1. The English language abounds in synonyms.

How does this fact

characterize the language?

The richness of the English vocabulary and the wealth of available synonyms
means that English speakers can often draw shades of distinction unavailable
to non-English speakers. Modern English has an unusually large number of
synonyms or near-synonyms, mainly because of the influence of very
different language groups: Germanic (Anglo-Saxon and Old Norse, the main
basis of English), Romance languages (Latin, French), and Greek. There are
many sets of triplet synonyms from Anglo-Saxon/Latin/Greek and also
Anglo-Saxon/Norman French/Latin-Greek like cool-calm-collected and
foretell-predict-prophesy.

It is often said that what most immediately sets English apart from other
languages is the richness of its vocabulary. Webster’s Third New International
Dictionary lists 450,000 words, and the revised Oxford English Dictionary has
615,000, but that is only part of the total. Technical and scientific terms would
add millions more. Altogether, about 200,000 English words are in common
use, more than in German (184,000) and far more than in French (a mere
100,000). The richness of the English vocabulary, and the wealth of available
synonyms, means that English speakers can often draw shades of distinction
unavailable to non-English speakers. The French, for instance, cannot
distinguish between house and home, between mind and brain, between man
and gentleman, between “I wrote” and “I have written.” The Spanish cannot
differentiate a chairman from a president, and the Italians have no equivalent of
wishful thinking. English, as Charlton Laird has noted, is the only language that
has, or needs, books of synonyms like Roget’s Thesaurus. According to Bryson,
“for almost every word we have a multiplicity of synonyms”
 2. Define the terms Synonymy and Antonymy.

Lexical units may be classified by the criterion of semantic similarity and

semantic contrasts. The terms generally used to denote these two types of
semantic relatedness are synonymy and antonymy.

Synonymy relates to the topic of semantics, which concerns the study of

meaning in language. The term synonymy originates from the Greek words sún
and onoma, which mean with and name.

Thus, synonymy is the kind of semantic relations that implies the

coincidence in the essential meanings of linguistic elements, which usually
preserve their differences in connotations and stylistic characteristics.
Synonymy does not present a perfect type of a linguistic category. In human
languages equivalence of meaning is hardly ever observed because no two
words are absolutely identical in their meanings, connotations, ways of usage,
register features, or frequency of occurrence.

There are a great many definitions of the term “synonym”, but there is no
universally accepted one. Traditionally the synonyms are defined as words
different in sound-form, but identical or similar in meaning in some or all
contexts. The problem of synonymy is treated differently by Russian and
foreign scientists. Among numerous definitions of the term in our linguistics the
most comprehensive and full one is suggested by I.V. Arnold: "Synonyms are
two or more words of the same meaning, belonging to the same part of speech,
possessing one or more identical meaning, interchangeable at least in some
contexts without any considerable alteration in denotational meaning, but
differing in morphemic composition, phonemic shape, shades of meaning,
connotation, affective value, style, emotional coloring and valence peculiar to
one of the elements in a synonymic group".
 The term antonymy in semantics derives from the Greek words anti and
onym, which mean opposite and name.

The term “antonymy” was coined in 1867 by C.J.Smith as the opposite of

“synonymy”. Since 1867, many attempts have been made to define antonymy,
with the caveat that definitions of antonymy tend towards illustration rather than
description.

Not so many years ago antonymy was not universally accepted as a

linguistic problem, and the opposition within antonymic pairs was regarded as
purely logical and finding no reflection in the semantic structures of words. The
contrast between heat and cold or big and small, said most scholars, is the
contrast of things opposed by their very nature.

Antonymy is not evenly distributed among the categories of parts of

speech. Most antonyms are adjectives because qualitative characteristics are
easily compared and contrasted: high – low, wide – narrow, strong – weak, old
– young. Verbal pairs of antonyms are fewer in number: to lose – to find, to live
– to die, to open – to close. Nouns are not rich in antonyms: friend – enemy,
joy – grief, good – evil, frost – heat. Antonymic adverbs can be a) adverbs
derived from adjectives: warmly – coldly, merrily – sadly; b) adverbs proper:
now – then, here – there, ever – never, in – out.

Antonyms may be defined as two or more words of the same language

belonging to the same part of speech and to the same semantic field, identical in
style and nearly identical in distribution, associated and often used together so
that their denotative meanings render contradictory or contrary notions.

Cf. in “Romeo and Juliet” (Act I, Scene V):

My only love sprung from my only hate!

Too early seen unknown, and known too late!

As we see, the pathetic expressiveness of these lines is achieved by

contrast, based on such pairs as love – hate, early – late, unknown – known. The
opposition is obvious: each component of these pairs means the opposite of the
other. Such pairs may be termed antonymic pairs.

