WORKSHOP 3

1.Who are the fathers of Semasiology as a separate branch of Lexicology?

When did it appear?

Semasiology is the branch of lexicology that is devoted to the study of word

meaning. (Greek words sema ‘sign‘, semantikos ‘significant’ and
logos‘learning’) .Semantic structure of the word is a set of interrelated
meanings of the word.
The name comes from the Greek word semasia meaning signification. As
semasiology deals not with every kind of meaning but with the lexical meaning only,
it may be regarded as a branch of Lexicology.

Semasiology is one of the youngest branches of linguistics, although the objects of

its study have attracted the attention of philosophers and grammarians since the
times of antiquity. A thousand years before our era Chinese scholars were interested
in semantic change. We find the problems of word and notion relationship discussed
in the works of Plato and Aristotle and the famous grammarian Panini.

The term was first used in German by Christian Karl Reisig in 1825 in his work,
[Lectures on Latin Linguistics]

Semasiology came into its own in the 1830’s when a German scholar Karl Reisig,
lecturing in classical philology, suggested that the studies of meaning should be
regarded as an independent branch of knowledge. Reisig’s lectures were published
by his pupil F. Heerdegen in 1839 some years after Reisig’s death. At that time,
however, they produced but little stir. It was Michel Breal, a Frenchman, who played
a decisive part in the creation and development of the new science. His book “Essai
de semantique” (Paris, 1897) became widely known and was followed by a
considerable number of investigations and monographs on meaning not only in
France, but in other countries as well.

The treatment of meaning throughout the 19 th century and in the first decade of the
20th was purely diachronistic. Attention was concentrated upon the process of
semantic change and the part semantic principles should play in etymology.
Semasiology was even defined at that time as a science dealing with the changes in
word meaning, their causes and classification

In the 20th century the progress of semasiology was uneven. The 1930’s were said to
be the most crucial time in its whole history. After the work of F. de Saussure the
structural orientation came to the forefront of semasiology when Jost Trier, a
German philologist, offered his theory of semantic fields, treating semantic
phenomena historically and within a definite language system at a definite period of
its development.

2.What is the basic problem of Semasiology?

The semantic problem is a problem of linguistic processing. It relates to the issue of
how spoken utterances are understood and, in particular, how we derive meaning from
combinations of speech sounds (words).

Not every word has a meaning

Many words in everyday language do not carry any meaning, at least not in anything like
the eagle sense. Consider sentence (1).

● (1) It is raining.

There is only one element in (1) with any independent meaning. The it certainly does not
refer to anything. (You can’t seek clarification of (1) by asking What is raining?) The is
has no meaning. Indeed, the verb to be in general is completely devoid of intrinsic
meaning. So why are there three words in this sentence, which really consists of a single
meaningful element – raining?

Many words in language are there only because the syntax of a language demands that
sentences conform to certain templates; in English, for example, that they have both a
verb and a subject. The subject is usually the doer in a sentence. But there is no real
subject in the fact that it is raining today – it is just a state of affairs. Thus English
syntax demands we fill in the sentence with what is largely meaningless material – it –
to make the sentence well-formed.

We see from the above that identifying the meaning of a word depends not just on its
phonological form (see The Phonological Problem), but on two other things. These are:

● the rest of the sentence

● the wider context of the discourse

Semiotics is still used to denote a broader field: the study of sign using behavior in
general. It sign achieves a meaning only in comparison with other science, its
neighbours. That is meaning can be studied only through context. It is an attempt to
study the systems of semantic relation between words.

Example of semantic problem For example, when people say or use the word gay.
One person might think its related to the sexuality of someone. There are others that
say “that's gay” to them, it might mean that's sucks, or others might use the word gay
as happy.

Semantic barriers: The barriers, which are concerned with problems and
obstructions in the process of encoding and decoding of a message into words or
impressions are called semantic barriers. Such barriers resut in faulty translations,
Misunderstood Words
When used in spoken language, however, this can easily cause confusion. For
example, the words 'write' and 'right'. They sound the same but mean different
things. We can avoid confusion by choosing a different word, for example 'correct'
instead of 'right'.different interpretations, etc.

3. Differentiate between 2 main approaches to the study of lexical meaning.

•referential approach

referential approach (founded by Ferdinand de Saussure) distinguishes between the

three components connected with meaning: the sound form of the linguistic sign,
the concept underlying this sound form and the actual referent, the aspect of
reality to which the linguistic sign refers.

Establishing this relationship our approach to the problem of meaning is referential

because we refer to the sound form, to the concept and to the referent and discuss
their relationship.

Ferdinand de Saussure (1857 - 1913 ) is the founder of semiotics.

He implies the definition of a word as bilateral (two-sided) linguistic sign. He calls it

“signifier” and what it refers to - “signifie” (concept)

English scholars C.K.Ogden and I.A.Richards implied that linguistic meaning is

connected with the referent. With them a sign is a two-facet unit comprising form
(phonetical and orthographic), regarded as a linguistic symbol, and reference which
is more linguistic than just a concept.

Semantic triangle
 The common feature of any referential approach is the implication that meaning is
connected with the referent. The word is thus defined as the basic linguistic unit
which refers to (denotes) an object of reality and reflects (signifies) its concept in the
speaker’s and listener’s mind.

•functional approach

Functional (contextual) approach was proposed by the American linguist Leonard

Bloomfield (1887-1949).

L.Bloomfield maintained that the meaning of a linguistic unit may be studied only
through its relation to other linguistic-units and not through its relation to either
concept or referent.

In a very simplified form the approach can be illustrated as a number of context that
allow the user of the language identify the meaning.

4. Define lexical meaning from the point of view of these approaches. Who
fathered each approach?

functional approach (L. Bloomfield) maintains that the meaning of a word may be
studied only through its relation to other words

The referential approach(founded by Ferdinand de Saussure) seeks to formulate the

essence of meaning by establishing the interdependence between words and the
things or concepts they denote.

5. What is symbolised by the 3 points of the semasiological triangle?

 The question that now confronts us is this: what is the relation of words to the world of
things, events and relations outside of language to which they refer? How is the word
connected with its referent?

The account of meaning given by Ferdinand de Saussure implies the definition of a word
as a linguistic sign. He calls it 'signifiant' (signifier) and what it refers to — 'signifie' (that
which is signified). By the latter term he understands not the phenomena of the real world but
the concept in the speaker's and listener's mind. The situation may be represented by a
triangle:

Here, according to F. de Saussure, only the relationship shown by a solid line concerns
linguistics and the sign is not a unity of form and meaning as we understand it now, but only
sound form.

Originally this triangular scheme was suggested by the German mathematician and
philosopher Gotlieb Frege (1848-1925).

Well-known English scholars C.K. Ogden and I.A. Richards adopted this three-cornered
pattern with considerable modifications. With them a sign is a two-facet unit comprising form
(phonetical and orthographic), regarded as a linguistic symbol, and reference which is more
linguistic than just a concept. This approach may be called referential because it implies that
linguistic meaning is connected with the referent. It is graphically shown by there being only
one dotted line. A solid line between reference and referent shows that the relationship
between them is linguistically relevant, that the nature of what is named influences the
meaning. This connection should not be taken too literally, it does not mean that the sound
form has to have any similarity with the meaning or the object itself. The connection is
conventional.
 Several generations of writers, following C.K. Ogden and I. A. Richards, have in their
turn taken up and modified this diagram. It is known under several names: the semantic
triangle, triangle of signification, Frege semiotic triangle, Ogden and Richards basic triangle
or simply basic triangle.

