networks may choose to utilize some of the various
encryption technologies available. Some of the more commonly utilized encryption methods, however,
are known to have weaknesses that a dedicated adversary can compromise.
2. Range: The typical range of a common 802.11g network with standard equipment is on the order of
tens of meters. While sufficient for a typical home, it will be insufficient in a larger structure. To obtain
additional range, repeaters or additional access points will have to be purchased. Costs for these items
can add up quickly.
3. Reliability: Like any radio frequency transmission, wireless networking signals are subject to a wide
variety of interference, as well as complex propagation effects that are beyond the control of the
network administrator.
4. Speed: The speed on most wireless networks (typically 1-54 Mbps) is far slower than even the slowest
common wired networks (100Mbps up to several Gbps). However, in specialized environments, the
throughput of a wired network might be necessary
.

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