Unlike synonyms, antonyms do not differ either in style, emotional

colouring or distribution. They are interchangeable at least in some contexts.
The result of this interchange may be of different kind depending on the
conditions of context. There will be, for instance, no change of meaning if ill
and well change places within the sentence in the following: But whether he
treated it ill or well, it loved nothing so much as to be near him (Wells). Or a
whole sentence receives an opposite meaning when a word is replaced by its
antonym, although it differs from its prototype in this one word only: You may
feel he is clever : : You may feel he is foolish.

Together with synonyms, antonyms represent the language’s important

expressive means. Authors use antonyms as a stylistic device of contrast.

3. Speak about the classification of synonyms.

1) If the difference in the meaning of synonyms concerns the notion or

the emotion expressed, the synonyms are classed as ideographic synonyms. In
other words, ideographic synonyms denote different shades of meaning or
different degrees of a given quality. They are nearly identical in one or more
denotational meanings and interchangeable at least in some contexts, e.g.:

beautiful – fine – handsome – pretty,

different – various,

idle – lazy – indolent,

large – great – huge – tremendous – colossal,

silent – tacit,

strange – odd – queer,

to shake – to tremble – to shiver – to shudder – to quiver – to quake.

Ideographic synonyms are not homogeneous. They can be subdivided

into several groups, according to their denotational and connotational meanings
(synonyms which are very close in their meaning (horrible – terrible, answer –
reply), synonyms which differ in their meaning considerably (journey, travel,
voyage, trip), synonyms which differ in the volume of the notion they denote
smell – scent, frontier – border), synonyms which differ in the connotation of
manner of the action (to look – to gaze – to glare – to stare – to peep – to
glance – to peer), synonyms which differ in the degree or intensity of the action
(to ask – to beg – to beseech – to implore, to like – to love – to admire – to
adore – to worship), synonyms which differ in the degree of some quality (big –
huge – enormous), synonyms, the distinctive feature of which is based on the
time, duration and quickness of the action (look – glance – glimpse).

Thus, synonyms of this kind are very numerous in the English language.
In such synonyms we can easily find the general and the particular
 2) Stylistic synonyms are synonymically correlated words which differ
not so much in meaning as in emotive value and stylistic sphere of application.
Thus, pictorial language often uses poetic words as stylistic alternatives of
neutral ones, e.g.: nouns: maid for girl, ire for anger, woe for sorrow, bliss for
happiness, eve for evening, morn for morning, thrall for distress, steed for
horse; adjectives: lone for lonely, forlorn for distressed, jocund for merry, mute
for silent; verbs: quit for leave, quoth for said, vanquish for conquer, hieor
speed for hasten, smite for hit or strike; adverbs: haply for perhaps, full for
very, etc.

The differentiation of emotional colouring makes itself evident in the

following archaic words which are stylistic synonyms, too:

oft – often,

belike – probably, possibly,

enow – enough,

aloft – high,

save – except, besides,

woe – affliction, grief,

mere – pond, lake.

They also show the attitude of the speaker towards the event, object or
process described: to die – to depart, to expire – to kick the bucket.

Stylistic synonyms can also appear by means of abbreviation. In most

cases the abbreviated form belongs to the colloquial style, and the full form to
the neutral style, e.g. examination – exam.

Among stylistic synonyms authors point out special groups of words

which are called euphemismsˈjuːfəmɪz(ə)m in which by a shift of meaning a
word of more or less pleasant or at least inoffensive connotation substitutes one
that is harsh, obscene, indelicate or otherwise unpleasant (e.g. the late instead of
dead, to perspire instead of to sweat etc.).

3) Absolute synonyms are words coinciding in all their shades of

meaning and in all their stylistic characteristics. Absolute synonyms are very
rare in the language. They are mostly different names for one and the same
plant, animal, disease etc and in special literature among terms peculiar to this
or that branch of knowledge, e.g. in linguistics, noun and substantive, functional
affix, flection and inflection, composition and compounding; in medicine:
epidermis – scarf-skin, haemorrhage – bleeding, trachea – wind-pipe, scarlet
fever - scarlatina; among names of tools, instruments, machines, technological
processes: basement – foundation, engine – motor – prime mover, fan –
ventilator, knife – cutter, oil – petrol, plane – aircraft. Some absolute synonyms
appeared due to geographical divergence: lorry – truck, tin – can, railway –
railroad, pavement – sidewalk, etc.

In the course of time absolute synonyms come to have either a different

shade of meaning or different usage. If two words exactly coincide in meaning
and use the natural tendency is for one of them to change its meaning or drop
out of the language

1) Contextual synonyms are similar in meaning only under some

specific distributional conditions. The verbs to bear, to suffer and stand are
semantically different and not interchangeable except when used in the negative
form, but adjectives tasteless, active and curious can be replaced by dull,
curious and responsive, respectively. E.g. : in sentences “I’ll go to the shop and
buy some bread” and “I’ll go to the shop and get some bread” verbs buy and
get are interchangeable.