We reproduce it for the third time to illustrate how it can show the main features of the
referential approach in its present form. All the lines are now solid, implying that it is not
only the form of the linguistic sign but also its meaning and what it refers to that are relevant
for linguistics.

The scheme is given as it is applied to the naming of cats.

The scheme is still over-simplified and several things are left out.

It is very important, for instance, to remember that the word is represented by the left-
hand side of the diagram — it is a sign comprising the name and the meaning, and these
invariably evoke one another. So we have to assume that the word takes two apexes of the
triangle and the line connecting them. In some versions of the triangle it is not the meaning
but the concept that is placed in the apex. This reflects the approach to the problem as
formulated by medieval grammarians; it remained traditional for many centuries.

The diagram represents the simplest possible case of reference because the word here is
supposed to have only one meaning and one form of fixation. Simplification, is, however,
inherent to all models and the popularity of the semantic triangle proves how many authors
find it helpful in showing the essence of the referential approach.

6. Tell the difference between classical typology of lexical meaning and modern ones.

7. Dwell on N. Amosova's classification. Explain the terms:

Nominative lexical meaning ,realizing the function of identifying and naming

concepts
Connotative secondary lexical meaning , often influenced by the context , in
addition to their literal meaning , the emotive charge and stylistic reference

Significative lexical meaning, revealing correlation between sign and concept

Denotative lexical meaning, revealing correlation between sign and referent

Primary the earliest known meaning

Secondary meaning developing from primary

Direct lexical meaning , realizing the function of nomination

Transferred lexical meaning , realizing two functions (nomination and
characterization through its similarity or contiguity)

Central the most recurrent meaning of the word semantic structure, recognized apart
from the context
Peripheric any meaning but the central one

Concrete naming definite things

Abstract naming abstract things
There exist a number of definitions of meaning:

● - a reciprocal relation between name and sense, which enables them to call up one another
(St.Ullmann);
● - function in a context. Meaning, then, we use the whole complex of functions which a
linguistic form may have (J.R.Firth);
● - a function of the descriptions at all levels (M.A.K.Halliday) and many others.

Vinogradov: the meaning of a word can be:

● 1. Nominative.
● 2. Nominative- derivative
● 3. Collegationally and collocationally conditioned.
● 4. Phraseologically bound.
1. Nominative is the basic meaning of a word, which refers to objects of extra linguistic reality
in a direct way and reflects their actual relations.
2. Nominative-Derivative meaning comes into being when the word is “stretched out”
semantically to cover new facts and extra linguistic phenomena.

The fact that language is a tool that can perform nominative, communicative and
expressive functions, the internal dualism of language on the one hand, it is a form of thinking
that reflects an objective existence, and on the other hand, the essence of each element is
an independent system arising from the internal relations of this element with other elements.
If the nominative function of the language is related to the fact that its form of thinking is a tool
that shapes concepts, then its expressive function is related to the fact that the language is an
independent system, the essence of elements can be revealed only from their internal
relations. The fact that the language has nominative and expressive functions must be
reflected in the elements of the language, especially in the word. Because the word is the main
unit of the lexicon and grammar, which are the main levels of the language. In this
article, we will consider denotative and connotative meanings in word semantics.
In fact, all linguists note that the word has two different meanings: (denotative) name, naming
and additional emotional expressive (connotative) meaning. The additional meaning of the
word is called by different names in linguistics, such as "stylistic coloring", "expressive
meaning ottenka", "additional meaning". Underlying these designations are the terms
denotation and connotation. There are scientifically based opinions devoted to the denotative
meaning of the word, the place of the denotative meaning in the speech process, because
the denotative meaning is the main function of the word. But in the speech, there are
connotative meanings that give different shades of additional meaning to the denotative
meaning, and if one feature is expressed in a certain context, another edge can be found
in another context. In the scientific literature, it is noted that connotation is the expression
of the connotative meaning of the language unit attached to the denotation, and the additional
symbols surrounding it.
Connotation is a semantic entity included in the semantics of language units, and it
expresses the emotive evaluation and methodologically determined attitude of the subject of
speech to existence. In the further development of linguistics,interest in the connotative
aspect of linguistic units has increased, but the concept of connotation is interpreted
differently in different disciplines. In particular, in stylistics, connotation is considered as a
stylistic meaning, and it is studied with emotional coloring. In translation studies,
connotation is viewed as a pragmatic meaning, and semasiologists who study meaning in
a systematic aspect view connotation as an expressive color, an emotional expression. In
psychological studies, connotation is approached as semantic associations. No matter how
this term is assessed, its main function is the function of influence, which is directly and
continuously connected with the pragmatics of speech. When studying the structure of word
semantics, there are two types of connotation: inherent (the connotative meaning inherent in a
word when it is taken out of context), adherent connotation (the connotative meaning that is
formed in a word in a certain context ).We give the following examples of how the internal con
notative meaning can or cannot be a part of the semantics of a word: Analyzing the adjective "
beautiful" in the English language, its synonymous line, beautiful is neutral (or dominant),
its synonyms : pretty, attractive, lovely... are words with additional colors. For example: she was
beautiful girl so we need

But not beautiful, she was so attractive, I mean.

 The fact that the word has denotative and connotative meanings determines that the word
is one of the main tools of artistic representation. Any connotative expressions contain
certain symbols characteristic of the denotative meaning. The speaker refers to this sema
(sign) when expressing a pragmatic purpose. For this reason, the subject of denotation
performs two functions: evaluation and understanding. The subject of connotation
performs three tasks: understanding, pure evaluation, emotive classification, that is, a
task related to personal pragmatic activity. Thus, in addition to the denotative meaning, the
word semantics also has a connotative meaning, which is found at all language levels
(lexical, phonetic, morphological, syntactic).

1. Nominative is the basic meaning of a word, which refers to objects of extra linguistic reality
in a direct way and reflects their actual relations.
2. Nominative-Derivative meaning comes into being when the word is “stretched out”
semantically to cover new facts and extra linguistic phenomena.

significative :: denotative.
Signification – 1) one of the basic notions of semasiology (q.v.) referring to the
virtual ability of linguistic signs to bear the information about their denotata in
terms of their indispensable and ascribed properties. According to D. Crystal, s. is
that aspect of word's meaning which stresses that 'sign' function of linguistic
expressions. Lexical items are viewed upon as signs within the sign system of
language vocabulary. The relationship between sign and thing or sign and concept
is s. S. as the word's systemic meaning within the structure of the lexicon is
opposed to denotation as what the word is used to name, hence the opposition
significatum (q.v.) vs. denotatum (q.v.). When words are used literally in their
factual objective primary meanings denotation and s. coincides – are brought into
agreement. Semantic changes however go beyond signification, because when
words are used to refer to a new object or concept (to name a new thing), they
depart from the systematised structure of their meaning (signification), and acquire
a new dimension. Their reference (denotation) is thus being extended to bring
about new shades or nuances of meaning. It can be the process of semantic
derivation or the process of the appearance of new connotations. However, in
modern semantics the term s. developed a second (somewhat narrower) reading: 2)
significative meaning – type of lexical meaning, non-referential by its nature,
which reflects the concept of property/feature as opposed to the concept of class,
reflected in denotative meaning (which can thus be termed referential) – See
Denotation-2). Significative meaning is actualised primarily by verbs and
adjectives, articles, morphemes.
Denotation (denotational/denotative meaning) – 1) the part of lexical semantics
which involves the relationship between a linguistic unit (a lexical item) and the
non-linguistic entities to which it refers. It is thus equivalent to referential
meaning-1; 2) the type of meaning which reflects the concept of a class and is
actualised by lexical items in situations when they denote a class of
referents/denotata, is supported by the generalising and classifying function of the
articles; 3) the expression of the core/main/central/cognitive meaning, meaning
proper of a linguistic unit in contrast to its connotation (q.v.). E.g. the denotation of
dog is the animal characterized by certain features discriminating it from cats,
whales, elephants, its connotation might include helper, friend, etc

