ETHICS

- Also called moral philosophy, ethics evaluates moral concepts, values, principles, and
standards.
- It is considered a normative study of human actions because it is primarily concerned with
the norms of human conduct.
- Stands to queries about what there is reason to do: deals with human actions and reasons
for action; concerned with character (from the Greek ‘ethos’, which means ‘character’ or
‘manners’)

Introduction to Ethics

Ethics is the study of right and wrong, good and bad, and how people should act in different
situations. It helps us understand moral principles and guides us in making good decisions, whether
in our personal life, school, or work. (branch of philosophy)

Ethics is important because every decision we make affects other people. Sometimes, what is legal is
not necessarily ethical, and this is where ethical reasoning becomes important.

Why Study Ethics?

- To understand different perspectives on right and wrong.

- To improve decision-making skills when facing moral dilemmas.
- To apply ethical principles in real-life situations, especially in business, leadership, and
relationships.

Example of an Ethical Dilemma:

Imagine you are a cashier at a store, and your friend asks you not to scan one of their items so they
can get it for free.

- Legally, this is stealing.

- Ethically, this is also wrong because it is dishonest and unfair.
- But what if your friend is struggling financially?
- What if refusing to help them will ruin your friendship?

This is what Ethics teaches us - how to analyze situations like this and make the best decision based
on moral reasoning.

Ethics refers to the study of, and adherence to, principles and standards of right and wrong behavior.
It involves a systematic exploration of moral concepts and issues, providing a framework for
determining what is considered morally acceptable or unacceptable in a particular context.

Examples of ethics include:

- Honesty: Being truthful and sincere, and avoiding deception

- Accountability: Taking responsibility for one's actions and contributions
- Fairness: Acting with caring behavior and responsibility towards others
- Integrity: Having strong moral principles and doing the right thing
- Loyalty: Standing by the people in your life
- Respect: Treating others with dignity and valuing their worth
- Privacy: Protecting people's personal information and giving them control over how it's used
MORALITY

It is a system of values that defines what is right and wrong, and how people should act. It is also a
set of rules that help people be good and treat others with respect.

- It’s a way to categorize actions as right or wrong

- It’s a set of ideas about good and bad behavior
- It’s a code or system of moral rules, principles or values
- It can also refer to the standards that societies determine to be “right” and acceptable.

Morals are what you believe to be right and wrong. People can have different morals: you might say,
"I like his morals" or "I wonder about his morals." Your morals are your ideas about right and wrong,
especially how you should act and treat other people.

Morality is a system of values that helps people decide what is right and wrong, and how to behave
in a way that is good and respectful. It's a set of standards that societies use to live together
cooperatively.

- Morality is a part of the philosophical study of ethics.

- Morality is subjective, rather than objective.
- Morality is a personal or social set of standards.
- Morality is concerned with what is good and how to treat others with kindness and respect.
- Acting in a moral way may require sacrificing short-term interests for the benefit of society.
- People who go against moral standards may be considered immoral.

Morality is based on a predisposition to judge actions as good or bad based on their consequences
for others.

Morality promotes empathy, cooperation, altruism, reciprocity, and a sense of fairness.

- Involves a person's internal judgments about good and evil

- Can be descriptive or prescriptive
- Can be based on religion, history, culture, or philosophy
- Can vary across individuals, cultures, and time

Morals or morality refers to a set of principles, values, and beliefs that guide and govern an
individual’s or a society’s behavior, choices, and actions. Morality provides a framework for
distinguishing between what is considered right and wrong, good and bad, or ethical and unethical.

Examples of morality include:

- Treating others with respect: Being polite, empathetic, and considerate of others' feelings
and rights
- Helping others: Helping people in need, especially when they are vulnerable
- Being truthful: Speaking the truth and keeping promises
- Not causing harm: Not killing, causing pain, or depriving others of freedom or pleasure
- Respecting property: Not stealing or violating others' property rights
- Treating others as you want to be treated: Treating people in need as you would want to be
treated
ETHICS VS MORALITY

Ethics – Rules of conduct in a particular culture or group recognized by an external source or social
system. For example, a medical code of ethics that medical professionals must follow.