2) Phraseological synonyms have the same meaning in certain

collocations and another in others: piece as a fragment or part separated from
the whole (e.g. a lump of sugar, a chunk of meat, a morsel of bread, a slice of
cheese), small quantity (a grain of rice, a crumb of bread, a blade of grass, a
speck of dirt, a fragment of a vase, a glimmer of hope, a shred of evidence, a
drop of whiskey\ raindrops, a breath of fresh air, a scrap of paper, a dash of
milk).

3) Synonymic pairs like wear and tear, pick and choose, with might and
mane, rack and ruin, safe and sound, time and again, hand and glove are very
numerous in modern English phraseology and often used both in everyday
speech and in literature. They show all the typical features of idiomatic phrases
that ensure their memorableness such as rhythm, alliteration, rhyme and the use
of archaic words seldom occurring elsewhere.

4.What are the distinctive features of the synonymic dominant?

The synonymic dominant is the most general word of the group possessing the
specific features characteristic of a given group of synonyms:

e.g. to shout : to scream, to shriek, to yell, to bellow, to roar

to shine: to glitter, to glimmer, to shimmer, to glisten, to gleam, to sparkle

piece : slice, lump, morsel, chunk

red : scarlet, carmine, ruby, vermilion, crimson

Characteristic features of synonymic dominant:

• high frequency of usage;

• broad combinability; ability to be used in combination with other words;

• broad general meaning;

• lack of connotation.

5.Speak about euphemisms, their specific characteristics, types and

function. What are the etymological roots of euphemisms?

A source of synonymy also well worthy of note is the so-called euphemism in

which by a shift of meaning a word of more or less 'pleasant or at least
inoffensive connotation becomes synonymous to one that is harsh, obscene,
indelicate or otherwise unpleasant.
The euphemistic expression merry fully coincides in denotation with the word it
substitutes, but the connotations of the latter fade out and so the utterance on the
whole is milder, less offensive.
The effect is achieved, because the periphrastic expression is not so harsh,
sometimes jocular and usually motivated according to some secondary feature
of the notion:
e.g. naked : : in one's birthday suit, pregnant : : in the family way.

Very often a learned word which sounds less familiar is therefore

less offensive, as in drunkenness : : intoxication; sweat : : perspiration.
Euphemisms can also be treated within the synchronic approach, because both
expressions, the euphemistic and the direct one, co-exist in the language and
form a synonymic opposition.
English have a definite set of notions attracting euphemistic circumlocutions.
These are notions of death, madness, stupidity, drunkenness, certain
physiological processes, crimes and so on.
For example: die : be no more : : be gone : : lose one's life : : breathe one's
last : : join the silent majority : : go the way of all flesh : : pass away : : be
gathered to one's fathers.
Political euphemisms mask the true meaning of phenomena thus politicians are
able to manipulate public opinion to serve the political interest of the dominant
class.
e.g. the government has a credibility problem, genocide – ethnic cleansing,
price liberalization instead of price increases, sequestration instead of
reduction.
A prominent source of synonymic attraction is still furnished by interjections
and swearing addressed to God. To make use of God's name is considered
sinful by the Church and yet the word, being expressive, formed the basis of
many interjections.
Later the word God was substituted by the phonetically similar word goodness:
For goodness sake !Goodness gracious! Goodness knows!
С f. By Jovel Good Lord\ By Gum\
As in:
His father made a fearful row.
He said: "By Gum, you've done it now." (Belloc)
A certain similarity can be observed in the many names for the devil (deuce,
Old Nick). The point may be illustrated by an example from Burns's "Address to
the Devil":
O thou! Whatever title suit thee, Auld Hornie, Satan, Nick, or Clootie …

Euphemisms always tend to be a source of new synonymic formations, because

after a short period of use the new term becomes so closely connected with the
notion that it turns into a word as obnoxious as the earlier synonym.

Etymology:
Eupheme is a reference to the female Greek spirit of words of praise and
positivity, etc. The term euphemism itself was used as an euphemism by the
ancient Greeks; with the meaning "to keep a holy silence" (speaking well by not
speaking at all).
All the ancients, but most of all the Athenians, were careful not to use ill-
omened words; so they called the prison 'the chamber,' and the executioner 'the
public man,' and the Furies (Erinyes) they called 'Eumenides' ('the kindly ones')
or 'the Venerable Goddesses.'

6. Dwell on antonyms, their types.

Antonyms (Gr. anti – against, onyma – name) are words which are different in
sound form and characterized by semantic polarity of their denotative
meanings.

In most cases antonyms go in pairs or express binary opposition:

strong : weak

young : old

life : death

male : female

polite : impolite

helpful: helpless

Classification of Antonyms

Morphological classification:

- absolute(root): Root words form absolute antonyms: right:wrong, slow:

quick
- derivational: Negative affixes form derivational antonyms:
happy:unhappy, useful:useless, legal: illegal

Semantic classification:

- proper: Proper antonyms denote the semantic polarity.