8. Tell the difference between the oppositions:

primary meaning :: secondary meaning;
 direct meaning :: transferred meaning;

Meaning is direct when it nominates the referent without the help of a context,
in isolation; meaning is figurative when the referent is named and at the same
time characterised through its similarity with other objects, e.g. tough meat -
direct meaning, tough politician - figurative meaning.

central meaning :: periphericˌpɛrɪˈfɛrɪk meaning;

The meaning that first occurs to us whenever we hear or see the
word table is 'an article of furniture'. This emerges as the central
(or basic) meaning of the word, and all other meanings are
marginal (or minor) meanings.

concrete meaning :: abstract meaning.

Viewed synchronically, polysemy is understood as co-existence of several

meanings of the same word and their arrangement in the semantic structure.

The status of individual meanings is not the same. We distinguish between the
central (=basic, major) meaning and minor meanings.

How do we determine which meaning is the basic one?

(1) The basic meaning occurs in various and widely different contexts. It is
representative of the word taken in isolation, i.e. it occurs to us when we hear/see
the word in isolation; that is why it is called a free meaning.

e.g. the central meaning of TABLE is "a piece of furniture" Minor meanings occur
only in specific contexts, e.g. to keep the table amused (TABLE 2) or the table of
contents (TABLE 7).

(2) The basic meaning has the highest frequency in speech,

e.g. TABLE 1 has the highest frequency value and makes up 52% of all the uses of
the word; TABLE 7 accounts for 35%; all the other meanings between them make up
just 13% of all the uses.

(3) The basic meaning is usually stylistically neutral and minor meanings are as a
rule stylistically coloured,

e.g. YELLOW 1) coloured like egg yoke or gold (neutral),

2) sensational (Am slang),

3) cowardly (coll).
Synchronically, we also distinguish between direct meanings and figurative
(transferred) meanings,

e.g. YELLOW 4) (fig) (of looks, mood, feelings, etc.) jealous, envious, suspicious.

We should note that a word may have two or more central meanings,

5.4. Words of different languages are said to be correlated when their central
meanings coincide,

e.g. table – cтіл "piece of furniture".

But there is practically no one-to-one correspondence between the semantic

structures of correlated polysemantic words of different languages. The relations
between correlated words are quite complicated, and we may single out the following
cases (and show them graphically).

9. What is the role of context in the realisation of word lexical

meaning?

Context plays a crucial role in the realization of word lexical meaning. Lexical
meaning refers to the basic, dictionary definition of a word. However, the meaning of
a word can be influenced and shaped by the context in which it is used. Here are a
few ways in which context impacts the realization of word lexical meaning:
 1. Polysemy: Many words in natural language have multiple meanings. The
specific meaning of a word in a given context is often determined by the
surrounding words, sentence structure, and the overall discourse. For
example, the word "bank" can refer to a financial institution or the side of a
river, and the context helps us understand which meaning is intended.

Word: "Bank"

Context 1: "I need to deposit my paycheck at the bank."

1. Meaning: In this context, "bank" refers to a financial institution where people

deposit, withdraw, or manage their money.

Context 2: "We had a picnic by the river bank."

2. Meaning: In this context, "bank" refers to the side of a river or a sloping land
along a body of water.

In both contexts, the word "bank" is used, but its specific meaning is determined by
the surrounding words and the overall context. This demonstrates how context
influences the realization of word lexical meaning and helps us understand the
intended sense of the word.

2. Homonymy: Similar to polysemy, homonyms are words that have the same
form but different meanings. In such cases, context plays a crucial role in
disambiguating the intended meaning. For instance, the word "bat" can refer
to a flying mammal or a piece of sports equipment, and the context helps us
differentiate between the two meanings.

Word: "Bat"

Context 1: "I saw a bat flying in the night sky."

1. Meaning: In this context, "bat" refers to a flying mammal.

Context 2: "He hit the ball with his baseball bat."

2. Meaning: In this context, "bat" refers to a sports equipment used in baseball.

In both contexts, the word "bat" is spelled and pronounced the same, but it has
different meanings. The intended sense of the word is disambiguated based on the
context in which it is used. This exemplifies how context plays a crucial role in
understanding the specific meaning of a homonymous word.
 3. Collocations: Context helps us understand the appropriate collocations or
combinations of words that are commonly used together. For example, the
verb "make" can collocate with various nouns, such as "make a decision,"
"make a mistake," or "make a cake." The specific noun used in combination
with "make" provides crucial context for understanding the intended meaning.

Word: "Make"

Context 1: "Make a decision"

1. Meaning: In this context, "make" collocates with "decision," and the phrase
means to come to a conclusion or choose an option.

Context 2: "Make a mistake"

2. Meaning: In this context, "make" collocates with "mistake," and the phrase
means to commit an error or do something incorrectly.

Context 3: "Make a cake"

3. Meaning: In this context, "make" collocates with "cake," and the phrase means
to prepare or create a cake.

In each of these contexts, the verb "make" is used with specific nouns ("decision,"
"mistake," and "cake") to form commonly used phrases or collocations. The choice
of noun in combination with "make" is crucial for understanding the intended
meaning of the phrase.

4. Pragmatics: Pragmatics deals with the study of language in context, including

the intentions and implications conveyed by speakers. Pragmatic factors,
such as speaker intention, tone, gestures, and shared knowledge, can
influence the interpretation of word meaning. For example, the word "fine" can
have different interpretations depending on the tone and context in which it is
used.

Context: Two friends are planning to meet up, but one of them is running late.

Friend 1: "Are you almost here?"

Friend 2: "I'm around the corner."

Pragmatic interpretation: In this context, Friend 2's response of "I'm around the
corner" is understood pragmatically to mean that they are close to the meeting
location, despite not providing an exact location or time frame. The implication is
that they will arrive shortly.
The pragmatic interpretation takes into account contextual cues, shared knowledge
between the friends, and the conversational implicature. While the literal meaning of
"I'm around the corner" suggests proximity to a physical corner, the pragmatic
interpretation relies on the assumption that the friend is using the expression to
convey their imminent arrival.

Pragmatics helps us understand the intended meaning beyond the literal

interpretation of words and sentences, taking into account factors such as speaker
intention, context, and implicatures to derive meaning in communication.

5. Semantic Constraints: Context helps to impose semantic constraints on word

meaning. Words have inherent semantic properties and constraints that guide
their interpretation. For example, the word "cat" is typically associated with
properties like "four-legged," "mammal," and "pet." In a sentence like "The cat
climbed the tree," the context provides the necessary semantic constraints to
interpret "cat" as an animal rather than a machine.

Word: "Cat"

Semantic Constraints: "Four-legged," "mammal," "pet"

Example Sentence: "The cat climbed the tree."

Semantic interpretation: Based on the semantic constraints associated with the

word "cat" (i.e., being a four-legged mammal and typically a pet), the sentence
implies that a domesticated cat is climbing the tree.