Morals – Principles or habits relating to right or wrong conduct, based on an individual's own
compass of right and wrong.

Difference Between Ethics and Morality

1. Ethics are a formal system of beliefs that guide our behavior, while morality is more personal
and can vary from individual to individual.
2. Ethics are usually based on logical reasoning and a shared set of values, while morality is
often based on gut instinct or religious beliefs.
3. Ethics tend to be more objective, while morality is often subjective.
4. Ethics are universal, while morality is often culture-specific.
5. Ethics are transcendent; they govern all aspects of life. Morality deals with specific issues
such as politics, economics, religion and family matters. When someone does something
immoral, it usually relates to one of these specific areas. In contrast, ethics applies
universally to every aspect of life and when someone does something unethical, it has more
implications than just in one area.
6. Ethics applies to groups and organizations, while morality applies to individuals. As a result,
ethical practices don’t always mesh well with organizational cultures and vice versa.
7. Ethics asks people to think about what they do before they act; morality asks people to
examine their actions after the fact. For example, someone might have had an opportunity
for an extramarital affair but resisted because it would have been unethical rather than
because it would have been wrong. Or perhaps somebody might give money to charity
because they believe it is the right thing to do, not because they fear eternal damnation.
8. In terms of thinking through what we should do in certain situations, ethics tells us how we
should behave while morality only tells us if we did the right thing once we’ve behaved in
some way.
9. Ethics will help you determine whether your behavior was good or bad, while morality may
help you decide whether your intentions were good or bad.
10. Both ethics and morality play important roles in shaping human civilization.
Ethics vs. Morals

1. Morals are what you believe, while ethics are what you do. You can have conflicting morals
and ethics, like believing stealing is wrong but doing it anyway.
2. Morals are often based on religion or culture, while ethics are based on logic and reason.
This means that you can have different ethical systems even if you share the same morals.
3. Morals usually deal with personal conduct, while ethics deal with professional conduct. For
example, a doctor may consider euthanasia to be morally acceptable but ethically
unacceptable because of their position as a doctor.
4. It’s possible for someone to live by their moral standards without ever having any conflicts
with their ethics because morality deals more with how we should behave in our day-to-day
lives, while ethics looks at all actions in general – both good and bad.

Conclusion – Ethics vs Morality

Ethics and morality are related concepts concerned with distinguishing right from wrong, they have
nuanced differences in terms of their scope, origin, and application. Morality is more personal and
subjective, often rooted in individual values and beliefs, whereas ethics tends to be more formal,
external, and context-specific. Nevertheless, both play essential roles in guiding human behavior and
decision-making.

UTILITARIANISM

Utilitarianism is a consequentialist theory. An action is right or wrong depending on the

consequences of that action. The happiness of the community is the proper goal of our actions. The
principle of utility also known as the greatest happiness principles states that actions are right in
proportion as they tend to promote happiness, wrong as they tend to produce reverse of happiness.
Happiness is identified with pleasure, unhappiness with pain. The only intrinsic good is pleasure.

- It’s a theory of morality that advocates actions that foster happiness or pleasure and oppose
actions that cause unhappiness or harm.
- Determines right from wrong by focusing on outcomes.
- Holds that the most ethical choice is the one that will provide the greater good for the
greatest number

Utilitarianism is a moral theory that encourages actions that result in the greatest good for the
greatest number of people. It's a form of consequentialism, which means that the right action is
determined by the consequences it produces.

How utilitarianism works

 - Identify all possible actions
- Consider the benefits and harms of each action
- Choose the action that produces the greatest balance of benefits over harms

Utilitarianism in practice

- Utilitarianism can be used to evaluate actions, laws, policies, character traits, and moral
codes.
- It can also be used to help decide how to allocate resources, such as time and money, to help
others.
- Utilitarianism can be applied to a wide range of situations, such as deciding whether to enact
a lockdown during a pandemic.