They always imply comparison: large : little, small; strong : weak, good :
bad
 Proper antonyms are gradable: old:middle-aged:young;
hot:warm:cool:cold.

- conversives: Conversives (relational opposites) denote one and the same

referent or situation as viewed from different points of view: buy:sell;
left:right; give:receive; lend:borrow; above:below; parent : child
- complementaries: Complementaries (expressing contradictory notions):
male: female; alive: dead; prose:poetry

Antonyms are common in proverbs:

A good beginning makes a good ending.

Better a witty fool than a foolish wit.

Drunkenness reveals what soberness conceals.

Hasty love is soon hot and soon cold.

The use of antonyms is common in the antithesis in literary prose and poetry:

7. What is the role of context in the choice of synonyms and antonyms?

The role of context in the choice of synonyms

The role of synonymic rows in the linguistic representation of the concept at the
lexical level is very significant, and in some cases predominant. The synonymic
rows play an extremely important role in the structure of the concept. Moreover,
the inclusion of synonyms in the concept structure made it possible to identify
such dominant features of synonyms as evaluative, emotional, cognitive-
conceptual and cultural significance, as well as national-cultural specificity.
When selecting synonyms for synonymic rows, it should be paid to their
stylistic features.

If there is more than one word in the synonymic row to represent a single
concept, then the most appropriate alternative is chosen to the context. For
example, it is a linguistic principle to take the word person as a legal term from
the synonymic row: human, man, person. Because in this synonymic row the
word person is more official than others. If we use this word in the context of
collective terms, such as person affected, person aided and abetted, person
already imprisoned, official person, juridical person, you can see the nature of
formalism. It is completely wrong to replace this word with other options.

In order to achieve the accuracy of the speech, it is necessary to use the

appropriate terms and words that are combined expressive words from the
lexical layer of the language, which is rich in different forms to understand the
meaning of the words.

All professions must follow the correct use of synonyms in their work. For
example, misinterpretation of one word in the law sources does not merely
change the content of a sentence, but can also change the type of penalties. For
instance, the meaning of terms that describe legal concepts such as plunder and
robbery, fraud and trickster are very close in meaning. Changing their role in
the legal language causes methodological errors. Each of the foregoing
synonyms is equally meaningful in the Criminal Code, each of which denotes a
separate crime. Plunder, pillage is an offense that is threatened by life or health,
or threatened by force in order exploitation of another's property. Robbery,
spoliation is an open-air expropriation of others. Fraud, cheating - fraudulently
disclosure of information which is to be kept secret for the victim, or a copy of
something that is meant to look like the real thing in order to trick people Fraud
– the crime of using dishonest methods to take something valuable from another
person. As can be seen from these examples, misunderstanding the true
meaning of synonyms can cause not only undermine the accuracy of speech but
also creates inaccuracies in punishing.
The role of context in the choice of antonyms

Antonyms are subdivided into:

Linguistic (usual) - antonyms that exist in the language system (rich - poor, loud
- quiet, day-night).

Contextual (speech) are words that enter into antonymous relations only in a
certain context. Some words can enter into antonymic relations only in a certain
context, not being linguistic antonyms, not being recognized as words with the
opposite meaning outside this context. Such antonyms are called contextual, for
example: And we hate and we love by chance, / Without sacrificing anything to
either anger or love. / And some kind of secret cold reigns in the soul, / When
the fire boils in the blood (Lerm.); the underlined words outside the given
context are not antonyms: the word love has the antonym hate, the word heat
has the antonym cold; the words hate and love from the first cited line are
linguistic antonyms. The writer can identify opposite qualities in various
concepts and, on this basis, contrast them in speech, for example: not a mother,
but a daughter; sunlight - moonlight; one year is the whole life. However, the
words that name such concepts are not antonyms, since their opposition is not
reproduced in the language, it is occasional.

8. Read the messages and comment on them.

A. The more developed the language, the richer the diversity and therefore
the greater the possibilities of lexical choice enhancing the effectiveness and
precision of speech.

I. Arnold

The message highlights the relationship between language development,

diversity, and the richness of vocabulary. It suggests that as a language evolves
and expands, it provides more options for choosing words, which can enhance
the effectiveness and precision of communication. This observation aligns with
the notion that a robust lexicon allows for nuanced expression and enables
speakers to convey their thoughts more precisely. The message appears to be
from someone named Arnold.

B. English retains probably the richest vocabulary and most diverse shading
of meanings of any language... For almost every word we have a multiplicity
of synonyms.

Bill Bryson

This message emphasizes the richness and diversity of the English language,
suggesting that it possesses a wide range of vocabulary and nuanced meanings.
The mention of having multiple synonyms for almost every word reinforces the
idea that English offers numerous options for expressing concepts and ideas.
The message is attributed to Bill Bryson, who likely recognizes the extensive
lexicon and variety of shades of meaning present in the English language.