The semantic constraints imposed by the word "cat" help us understand that it refers
to a specific type of animal and not, for instance, a machine or a fictional creature. By
considering these semantic constraints in the context of the sentence, we can
accurately interpret the intended meaning of the word "cat" as an animal climbing a
tree.

In summary, context plays a vital role in shaping and determining the realization of
word lexical meaning. It helps disambiguate polysemous and homonymous words,
guides appropriate word combinations (collocations), incorporates pragmatic
factors, and imposes semantic constraints on word interpretation. By considering
the context, we can arrive at a more accurate understanding of the intended meaning
of words in natural language.
10. Read the following passage and decide what approach to
meaning (Referential or Functional) E.A. Nida adheres to.
The tendency to think of the meaning of a word, e.g. apple, boy, dog,
or sun, as apart from an actual communication event is fundamentally
a mistake, for once we have isolated a word from its living context,
we no longer possess the insight necessary to appreciate fully its real
functions.

Based on the provided passage, it appears that E.A. Nida adheres to the Functional
approach to meaning. The passage suggests that Nida emphasizes the importance
of considering the meaning of a word in the context of an actual communication
event rather than isolating it from its living context. This aligns with the key
principles of the Functional approach, which focuses on the role of language in
communication and emphasizes the context-dependent nature of meaning. Nida's
statement suggests that understanding the real functions of a word requires insight
into its usage and contextual nuances, which supports the Functional approach.

11. What are the extralinguistic causes of Semantic change?

Semantic change refers to the evolution or alteration of word meanings over time.
While linguistic factors play a significant role in semantic change, there are also
extralinguistic causes that can contribute to these shifts. Here are some
extralinguistic causes of semantic change:

1. Cultural and Social Factors: Changes in cultural and social contexts can lead
to shifts in word meanings. As societies evolve, new concepts, technologies,
and social practices emerge, requiring the creation or adaptation of words to
describe them. For example, words like "tweet," "selfie," and "emoji" have
emerged with the rise of social media and digital culture.
2. Technological Advancements: Technological advancements often introduce
new concepts and objects that require linguistic adaptation. New inventions
or technologies may lead to the creation of new words or the adaptation of
existing words to encompass novel meanings. For instance, the word "mouse"
has undergone semantic change from referring to a small rodent to a
computer input device.
3. Borrowing from Other Languages: Interaction between languages can result in
the borrowing of words, which can introduce new meanings or alter existing
ones. When words are borrowed from one language to another, they may
undergo semantic shifts due to differences in cultural and linguistic contexts.
For example, the English word "kimono" was borrowed from Japanese and its
meaning shifted from a general term for clothing to specifically refer to a
traditional Japanese garment.
4. Historical Events and Influences: Historical events and external influences can
impact language and lead to semantic change. For example, political changes,
colonization, trade, and conquest can introduce new ideas, cultural practices,
and languages, resulting in the assimilation or adaptation of foreign words and
meanings into a native language.
 5. Changes in Attitudes and Values: Shifts in societal attitudes, values, and
ideologies can influence the meanings of words. As cultural and societal
norms change, words may acquire new connotations or undergo shifts in
meaning to reflect these evolving perspectives. For instance, words related to
gender, race, and social identity have experienced semantic changes to reflect
more inclusive and sensitive language use.

12. What alterations in the concept, expressed by the word,

bring forth change of nominative meaning?
The alteration in the concept expressed by a word can bring forth changes in
nominative meaning, leading to shifts in how a word is used and understood. Here
are some alterations in the concept that can contribute to changes in nominative
meaning:

1. Generalization: The concept expressed by a word may expand or generalize

over time to encompass a broader range of referents. This generalization can
result in a shift in nominative meaning. For example, the word "book" originally
referred to a handwritten or printed document bound together, but over time,
its meaning has expanded to include electronic books or digital content.

Generalization can occur due to various linguistic and extralinguistic factors. Here
are some common mechanisms and examples of generalization in semantic
change:

● Extension of Referents: A word's meaning may extend to include new

referents that were not originally part of its semantic domain. For
instance, the word "dog" initially referred to a specific domesticated
canine, but its meaning has generalized to include various breeds and
even wild canines like wolves.
● Semantic Field Expansion: Generalization can happen through the
expansion of a word's semantic field, which is the range of related
concepts associated with a particular word. For example, the word
"fruit" initially referred to specific edible plant products, such as apples
and oranges, but its meaning has expanded to include other botanical
structures like tomatoes, cucumbers, and avocados.
● Metonymic Generalization: Metonymy involves the use of one word to
represent another concept closely associated with it. Generalization
can occur when a word takes on the meaning of something closely
related to its original referent. For instance, the word "crown" initially
referred to a headgear worn by a monarch, but it has generalized to
represent the concept of monarchy or royal authority itself.
● Functional Shift: Functional shift, also known as conversion or zero-
derivation, is a process where a word changes its grammatical
category without any affixation. Generalization can occur when a word
is converted to a new part of speech and its meaning expands
accordingly. For example, the noun "email" has undergone
generalization to become a verb, as in "I will email you," expanding its
 meaning beyond electronic messages to include the act of sending
such messages.
● Adjectival Generalization: Adjectives can also undergo generalization
by extending their meanings to a broader range of qualities or
characteristics. For instance, the adjective "cool" originally referred to a
moderately low temperature but has generalized to describe various
qualities like fashion, demeanor, or approval.

2. Specialization: Conversely, the concept expressed by a word may become

more specialized, narrowing its range of referents. This specialization can
lead to changes in nominative meaning. For instance, the word "deer" was
originally used to refer to any wild animal, but it has become more specialized
to refer specifically to a certain species of ungulate.

Specialization can occur due to various linguistic and extralinguistic factors. Here
are some common mechanisms and examples of specialization in semantic change:

● Narrowing of Referents: The meaning of a word may narrow down to

refer to a specific subset or category within its original semantic
domain. For example, the word "hound" originally referred to any type
of dog but has specialized to specifically denote a breed or type of
hunting dog.
● Specificity to a Subcategory: Specialization can occur when a word
becomes more specific within a broader category. For instance, the
word "chair" originally referred to any type of seat, but it has specialized
to specifically denote a piece of furniture designed for one person to sit
on, with a back and legs.
● Restriction to a Technical or Professional Context: Words can become
specialized within specific technical or professional domains, where
their meaning becomes more precise and restricted. For example, the
word "photon" in physics specifically refers to a quantum of
electromagnetic radiation, whereas in everyday language, it has no
such specific technical meaning.
● Shift in Connotation: Specialization can occur through changes in
connotation, where the word acquires a specific or restricted sense
based on the context in which it is used. This can be influenced by
cultural or historical factors. For example, the word "spinster" originally
referred to an unmarried woman but has become specialized with a
negative connotation implying an older unmarried woman.
● Loss of Generalizing Terms: Sometimes, specialization occurs due to
the loss of generalizing terms, leading to narrower meanings. For
instance, the Old English word "deer" initially referred to any animal but
gradually narrowed down to specifically refer to the animal we now
know as the deer.
 3. Metaphorical Extension: Metaphorical extension occurs when the concept
expressed by a word is extended metaphorically to domains beyond its
original context. This extension can lead to changes in nominative meaning.
For example, the word "cloud" originally referred to a visible mass of
condensed water vapor, but it has also been extended to refer to digital
storage or computing resources accessible via the internet.