Examples of utilitarianism

- When choosing ice cream, you should choose the flavor that gives you the most pleasure
- In law enforcement, an officer should consider the consequences of allowing marijuana
sales
- In policymaking, decisions should be made to promote the common good
- Lying: Whether it's wrong to lie to a friend depends on how the lie affects people's well-
being. If it causes suffering, it's immoral.
- Donating: If donating to a charity can save a child's life for a few thousand dollars, and the
benefits to others outweigh what you'd gain by keeping the money, you should donate.
- War: When deciding whether to go to war, a society should consider the likely outcomes. If
the choice to avoid war would result in greater losses, then going to war is justified.
- Robbery: If more people benefit from a robbery than are harmed by it, then the robbery is
morally right.

Utilitarianism is often considered a demanding theory because it encourages people to help others
when they can do more to help others than themselves.

DEONTOLOGY

Deontology is a popular approach which believes that for an action to have amoral worth, it must be
done from the sense of duty.

Deontology is an ethical theory that judges actions based on whether they follow universal moral
rules, rather than the consequences of those actions. It's also known as duty-based ethics
Deontological ethics, in philosophy, ethical theories that place special emphasis on the relationship
between duty and the morality of human actions. The term deontology is derived from the Greek
deon, “duty,” and logos, “science.”

Deontology means intentions are more important than results; doing something because it's right is
what counts.

Deontology is an ethical theory that judges actions based on their inherent rightness or wrongness,
rather than their consequences.

Examples of deontology include:

- Paying suppliers on time: A deontologist believes that paying suppliers on time is their
ethical obligation, and that failing to do so is unethical.
- The Ten Commandments: A set of moral rules that are universally applied to those who
follow the religious doctrine they originate from.
- Not stealing: Stealing for one's own benefit would violate Kant's categorical imperative.
- Showing respect: Deontologists believe that showing respect to superiors is an ethical
obligation.
- Moral absolutism: Deontologists believe that certain actions, such as murder or lying, are
always wrong, even if they might lead to positive consequences.

Deontology is also known as duty-based ethics. The name comes from the Greek word deon,
meaning duty or obligation.

- Deontology is one of the main theories in ethics, along with

consequentialism. Consequentialism focuses on judging the moral worth of the results of
actions.

Deontologists live in a universe of moral rules, such as:

- It is wrong to kill innocent people.

- It is wrong to steal.
- It is wrong to tell lies.
- It is right to keep promises.

VIRTUE ETHICS

Virtue ethics emphasizes character or right being over right action. A virtue is an admirable character
trait or disposition to act in a manner that benefits oneself and others. A vice is a character trait or
disposition to act in a manner that harms oneself and others. Virtue is essential to the achievement
of Eudaimonia or psychological well-being and inner harmony.

Aristotle divides the human psyche into the rational and non-rational elements. In a virtuous person,
reason oversees the non-rational elements. Therefore, wisdom is the greatest virtue and ignorance is
the greatest vice.

Aquinas regarded reason as the most important human faculty. However, he thought that we could
not be virtuous without God's help. Therefore, faith is the greatest virtue and pride is the greatest
vice. The doctrine of the means states that virtue in general, entails moderation or seeking the
middle path.

Key ideas of virtue ethics:

Virtues: Virtues are good character traits that help people live well. Examples include courage,
kindness, and wisdom.

Eudaimonia: A central concept in virtue ethics is eudaimonia, which is a Greek word that means
"happiness" or "flourishing".

Practical wisdom: Virtue ethics encourages people to use their practical wisdom to navigate their
circumstances and express their rationality through their actions.

Role models: Virtue ethics emphasizes the importance of role models and learning from others who
are virtuous.

How to apply virtue ethics:

 Consider what would be virtuous in a given situation by looking for the middle ground
between two extremes.

 Imagine what a virtuous person would do in a situation.

 Cultivate virtues through repetition and good habits.

Virtue ethics is one of the major approaches to normative ethics. It differs from other ethical systems
that focus on rules, consequences, or obedience to authority.

Virtue ethics teaches: An action is only right if it is an action that a virtuous person would carry out
in the same circumstances. A virtuous person is a person who acts virtuously. A person acts
virtuously if they "possess and live the virtues" A virtue is a moral characteristic that a person needs
to live well.