PRACTICAL PART
Exercise 1. See the difference between absolute and ideographic synonyms.
Pick out the synonymic dominant.

Look – glance – glimpse – gaze – stare – glare – eye – scan – peep – peer –
scrutinize – examine – view – observe. Foreword – preface. Wind-screen –
wind-shield. Shine – glimmer – glitter – flash. Gift – present. Choose – select –
pick out. Lavatory – WC. Ask – beg – plead – implore – entreat. Love – adore –
worship. Dislike – hate – detest – loathe. Die – starve. Ring – chime – toll.
Blanket – quilt. Shake – tremble – shiver – shudder – flutter – quake. Shape –
form. Aim – goal – purpose. Motherland – Fatherland.

Look – glance – glimpse – gaze – stare – glare – eye – scan – peep – peer –
scrutinize – examine – view – observe.

These are ideographic synonyms.

the synonymic dominant – to look

to look - to direct your eyes in order to see

to glance - to give a quick short look

to glimpse - to see something or someone for a very short time or only partly

to gaze - to look at something or someone for a long time, especially in surprise

or admiration, or because you are thinking about something else

to stare - to look for a long time with the eyes wide open, especially when
surprised, frightened, or thinking

to glare - to look directly and continuously at someone or something in an angry

way
to eye - to look at someone or something with interest

to scan - to look at something carefully, with the eyes or with a machine, in

order to get information

to peep – to secretly look at something for a short time, usually through a hole

to peer - to look carefully or with difficulty

to scrutinize - to examine something very carefully in order to discover

information

to examine - to look at or consider a person or thing carefully and in detail in

order to discover something about them

to view - to look at something in a complete or careful way

to observe - to watch carefully the way something happens or the way someone
does something, especially in order to learn more about it.

Foreword – preface

Ideographic synonyms.

the synonymic dominant - foreword

Foreword - a short piece of writing at the beginning of a book, sometimes praise

by a famous person or someone who is not the writer

preface - an introduction at the beginning of a book explaining its purpose,

thanking people who helped the author, etc.

Wind-screen – wind-shield.

Absolute synonyms

Wind-screen - the window at the front of a car, truck, etc

Wind-shield - the window at the front of a car, truck, etc

Shine – glimmer – glitter – flash.

Ideographic synonyms.
the synonymic dominant - Shine

Shine - to send out or reflect light

glimmer - to shine with a weak light or a light that is not continuous

glitter - to produce a lot of small, bright flashes of reflected light

flash - to shine brightly and suddenly, or to make something shine in this way

Gift – present

Absolute synonyms

Gift - a present or something that is given or something that you give to

someone, usually on a special day

present - something that you are given, without asking for it, on a special
occasion, especially to show friendship, or to say thank you

Choose – select – pick out

Ideographic synonyms.

the synonymic dominant – Choose

Choose - to decide what you want from two or more things or possibilities

select - to choose a small number of things, or to choose by making careful

decisions

pick out - to recognize, find, or make a choice among different people or things
in a group

Lavatory – WC

Absolute synonyms

Lavatory - a toilet or a room equipped with a toilet and sink

WC - abbreviation for water closet: a toilet, or a room containing a toilet

Ask – beg – plead – implore – entreat

Ideographic synonyms.

the synonymic dominant – Ask

Ask - to put a question to someone, or to request an answer from someone

beg - to make a very strong and urgent request or ask somebody for something
especially in an anxious way because you want or need it very much

plead - to make an urgent, emotional statement or request for something or ask

somebody for something in a very strong and serious way

implore - to ask someone to do or not do something in a very sincere,

emotional, and determined way

entreat - to try very hard to persuade someone to do something

Love – adore – worship.

Ideographic synonyms.

the synonymic dominant – love

Love – to like something very much or to like another adult very much and be
romantically and sexually attracted to them, or to have strong feelings of
liking a friend or person in your family

adore – to love someone very much, especially in a way that shows a lot of
admiration or respect, or to like something very much

worship – to have or show a strong feeling of respect and admiration for

God or a god

Dislike – hate – detest – loathe

Ideographic synonyms.

the synonymic dominant – Dislike

Dislike – to not like someone or something

hate – to dislike someone or something very much

detest – to hate; dislike extremely

loathe – to feel strong hate, dislike, or disgust for someone or something

Die – starve

Ideographic synonyms.

the synonymic dominant – Die

Die - to stop being alive, either suddenly or slowly

starve - to (cause someone to) become very weak or die because there is
not enough food to eat

Ring – chime – toll.