Metaphorical extension occurs when a word's original concept is mapped onto a

different domain or concept through a metaphorical connection. This connection
allows for the transfer of meaning and the creation of new associations. Here are
some key points and examples of metaphorical extension:

● Conceptual Mapping: Metaphorical extension relies on conceptual

mapping, where aspects of one domain (the source domain) are
applied or mapped onto another domain (the target domain). This
mapping enables the transfer of meaning from the source domain to
the target domain, resulting in metaphorical extension.
● Figurative Language: Metaphorical extension often involves the use of
figurative language, such as metaphors and analogies. It allows
speakers to express abstract or complex ideas by drawing upon
familiar or concrete concepts.
● Source and Target Domains: The source domain provides the
metaphorical source or analogy, while the target domain represents the
domain to which the metaphorical meaning is extended. For example,
in the phrase "time is money," time (source domain) is metaphorically
associated with money (target domain), implying that time has value
and can be spent or wasted like money.
● Semantic Shift: Metaphorical extension can lead to semantic shifts,
where the word's meaning expands to include the metaphorical sense.
The new meaning derived from the metaphorical connection becomes
an additional sense or even replaces the original sense in certain
contexts.
● Example: The word "foot" has metaphorically extended its meaning to
refer to the bottom part of a mountain. This extension is based on the
conceptual mapping between the physical foot and the lowermost part
of an object, creating a metaphorical association between the two.

4. Elevation or Degradation: The concept expressed by a word can undergo

changes in status or valuation, resulting in changes in nominative meaning.
Words can acquire positive or negative connotations over time, affecting their
usage and meaning. For example, the word "villain" originally referred to a
peasant or commoner, but its meaning has shifted to denote a wicked or evil
person.
● Elevation: Elevation occurs when the meaning of a word becomes
more positive, prestigious, or esteemed over time. It involves the
association of the word with higher status, virtue, or desirability.
 Elevation can be influenced by cultural, social, or historical factors. For
example:
● The word "gentleman" initially referred to a man of noble birth or high social
status. However, its meaning has elevated to encompass qualities such as
courtesy, chivalry, and honorable behavior, regardless of social standing.
● The term "scholar" has been elevated to refer to an individual who possesses
advanced knowledge, academic achievements, and intellectual expertise.
● Degradation: Degradation occurs when the meaning of a word
becomes more negative, inferior, or less esteemed over time. It
involves the association of the word with lower status, undesirable
traits, or disreputable connotations. Degradation can be influenced by
changes in social attitudes, historical events, or linguistic usage. For
example:
● The word "villain" originally referred to a person living in a rural area or
a farmhand. However, its meaning has degraded to describe someone
who is wicked, evil, or morally corrupt.
● The term "knave" used to be a neutral term for a boy or servant but has
become derogatory, referring to a deceitful or dishonest person.

5. Borrowing and Cultural Influences: When words are borrowed from other
languages or influenced by different cultures, alterations in the concept can
occur, leading to changes in nominative meaning. The transferred concepts
may be adapted or modified in the recipient language, resulting in shifts in
meaning. For example, the word "salsa" was borrowed from Spanish and
initially referred to a sauce, but its meaning has expanded to include a style of
Latin American dance and music.

13. Reveal the difference between Extension and Specialisation of word

nominative meaning.

In the context of linguistics and word formation, the terms "extension"

and "specialization" refer to different processes that can occur in the
evolution of word meanings.

Extension: Extension refers to the process by which the meaning of a

word broadens or expands to include additional referents or concepts. It
involves the word acquiring new senses or being applied to a wider
range of objects or situations. Essentially, extension is a form of
semantic expansion.

For example, consider the word "mouse." Originally, the word "mouse"
referred specifically to a small rodent. However, with the development of
technology, the word's meaning extended to include a computer input
device that resembles the shape of a small rodent. In this case, the word
"mouse" underwent extension, as it acquired a new sense related to
technology.

Specialization: Specialization, on the other hand, involves the

narrowing down or restriction of the meaning of a word. It occurs when a
word's usage becomes more specific or limited over time. Specialization
is a form of semantic narrowing.

For instance, the word "meat" has undergone specialization. Initially, it

referred to any kind of food. However, over time, the term "meat"
became more specialized to specifically denote animal flesh used for
consumption, excluding other food items. This narrowing of meaning is
an example of specialization.

In summary, extension involves the expansion or broadening of a word's

meaning to include additional senses or referents, while specialization
involves the narrowing down or restriction of a word's meaning to a more
specific context or referent.

14. What results in extreme generalisation and extreme specialisation of

word meaning?

Extreme generalization and extreme specialization of word meanings

can occur due to various factors and processes. Here are some factors
that can lead to these extremes:

Extreme Generalization:

● Semantic Bleaching: Over time, frequent or widespread use of a

word in various contexts can lead to the loss of specific or precise
meaning, resulting in semantic bleaching. This process occurs
when a word becomes more generalized and loses its original
specific connotations. For example, the word "nice" originally
meant "precise" or "precious," but it has become a more general
term for something that is pleasant or agreeable.
● Metonymy: Metonymy is a figure of speech where one word is
used to refer to another concept or object that is closely related.
Through repeated usage, metonymy can lead to generalization.
For example, the word "crown" initially referred to the headgear
worn by a monarch, but over time, it has been used to refer to the
concept of royalty or the position of power itself.
Extreme Specialization:

● Semantic Shift: Semantic shift occurs when the meaning of a

word undergoes a significant change, often resulting in a more
specialized usage. This shift can be influenced by cultural,
historical, or technological factors. For example, the word
"broadcast" originally referred to scattering seeds, but it has shifted
in meaning to specifically refer to the transmission of information
via radio, television, or the internet.
● Technical Terminology: The development of specialized fields,
such as science, medicine, or technology, often necessitates the
creation of new words or the specialization of existing words to
describe specific concepts or phenomena. These technical
terminologies are often highly specialized and may not be
commonly understood outside of those fields. For instance, terms
like "proton," "cytoplasm," or "algorithm" have specific meanings in
their respective scientific or technical domains.

It's important to note that extreme generalization or extreme

specialization of word meanings are not mutually exclusive and can
occur in different contexts or for different words. Language is dynamic
and evolves over time, leading to shifts in meaning and the emergence
of new usages.

15. What alterations in people's attitude to the referent, expressed by the

word, bring forth revaluation of Emotive or Stylistic connotative
meaning?

The alterations in people's attitudes towards the referent of a word can

indeed bring forth a revaluation of emotive or stylistic connotative
meaning.

Changes in societal, cultural, or individual perspectives and values can

influence how words are perceived and the emotional or stylistic
associations they carry. Here are some factors that can contribute to the
revaluation of emotive or stylistic connotative meaning:

● Cultural Shifts: Cultural changes and shifts in societal attitudes

can significantly impact the connotations associated with certain
words. As cultural values evolve, the emotional or stylistic
implications of words may undergo reevaluation. For example,
words that were once considered derogatory or offensive may be
 reevaluated and acquire more neutral or positive connotations
over time as societal norms change.
● Political and Social Movements: Political or social movements
can influence the revaluation of connotative meanings. These
movements often strive to redefine certain words or phrases to
reflect their ideologies or promote specific social changes. By
associating new emotional or stylistic connotations with these
words, they aim to shape public perception and discourse.
● Language Use in Media: The media plays a significant role in
shaping public opinion and influencing connotations associated
with words. Through the repeated use of certain words or phrases
in specific contexts, the media can reinforce or modify the emotive
or stylistic connotations of those terms.
● Personal and Individual Experiences: Individuals' personal
experiences and beliefs can also impact their emotional or stylistic
associations with words. An individual's encounters with certain
situations, people, or events may influence how they interpret and
emotionally respond to specific words. These personal
experiences can vary widely, leading to diverse connotations
associated with the same word among different individuals.
● Language Usage and Subcultures: Different subcultures or
communities may develop their own linguistic norms and
connotations. Words used within specific subcultures can acquire
unique emotive or stylistic connotations that reflect the values,
beliefs, or identities of those groups. This can lead to varying
interpretations and emotional responses to those words based on
an individual's affiliation with a particular subculture.