Virtue is the quality of being morally good. If you're writing a screenplay and you want it to be a real
tearjerker, make sure your hero is full of virtue. The word virtue comes from the Latin root vir, for
man. At first virtue meant manliness or valor, but over time it settled into the sense of moral
excellence.

Examples of virtue ethics include being honest, courageous, and generous. Virtue ethics is a moral
philosophy that emphasizes developing good character traits.

Examples of virtue ethics in action

 - A compassionate employee who helps colleagues
- A good nurse who provides excellent care to patients
- Returning to a store to pay for a forgotten item
- Being honest, brave, just, and generous
- Caring for living things and appreciating natural beauty
- Being fair, responsible, patient, and caring

How virtue ethics develops

- Virtues are developed through learning and practice

- Practicing self-discipline can improve a person's character
- A person who has developed the virtue of generosity is often generous in all circumstances
- Virtues are habits that become characteristic of a person

Virtue ethics in philosophy

- The most famous virtue ethics example is Aristotelian ethics, which holds that the final goal
of ethics is happiness
- Virtue ethics emphasizes moral education
- Virtue theories claim that ethics is about agents, not actions or consequences

VIRTUE ETHICS VS DEONTOLOGY

Virtue ethics focuses on character and what makes a good person, while deontology focuses on
following rules and doing what's right.

Virtue ethics is based on the idea that we should cultivate certain virtues, and that the good person
is the person who has those virtues. Deontology is based on the idea that actions are good or bad
according to a set of rules.

Virtue ethics is one of three major approaches in normative ethics, along with deontology and
consequentialism. Consequentialism focuses on the outcomes of actions

Virtue ethics is one of three major approaches in normative ethics, along with deontology and
consequentialism. Consequentialism focuses on the outcomes of actions.
JUSTICE

Justice is a fundamental ethical principle that involves treating people fairly and impartially. It's a
central concept in ethics, law, and politics.

How is justice applied?

- In law: Justice is the idea that laws should ensure that no one is harmed, and that there are
remedies for alleged harm.
- In research: Justice involves ensuring that research subjects are selected fairly and not based
on their vulnerability or availability.
- In medicine: Justice involves allocating healthcare resources fairly, and not discriminating
against patients based on race, religion, or other factors.
- In social institutions: Justice involves distributing benefits and burdens equitably, and
respecting the rights of individuals.

Justice in practice: Justice can be applied in many different situations, including criminal justice,
environmental issues, and medical ethics.

Justice in dilemmas: Justice can be a complex concept, and can lead to ethical dilemmas. For
example, a person who steals bread to feed their family is acting out of necessity, but their actions
violate the rights of the bread's owner.

Justice means giving each person what he or she deserves or, in more traditional terms, giving each
person his or her due. Justice and fairness are closely related terms that are often today used
interchangeably. (fairness)

Examples of justice in ethics

- Access to legal representation: No one should be denied access to legal advice or

representation because they cannot afford it.
 - Fair treatment in healthcare: Patients suspected of having cancer should be prioritized for
treatment.
- Fair treatment in the workplace: A company's tardiness policy should apply equally to all
employees.
- Fair treatment in nursing: Nurses should treat patients impartially regardless of their age,
ethnicity, economic status, religion, or sexual orientation.
- Fair treatment in environmental matters: All people should be treated fairly with regard to
environmental burdens and benefits.
- Fair treatment in social matters: Everyone should have equal economic, political, and social
opportunities.

Other types of justice

- Corrective justice: Making whole those who have suffered unfairly

- Retributive justice: Punishing wrongdoers objectively and proportionately
- Procedural justice: Implementing legal decisions in accordance with fair and unbiased
processes

ETHICAL DILEMMA

Introducing an Ethical Dilemma

You’re at a party and you see your best friend’s significant other flirting with someone else. Do you
tell your best friend what you saw? This is an ethical dilemma because there is no clear right or
wrong answer, and whichever choice you make could have consequences. If you choose to keep it to
yourself and let them find out on their own, they may not trust you anymore. On the other hand, if
you tell them and they get mad at you for not telling them sooner, then it would be an ethical issue
of loyalty. These are all valid arguments that could go either way. It’s up to you how you want to
handle this situation, but to do so, it might help if we can first establish the difference between ethics
and morality.