Ideographic synonyms.

the synonymic dominant – Ring

Ring – to (cause to) make the sound of a bell

chime – (of bells) to make a clear ringing sound

toll – to (cause a large bell to) ring slowly and repeatedly

Blanket – quilt

Ideographic synonyms.

the synonymic dominant – Blanket

Blanket – a flat cover made of wool or similar warm material, usually used on a
bed or a cloth cover used to keep warm, esp. on a bed

quilt – a decorative cover for a bed or a covering for a bed, made of two layers
of cloth with a layer of soft filling between them, and stitched in lines or
patterns through all the layers
Shake – tremble – shiver – shudder – flutter – quake.

Ideographic synonyms.

the synonymic dominant – Shake

Shake – to move backwards and forwards or up and down in quick, short

movements, or to make something or someone do this

tremble – to shake slightly in a way that you cannot control, for example
because you are frightened, angry, or excited, or because of illness

shiver – When people or animals shiver, they shake slightly because they
feel cold, ill, or frightened

shudder – to shake suddenly with very small movements because of a very

unpleasant thought or feeling

flutter – to make a series of quick delicate movements up and down or from

side to side, or to cause something to do this

quake – to shake because you are very frightened or find something very
funny, or to feel or show great fear

Shape – form

Absolute synonyms.

the synonymic dominant – Shape

Shape – the particular physical form or appearance of something or the

form of the outer edges or surfaces of something; an example of
something that has a particular form

form – a type of something, the shape, appearance of something or variety

of something

Aim – goal – purpose

Ideographic synonyms

Aim – a result that your plans or actions are intended to achieve, something
that you plan or hope to achieve
goal - a purpose, or something that you want to achieve

purpose – the intention, aim or function of something; the thing that

something is supposed to achieve

Motherland – Fatherland.

Absolute synonyms

Motherland – the country in which you were born, or the country with which
you feel most connected

Fatherland – the country in which you were born, or the country with which
you feel most connected

Exercise 2. The following words represent small pieces of something. Put

each in its correct place. Decide what type of synonyms they are.

Grain, crumb, fragment, blade, dot.

1. 1. His views are dangerous and extreme, and yes etymological.

to row – a row. The homonyms are partial, homographs; lexico-grammatical

there is a grain of truth in what he says. (Скоріш за все речення повинно
виглядати так: “His views are dangerous and extreme, and yet there is a
grain of truth in what he says”). Here a grain of truth is an ideographic
synonym.

2. We watched the ship as it sailed away until it was just a dot. Here a dot is an
ideographic synonym.

3. Archeologists are examining a fragment of a vase which they think is over

5000 years old. Here a fragment (of a vase) is an ideographic synonym.

4. The desert stretched for miles. Nothing green. Not a single blade of grass.
Here a blade (of grass) is an ideographic synonym.

5. They were so hungry they ate the whole loaf of bread without letting a single
crumb fall to the ground. Here a crumb is an ideographic synonym.

Exercise 3. State the type of the synonyms.

Hand and glove – synonymic pair (It means “in close cooperation”).

give and take – synonymic pair (It means “the willingness to accept some of
another person's ideas and give up some of your own”).
safe and sound – synonymic pair (It means “not hurt or damaged”).

shame and disgrace – synonymic pair (shame – an uncomfortable feeling of

guilt or of being ashamed because of your own or someone else's bad behavior,
while disgrace – embarrassment and the loss of other people's respect, or
behaviour that causes this).

time and again – synonymic pair (It means “very often”).

once and forever – synonymic pair (It means “completely and finally”).

one and all – synonymic pair (It means “everyone”).

kith and kin – synonymic pair (It means “people you are connected with,
especially by family relationships”).

hale and hearty – synonymic pair (It means “healthy and strong (esp. of old
people)”).

head and shoulders – synonymic pair (It means “without good reason or
excuse, by force, violently; beyond comparison, by far”).

Exercise 4. Decide in what sphere of life the euphemisms can be used.

War – conflict - military euphemism, political correctness

crisis – recession( a period when the economy of a country is not successful and
conditions for business are bad) - economics

famine – undernourishment ( the condition of not eating enough food to

continue to be in good health) political correctness

genocide – ethnic cleansing (the organized, often violent attempt by a particular

cultural or racial group to completely remove from a country or area all
members of a different group) political correctness

garbage man – sanitation engineer - a social euphemism

bomb – device - a military euphemism

slums – inner city ( majority-minority lower-income residential districts) social

euphemism

negroes – colored people – Afro-Americans - race euphemism, social/political

correctness (the replacement of "colored people" with "Negro" (euphemism by
foreign language), which itself came to be replaced by either "African
American" or "Black")
killed people – casualties (a person injured or killed in a serious accident or
war) political correctness

war action – operation -a military euphemism

drunk – intoxicated;

vomit – bring up

pregnant – gone with child – an expectant mother - cultural/ social

euphemisms

sweat – perspire – glow( ‘horses sweat, men perspire, but ladies merely glow’)
social euphemisms.

lavatory – restroom – ladies’ room – the gents – men's room – powder room –
toilet – loo - social euphemisms