16. Tell the difference between Elevation and Degradation of word

connotative meaning.

• Elevation implies bettering of emotive connotation of a word. This can

happen due to various factors such as cultural changes, shifts in societal
attitudes, or the influence of popular culture.

Examples: One example of elevation through loss of negative associations is

intensifying expressions like 'terribly' and awfully'. These words have lost their
negative stigmas and now mean little more than 'very', this is evident in that we
can now use expressions such as 'terribly good.'
An example of a word gaining positive connotations would be "sick". It has
obvious negative connotations of illness that are still connected to the word
today, but it has also become a popular slang term for something cool. For
example, "that's sick!"

Lady - now has educated and well-educated woman.

Smart - painful, now clever

Nice - silly, now pleasant

Minister in earlier times meant merely “a servant”

• Degradation is reverse to elevation reveals the tendency to worsen or to

deteriorate the connotative and emotive meaning. Degradation often occurs
when a word that once had a neutral or positive connotation becomes associated
with negative or derogatory meanings.

Examples: Degradation is shown clearly in the word "accident". Once simply

meaning "a chance event" the word now has associations with misfortune and
injury, so we assume that when someone has "had an accident" it was not a
positive experience.

Scoundrel - meant coward, now bastard

Villain - farmer, now a bad person

Vulgar - ordinary, now obscene

Knave - used to mean young boy, now bad boy

Cunning - Initially the one who has the most potential, now the tricky one

Gossip - god parent → the one who talks scandal

17. Read the extracts below and be ready to comment on the ideas
expressed.

A) The first extract highlights the idea that when a word transitions from
general usage to a specialized domain of communication, it typically undergoes
a process of meaning specialization. This means that the word's meaning
becomes more specific and focused, allowing it to name fewer objects or have
fewer referents. However, despite the narrowing of its application, the word's
content becomes richer as it encompasses a greater number of relevant features
that characterize the notion being expressed.
The author suggests that as a word becomes specialized, it provides more
detailed and nuanced information about the objects it refers to. This process of
specialization allows for greater precision and specificity in communication
within specific domains or contexts.

The ideas expressed in the extract highlight the dynamic nature of language and
how words can evolve and adapt to serve specific purposes or convey
specialized meanings. It emphasizes the trade-off between breadth and depth of
meaning, as a word's specialization, reduces its general applicability but
enhances its ability to convey detailed information within its specific domain.

B) The extract highlights the important role of context in determining the

meanings of words that are inherently vague or ambiguous. It suggests that
certain words, such as the verb "do," have such a broad range of uses that they
lack clear meaning on their own. Instead, the meaning of these words heavily
relies on the context in which they are used. The intended meaning of "do" can
vary greatly depending on the surrounding words, the overall sentence structure,
and the communicative intent of the speaker or writer.

The ideas expressed in the extract highlight the importance of considering

context in interpreting and understanding language. Words that may seem vague
or ambiguous in isolation can acquire specific meaning and purpose when
examined within their contextual framework. It emphasizes the dynamic and
interactive nature of language, where words derive meaning from their
surroundings and the communicative context in which they are used.

We can take another example to illustrate the role of context in fixing the
meaning of words: Consider the word "bank" On its own, "bank" can have
multiple meanings. It could refer to a financial institution, or it could refer to the
edge of a river. Without any context, it is unclear which specific meaning of
"bank" is intended. However, when used in a sentence like "I went to the bank
to withdraw some cash," the context of the sentence clarifies that "bank" refers
to a financial institution. So the meaning of the word "bank" is determined by
the context in which it is used. Without context, the word itself is potentially
ambiguous. The specific meaning emerges when the word is placed within a
sentence or a broader communicative context, allowing the listener or reader to
understand the intended interpretation.
 PRACTICAL PART
Exercises
Exercise 1. Draw semasiological triangle and dwell on the correlation
among its three points.

"Semantic triangle": the relationship between three "forms and the sound of
the sign language" personal.
The common feature of any referential approach is the implication that
meaning is connected with the referent. The word is thus defined as the basic
linguistic unit which refers to (denotes) an object of reality and reflects
(signifies) its concept in the speaker’s and listener’s mind.

All the lines are now solid, implying that it is not only the form of the linguistic sign but also its
meaning and what it refers to that are relevant for lin- guistics.

Exercise 2. Single out nominative and connotative meanings in the adjective

sweet in different contexts.
Nominative- direct meaning,identifying and naming concepts
Connotative - metaphorical meaning,secondary lexical meaning , often influenced by
the context , in addition to their literal meaning ,
1. The tea is too sweet for me. - nominative meaning ( direct )
I got a sweet deal on the car. - connotative ( metaphorical )
2. The soprano voice sounded sweet. - connotative
3. They breathed in the sweet air of the countryside. - connotative
4. The sweet feeling of freedom made Adam's head go round. - connotative
5. A sweet little poodle was making circles in the garden.- connotative
6. It is sweet of you to have remembered us.- connotative
7. Do you like cake sweet? - nominative

Exercise 3. Consult Etymological dictionary for the primary meanings of the

words below. In the Explanatory dictionary find the secondary meanings of these
words. Decide which meaning is the central one.

Time - the measured or measurable period during which an action, process, or

condition exists or continues - central one

● an opportune or suitable moment;

● a period in history

● the particular point in the day at which people who are drinking in a bar in the
U.K. have to finish their drinks and leave

tide - the alternate rising and falling of the surface of the ocean and of water bodies
(such as gulfs and bays) connected with the ocean that occurs usually twice a day and
is the result of differing gravitational forces exerted at different parts of the earth by
another body (such as the moon or sun)

● a large and increasing quantity or volume

● a flowing stream

spring - the season between winter and summer comprising in the northern
hemisphere usually the months of March, April, and May or as reckoned
astronomically extending from the March equinox to the June solstice - central
meaning

an ultimate source especially of action or motion

an elastic body or device that recovers its original shape when released after being
distorted

a place where water naturally flows out from the ground

line - a long, thin mark on the surface of something - central one

● a group of people or things arranged in a row

● in sports, the painted mark that signals the finishing point of a race

● a connection to a phone system

● a way of dealing with or thinking about something or someone

● a range of similar things that are for sale

bar - a place where drinks, especially alcoholic drinks, are sold and drunk, or the area
in such a place where the person serving the drinks stands - central

● a substance that has been made into a solid rectangular shape(bar of soap) -
central

● one of the small equal parts into which a piece of music is divided, containing a
fixed number of beats

● a strong pole, esp. one made of metal, used as a support, to force something to
move, or to block an opening - bar of cage

● a way of measuring the strength of a signal or connection or the power

available in a device, that is shown as a vertical line on a phone or computer
screen - bar of power

hospital - a place where people who are sick or injured are treated) and taken care of
by doctors and nurses- central meaning

● a repair shop for specified small objects

violin hospital;
doll hospital.
Exercise 4. Trace the process of Extension of nominative meaning in the words
below:
Arrive, ready, woman, lady, place, bribe, calculate, rule, clerk, journal, journey,
season, salary, style, pipe.

1. Arrive: Originally, "arrive" referred specifically to reaching a destination or

coming to a certain place. However, over time, its meaning extended to include
achieving a certain state or condition. For example, you can say someone has
"arrived" in their career or reached a particular level of success.
2. Ready: Initially, "ready" described a state of preparedness or being fully prepared
for something. Its meaning extended to include being willing or eager to do
something. For instance, you can say someone is "ready" to take on a new challenge.
3. Woman: "Woman" originally referred to an adult human female. Its meaning
extended to include the concept of femininity and womanhood as a social category.
Additionally, it can also be used to refer to the collective group of adult human
females.
4. Lady: Initially, "lady" referred to a woman of high social status of noble birth or
mistress of the house. Its meaning extended to include any polite and well-mannered
woman.
5. Place: Originally, "place" denoted a specific location or position. Its meaning
extended to include the abstract concept of a role or position, such as someone taking
someone else's place or filling a particular role.
6. Bribe: "Bribe" originally referred to the act of giving money or gifts to influence
someone's behavior, especially in a corrupt manner.
Its meaning extended to include any form of illicitly influencing someone's actions,
not just through monetary means.
7. Calculate: Initially, "calculate" meant to perform mathematical operations or
determine a mathematical result. Its meaning extended to include any process of
careful thought, planning, or estimation.
8. Rule: Originally, "rule" referred to a principle or guideline for behavior or
decision-making. Its meaning extended to include the act of governing or exercising
authority over others.
9. Clerk: Initially, "clerk" referred to a person who performs administrative or record-
keeping duties. Its meaning extended to include a wider range of tasks, such as
assisting customers, providing information, or performing various office-related
functions.
 10. Journal: "Journal" originally denoted a book in which one keeps a record of daily
events or personal thoughts. Its meaning extended to include any periodical
publication that focuses on a particular subject or field.
11. Journey: Initially, "journey" referred to the act of traveling from one place to
another. Its meaning extended to include any process of personal development,
progression, or exploration, even if it doesn't involve physical travel.
12. Season: "Season" originally described one of the four divisions of the year—
spring, summer, autumn, or winter. Its meaning extended to include a period or time
characterized by certain conditions or activities, such as the holiday season or the
football season.
13. Salary: Initially, "salary" referred to a fixed amount of money paid regularly to a
person for their work. Its meaning extended to include any regular payment or
compensation, even if it's not related to employment.
14. Style: "Style" originally denoted a distinctive manner or way of doing something.
Its meaning extended to include a particular fashion or aesthetic, such as clothing style
or artistic style.
15. Pipe: Initially, "pipe" referred to a hollow tube used for conveying fluids or
smoke. Its meaning extended to include any similar tubular structure, such as
plumbing pipes or musical pipes like the organ

Exercise 5. Trace the process of Specialisation of nominative meaning in the words below:

Bible, girl, wife, meat, room, poison, tide, garage, hangar, starve, hound, deer, fowl, worm,
hospital, voyage.

1. Bible: Originally, the word "Bible" referred to a collection of religious texts. Over time, it
has become specifically associated with the sacred scriptures of Christianity.

2. Girl: Initially, the term "girl" was used to refer to a small child of either gender. However,
it gradually came to denote a young female child or a young woman.

3. Wife: Originally, "wife" simply meant a woman. However, its meaning became specialized
to refer specifically to a married woman.

4. Meat: In its broader sense, "meat" referred to any type of food. Over time, it has become
more commonly associated with animal flesh used for consumption.

5. Room: Initially, "room" had a more general meaning of an enclosed space. However, it has
become more specialized to refer to a specific part of a building used for a particular purpose,
such as a living room or a bedroom.

6. Poison: Originally, "poison" referred to any substance that could cause harm or death.
With specialization, it came to specifically denote a toxic substance that is harmful when
ingested, inhaled, or otherwise exposed to the body.
7. Tide: Initially, "tide" had a broader meaning of the periodic rise and fall of the sea level.
However, it became more specialized to refer specifically to the regular rise and fall of the
sea caused by gravitational forces.

8. Garage: Originally, "garage" referred to a shelter for vehicles or a place to store them. Its
meaning has become more specialized to specifically denote a building or structure designed
for housing and protecting cars.

9. Hangar: Similar to "garage," "hangar" originally had a more general meaning of a shelter
or storage space. It has become specialized to refer to a large building or structure specifically
designed for housing and maintaining aircraft.

10. Starve: Initially, "starve" had a broader meaning of dying. Over time, it has become more
specialized to specifically refer to the severe or prolonged deprivation of food, often resulting
in emaciation or death.

11. Hound: Originally, "hound" referred to any type of dog. It has become more specialized
to specifically denote a breed or type of dog used for hunting or tracking.

12. Deer: Initially, "deer" had a broader meaning and could refer to any animal. It has become
more specialized to specifically denote a type of ungulate mammal characterized by antlers,
found in various species.

13. Fowl: In its broader sense, "fowl" referred to any bird. With specialization, it has become
more commonly associated with domesticated birds raised for meat or eggs, such as chickens
or turkeys.

14. Worm: Initially, "worm" had a more general meaning and could refer to various types of
invertebrate animals. It has become more specialized to specifically denote a long, slender,
and often legless invertebrate animal, such as an earthworm.

15. Hospital: Originally, "hospital" had a broader meaning of any place providing medical
care or treatment. Over time, it has become more specialized to specifically refer to an
institution or facility where medical and surgical services are provided.

16. Voyage: Initially, "voyage" had a broader meaning of any journey or travel. It has
become more specialized to specifically denote a long journey, typically by sea or in space.

Exercise 6. Trace the evolution of lexical meanings of the words thing and do. What
makes them words of wide semantics? (Use Etymological dictionary)

THING

The word "thing" has a complex and varied evolution in its lexical meanings. Here is a brief
overview of the different senses and shifts in meaning that "thing" has undergone over time:

1. Old English: In Old English, the word "thing" (spelled as "þing") originally referred to
a public assembly or a meeting, particularly in a legal or political context. It denoted a
 gathering where important matters were discussed, decisions were made, and disputes
were settled.

2. Object or Entity: Over time, the meaning of "thing" expanded to encompass a general
sense of an object or entity. It became a more generic term to refer to any physical or
conceptual item, often used when the specific name or description was unknown or not
important.

3. Indefinite Referent: "Thing" also developed a usage as a placeholder or an indefinite

referent. It is often used when referring to something in a non-specific or nonspecific
manner, such as "I forgot to bring that thing."

4. Abstract Concept: In addition to physical objects, "thing" acquired the capacity to

represent abstract concepts or ideas. It can be used to refer to an intangible or non-
physical entity, such as "the thing called love" or "the thing we value most."

5. Vague or Unidentified Matter: In colloquial usage, "thing" can also refer to an

unspecified or unidentified matter or situation, often used when one struggles to find the
right word or expression. For example, "You know, that thing we talked about."

6. Idiomatic Expressions: "Thing" is found in numerous idiomatic expressions and

phrases, contributing to its diverse range of meanings. Examples include "do the right
thing," "it's a thing of the past," or "get the hang of things."

DO

The word "do" has undergone significant evolution in its lexical meanings throughout the
history of the English language. Here is a general overview of the different senses and shifts
in meaning that "do" has experienced:

1. Old English: In Old English, the word "do" (spelled as "don") primarily denoted the
act of performing or executing an action. It was used in a general sense to express any
kind of action or activity.