Toilet is an 18th-century euphemism, replacing the older euphemism house-of-

office, which in turn replaced the even older euphemisms privy-house and bog-
house. In the 20th century, where the old euphemisms lavatory (a place where
one washes) or toilet (a place where one dresses[20]) had grown from widespread
usage to being synonymous with the crude act they sought to deflect, they were
sometimes replaced with bathroom (a place where one bathes), washroom (a
place where one washes), or restroom (a place where one rests) or even by the
extreme form powder room (a place where one applies facial cosmetics). The
form water closet, which in turn became euphemised to W.C., is a less
deflective form

die – pass away – join (the silent) majority – kick the bucket – turn one's toes to
daisies – go the way of all flesh – breath once last; cultural/ superstitions taboos

the government has a credibility problem - economics, political correctness

Exercise 5. Consider the difference in the use of stylistic synonyms.

1)Event–an activity that is planned for a special purpose and usually involves a
lot of people, for example, a meeting, party, trade show, or conference.

e.g. The marketing team is organizing an event for their new product launch.

happening – a happening place is extremely fashionable and exciting; a

performance, event, or situation art, usually as performance art.

e.g. a happening neighborhood

2) swift– moving or capable of moving with great speed or velocity; cleet,
rapid.

The police took swift action against the rioters.

quick- done, proceeding, or occurring with promptness or rapidity, as an action,

process, etc.; prompt; immediate.

3)immense –extremely large, great in size or degree ( can be used with abstract
notions)

He inherited an immense fortune.

big– neutral - is used to identify how bulky or heavy a thing is

Could I try these shoes in a bigger size?

I had a great big slice of chocolate cake for dessert.

4) valorous – suggests illustrious bravery and sometimes has an archaic or

romantic ring.

She will receive the Bronze Star Medal for exceptionally valorous actions while
under enemy fire.

bold– typically indicates a forward or defiant tendency to thrust oneself into

dangerous situations.

She was a bold and fearless climber.

5) to woo – colloquial -to try to persuade that person that you are a good person
to marry(свататься)

e.g.He was reminded of his youth when he went wooing.

to court –elevated - to have a romantic relationship with someone that you hope
to marry.

e.g.They courted for two years before getting married.

court is to invite by attractions; to allure; to attract while woo is (often of a

man) To try to persuade someone to marry oneself; to solicit in love.

to spoon–(of two people) to lie with their bodies against each other, facing the
same direction; to lie against someone with your body facing in the same
direction as theirs:
e.g."I saw them spooning on the beach," she added, rather wistfully.

6) visage – elevated- the human face or facial features

face – neutral - the front of the head, where the eyes, nose, and mouth are

mug- colloquial, slang term for ‘face’ (Mug can be traced back to the 18th
century and may, come from drinking mugs painted with or shaped like
grotesque faces. So, you wouldn't really call a beautiful or pleasant face a mug)

7)peruse – elevated- to read through something, especially in order to find the

part you are interested in.

e.g. He opened a newspaper and began to peruse the personal ads.

read –neutral, to look at words or symbols and understand what they mean.

e.g. I read about the family's success in the local paper.

8)struggle – Struggle is usually used to show that someone is making an

attempt to get away from some type of restraint or violence.

e.g. "The dog struggled against his leash"

fight –is a much stronger word than "struggle" which generally means two
opponents who at the end of the fight are titled a victor and loser or when two
or more parties are fighting against each other.

e.g. a fight against fear

9) partake – elevated - to take a portion or take some; specif., to eat or drink

something, esp. in company with others.

e.g.Would you care to partake of a little wine with us?

eat – neutral -to eat only

e.g. We usually eat (= have a meal) at about seven o'clock.

10)parent – elevated - A parent raises a child, rears it, takes care of it.

father – neutral -is a biological title. Any male parent is technically a father.
 dad – colloquial - informal name to describe a father. However, in the context,
these terms have difference: the title of dad is earned through hard work —
nurturing, bonding with, and supporting your child for the long haul.

e.g. “Any man can be a father, but it takes someone special to be a dad.”

11) infant – elevated- is a subset of baby and goes up to around 3. In the UK,
babies are also infants but they stop being infants when they can walk on their
own.

child – neutral - is the generic catch-all term for any young person below adult
age. It is the preferred term in law especially when discussing matters in relation
to the family or the parent.

kid – colloquial - is a more informal word for child.

Exercise 6. Find synonymous words in the sentences below and decide upon
the type of synonyms.

1. Sebastian has left, has bequeathed!

leave - bequeath: Ideographic synonyms, synonymic dominant is leave

leave - to go away from someone or something, for a short time or

permanently

bequeath /bɪˈkwiːð/ - to leave your possessions to another person after you die.

2. I drifted back slowly into the pleasant void of sleep where there weren't any
aсhes of pains.

ache- a continuous or prolonged dull pain in a part of one's body.

pain - physical suffering or discomfort caused by illness or injury

3. They were really furnished apartments but the lady always referred to them as
a flat.

apartments (1. a set of large rooms with expensive furniture and decoration in,
for example, a public building or castle 2. a set of rooms for living in, especially
on one floor of a building)

flat (a set of rooms for living in that are part of a larger building and are usually
all on one floor) :

1. stylistic synonyms, apartments are elevated, flat is neutral.

 2. absolute synonyms, but apartment is an American variant and flat is
British.

4. He was a gay, merry man.

gay - (merry) man: Ideographic synonyms, synonymic dominant is man ?

5. She was not inconveniently handsome, but she was certainly a comely
woman.

handsome - comely: stylistic synonyms because the first is neutral, the second
is elevated (comely is a literary and old-fashioned word).

handsome - A handsome woman is attractive in a strong way:

comely - A comely woman is attractive in appearance.

6. He went into his bedroom and looked around it. It was neat and tidy.

neat and tidy: a synonymic pair and absolute synonyms

neat - tidy, with everything in its place.

tidy - having everything ordered and arranged in the right place, or liking to
keep things like this.

7. Her affairs were no business of mine.

affair (a situation or subject that is being dealt with or considered) - business (a

situation or activity, often one that you are giving your opinion about):
Ideographic synonyms, synonymic dominant is affair

8. The more you looked at the woman, the more enormous she seemed from the
huge head, the great shoulders, thick as an ordinary body to the vast hips.

enormous - huge, great, thick, vast: Ideographic synonyms, synonymic

dominant is enormous or huge ?

9. Every time you attempt it your vocal cords fail, fall short, are insufficient,
wanting, deficient.

insufficient - deficient: Absolute synonyms

insufficient - not enough:

deficient - not good enough:

fail, fall short-contextual syn.

10. I am suffering from extreme fatigue, weariness, lassitude, exhaustion,
prostration and languor.

exhaustion - weariness, lassitude, fatigue, prostration, languor: Ideographic

synonyms, synonymic dominant is exhaustion.

exhaustion - the state of being extremely tired

weariness - great tiredness

lassitude - physical or mental tiredness

fatigue - extreme tiredness

prostration - the state of having no strength or ability to do anything, for

example because you are very ill, very tired, or very upset

languor - pleasant mental or physical tiredness or lack of activity

11. Susan, I love you. Will you be my wife, married woman, matron, help-mate,
partner or better half?

wife - married woman, matron, help-mate, partner, better half: Ideographic

synonyms, synonymic dominant is married woman or wife.

wife - the woman that you are married to,

matron - a married woman, especially one who is old or a widow (= a woman

whose husband has died)

help-mate - one who is a companion and helper; especially a spouse.

partner - a person's partner in relationship and marriage

better half - a person's partner in marriage

12. For purely personal and private reasons into which I need not enter, I must
now leave you.

personal and private: a synonymic pair and ideographic synonyms, synonymic

dominant is personal.

personal - relating or belonging to a single or particular person rather than to a

group or an organization

private - only for one person or group and not for everyone

Exercise 7. Supply synonyms to the words given in italics.

1. No, the lady of the house is Mrs. Archie Lee Meighen, who is the daughter of
my brother that passed away.

passed away - died, passed on, passed, perished, kicked the bucket, met her
maker, dropped dead.

2. All we hear is his shouts in a foreign tongue.

tongue - language, speech, dialect, talk, lingo

3. He is too delicate for the job, though still too lively for his years.

delicate - sickly, weak, ailing, frail, feeble, unhealthy, debilitated, lacklustre,

infirm

lively - active, cheerful, energetic, strong, vivid, vigorous, spirited

4. Why are you so gloomy tonight?

gloomy - dreary, dismal, sad, blue, depressing, melancholy, downcast, moody

5. The rules of the contest were extremely severe.

severe - tough, hard, difficult, strict, cruel, harsh

6. Intelligent animals let themselves be caught only by children.

intelligent - clever, smart, rational, knowing, quick-witted

7. She begged them to enter.

beg - entreat, implore, ask, plead

enter - come in, get in

Exercise 8. Consider the difference between absolute and derivational

antonyms.

- absolute(root): Root words form absolute antonyms: right:wrong, slow:

quick
- derivational: Negative affixes form derivational antonyms:
happy:unhappy, useful:useless, legal: illegal

known – unknown; derivational antonyms, negative prefix un-

clean – dirty; absolute antonyms

clear – vague; absolute antonyms

alive – dead; absolute antonyms

love – hate; absolute antonyms

prewar – postwar; derivational antonyms, negative prefix of space and time

relations post-

logical – illogical; derivational antonyms, negative prefix il-

hopeful – hopeless; derivational antonyms, negative suffix -less

selfish – unselfish; derivational antonyms, negative prefix un-

pretty – ugly. absolute antonyms