2. Auxiliary Verb: Over time, "do" evolved into an auxiliary verb with multiple
functions. It began to be used to form questions and negative statements, as well as to
emphasize or intensify the action of the main verb. For example, "Do you like ice
cream?" or "I do enjoy a good book."

3. Substitute Verb: In certain contexts, "do" started to function as a substitute verb when
the main verb was not specified or necessary. It served as a generic verb to represent
various actions or activities, particularly in expressions like "do your homework" or "do
the dishes."
 4. Accomplishing or Performing: "Do" acquired the meaning of accomplishing or
performing a task or duty. It denoted the act of completing an action or fulfilling an
obligation. For instance, "I have to do my chores" or "She did a great job."

5. Creating or Producing: "Do" expanded its meaning to include the notion of creating,
producing, or making something. It came to represent the act of bringing something into
existence or executing a specific task. Examples include "do your hair" or "do a painting."

6. Acting or Behaving: Another shift in meaning for "do" occurred in relation to acting
or behaving in a certain way. It started to convey the idea of performing actions or
exhibiting behaviors consistent with a particular role or expectation. For example, "She
did the right thing" or "He does his best."

7. Effecting or Influencing: In certain contexts, "do" also acquired the sense of effecting
or influencing a change or outcome. It came to represent the act of causing something to
happen or producing a result. For instance, "Exercise can do wonders for your health."

Exercise 7. Trace the process of Elevation of connotative meaning in the

words below:
Pejoration (degradation,) occurs as a word develops negative connotations or loses positive ones: a
churl (in Old English it meant “a man”), a gossip (in Old English it meant “a good parent”), and silly
(in Old English it meant “happy”).

Amelioration (elevation): word loses negative connotations or gains positive ones, e.g. a minister
(earlier it meant “servant” and now it means “an important public official”), a knight (earlier it meant
“a title of rank” and now it means “a boy”).

WORD OLD MEANING NEW MEANING

Queen a wife of a king A female sovereign

Lady mistress of a household, wife a woman from the upper

of a lord classes, especially in former
times.

Lord master of a household, ruler, a man who has a high rank

feudal lord, superior; in the nobility, for example
husband, an earl, a viscount, or a
marquis.

marshal high officer of the royal an official who helps to

court supervise a public event,
especially a sportsevent.
admiral commander or chieftain he supreme commander of a
fleet or navy

Minister servant, valet, member of a is a person who is in charge

household staff, of a particular government
administrator department.

Tory brigand, highwayman member of the Tories

comrade one who shares the same your friends, especially

room," hence "a close
friends that you share a
companion
difficult or dangerous
situation with.

smart to cause pain, to suffer pain clever

handsome easy to handle, ready at hand man has an attractive face

with regular features

nice foolish fine, good

noble (n)man of rank, person of person, you admire and

acknowledged social or respect them because they
political preeminence; are unselfish and morally
person of rank above a good.
commoner

(adj) illustrious,
distinguished, of high rank
or birth,

fame character attributed to you become very well-

someone;fame, reputation, known
renown, rumor

heaven home of God, the sky is said to be the place where

God lives, where good
people go when they die,
and where everyone is
always happy. It is usually
imagined as being high up in
the sky.
Exercise 8. Trace the process of Degradation of connotative meaning in the
words below:

WORD OLD MEANING NEW MEANING

Villain farm-servant, serf base, vile person

knave boy swindler, scoundrel

vulgar common, ordinary you think it is in bad taste or

of poor artistic quality.

scoundrel base, mean, worthless fellow you mean that he behaves

very badly towards other
people, especially by
cheating them or deceiving
them.

silly happy foolish

poison a drink a substance that harms or

kills people or animals if
they swallow it or absorb it.

forge to forge, work (metal); to develop something new,

shape, fashion; build, especially a strong
construct; falsify relationship with other
people, groups, or countries

mistress female teacher, governess; a woman who is not his wife

supervisor of novices in a and with whom he is having
convent, a sexual relationship.

clown man of rustic or coarse a performer in a circus who

manners, boor, peasant wears funny clothes and
bright make-up, and does
silly things in order to make
people laugh.

cunning learned, skillful, possessing clever and good at

knowledge deceiving people in order to
get what they want
Exercise 9. In the following sentences find words that underwent change of meaning, name
the type of change. Prove your statement.

1. I crouched down and caught her a smart smack on the left cheekbone. 2. He seems to be
quite smart on the head. 3. He spent a day in a smart place. 4. There's no room for doubt. 5.
He was helped across the room. 6. See to it you don't get the flu. 7. He got what he deserved.
8. Can you get my meaning? 9. Tom got us sitting in armchairs. 10. Does it take you long to
get to his place? 11. Nail Parkinson popped out of his depression. 12. Pop in and see me
sometime. 13. It is difficult to see you as a Prime Minister, Dr. Audlin. 14. Were you his
mistress, Betty? 15. The deer has just been killed.

1 Meaning: "smart"

In the given sentence, the word "smart" is used to describe a sharp or stinging
sensation caused by the smack on the left cheekbone. It denotes a sudden, intense,
and painful feeling. This is a change in meaning from the more commonly known
usage of "smart" to refer to intelligence or stylishness.

2 Change of Meaning: "smart"

In this sentence, the word "smart" is used to describe someone who is intelligent or
clever. However, it is used in an unusual context by saying "smart on the head." This
suggests that the meaning of "smart" has been altered to indicate intelligence
specifically in the head or mind, which is a departure from its typical usage.

3 Change of Meaning: "smart"

Here, the word "smart" is used to describe a place. Normally, "smart" refers to
someone who is well-dressed or stylish, but in this context, it denotes that the place
is fashionable or upscale. The meaning of "smart" has shifted from describing a
person's appearance to describing the quality or ambiance of a location.

4 Change of Meaning: None

The word "doubt" in this sentence retains its usual meaning, indicating a lack of
certainty or trust in something. There is no change in meaning observed.

5 Change of Meaning: None

The word "helped" in this sentence retains its typical meaning of assisting or
supporting someone. There is no change in meaning observed.

6 Change of Meaning: None

 The word "get" in this sentence retains its usual meaning of obtaining or acquiring
something. There is no change in meaning observed.

7 Change of Meaning: None

The word "deserved" in this sentence retains its standard meaning, indicating that
someone received what they rightfully earned or merited. There is no change in
meaning observed.

8 Change of Meaning: None

The word "meaning" in this sentence retains its ordinary meaning, representing the
intended significance or interpretation of something. There is no change in meaning
observed.

9 Change of Meaning: None

The word "got" in this sentence retains its typical meaning of obtaining or acquiring.
There is no change in meaning observed.

10 Change of Meaning: None

The word "get" in this sentence retains its usual meaning of reaching or arriving at a
particular place. There is no change in meaning observed.

11 Change of Meaning: None

The phrase "popped out" in this sentence retains its standard meaning of suddenly
appearing or emerging. There is no change in meaning observed.

12Change of Meaning: None

The phrase "pop in" in this sentence retains its typical meaning of visiting someone
briefly or informally. There is no change in meaning observed.

13 Change of Meaning: None

The phrase "see as" in this sentence retains its ordinary meaning, indicating
perceiving or recognizing someone as a particular role or position. There is no
change in meaning observed.

14 Change of Meaning: None

 The word "mistress" in this sentence retains its usual meaning, referring to a
woman having an extramarital affair with a married man. There is no change in
meaning observed.

15 Change of Meaning: None

The word "killed" in this sentence retains its standard meaning of causing the death
of something or someone. There is no change in meaning observed.