An ethical dilemma is a situation where you must choose between two or more options that are
equally defensible but have negative consequences.

How do ethical dilemmas arise?

- When you have conflicting moral obligations

- When you have multiple roles with different obligations
- When you must choose between personal integrity and loyalty
- When you must choose between individual interests and community interests

How can you resolve ethical dilemmas? Consider conflicting moral principles, Apply those principles
to specific cases, and Reflect on the consequences of your actions.

Examples of ethical dilemmas:

- Should you turn in a family member who committed a crime?

- If an autonomous car must choose between hitting pedestrians or crashing into another car,
how should it act?

How can companies resolve ethical dilemmas? Develop strict ethical standards for employees,
Demonstrate a commitment to ethical norms, and Provide ethical training for employees.
Ethical dilemmas can occur in many areas of life, including medicine, biotechnology, and human
interaction with animals and the environment.

An ethical dilemma occurs when a person encounters conflicts among values, duties, rights, and
obligations. Moral philosophers and ethicists often refer to these situations as hard cases.

An ethical dilemma is a situation where there is a difficult choice between two or more options, none
of which are ideal. Ethical dilemmas can arise in many different contexts, including healthcare, the
workplace, and schools

When faced with an ethical dilemma, it's important to consider the consequences of your actions
and choose the option that aligns with your values.

Related terms moral quandary, ethical conflict, ethical conundrum, ethical predicament, and ethical
puzzle.

MORAL RELATIVISM

Moral relativism is the idea that there is no universal or absolute set of moral principles. It's a version
of morality that advocates “to each her own,” and those who follow it say, “Who am I to judge?”

Moral relativism is the view that moral judgments are true or false only relative to some particular
standpoint (for instance, that of a culture or a historical period) and that no standpoint is uniquely
privileged over all others.

Moral realism, also known as ethical realism, is the philosophical belief that moral facts exist and are
independent of human opinion. Moral realists believe that moral statements can be true or false, just
like mathematical statements.
What is the difference between moral realism and relativism?

Moral realists argue that there are moral facts whose truth is independent of what anyone thinks,
while moral relativists argue that moral claims are only true relative to a particular culture or society

An example of moral relativism in action would be when a person from a culture where arranged
marriages are the norm believes that this practice is morally acceptable, while a person from a
culture where individual choice is the norm views the practice as morally wrong.

DIVINE COMMAND THEORY

Divine command theory is a moral theory that states that God's commands determine what is right
and wrong. It's an absolutist theory, meaning that there's no room for debate about morality.

How it works

- An action is morally right if it's commanded by God

- An action is morally wrong if it's prohibited by God
- An action is morally permissible if it's permitted by God

Who supports it

- Theists, who believe in God, generally accept divine command theory

Criticisms

- Some philosophers, including Plato, J. L. Mackie, and Kai Nielsen, have criticized the theory

Arguments for and against

- The arguments for and against divine command theory have both theoretical and practical
importance
- The theory can offer a source of comfort for some people when facing difficult situations

Variations

- There are strong and weak versions of divine command theory

- Strong versions claim that moral norms are defined by divine commandments
- Weaker versions claim that God's commands inform us about morality

Divine command theory is the belief that things are right because God commands them to be. In
other words, it means that things which are considered wrong or unethical are wrong because they
are forbidden by God.
An example of divine command theory might come from Thomas Aquinas, who argued for a morality
rooted in human fulfillment set forth by God. Since stealing, eating filth, or committing adultery do
not result in human fulfillment, these actions are immoral.

Examples from the Bible

The Ten Commandments: The commandment "Thou shalt not kill" is an example of divine command
theory.

The story of Abraham and Isaac: According to divine command theory, Abraham was justified in
attempting to kill Isaac because God commanded him to do so.

Other examples

- The idea that stealing and lying are wrong because God commands it
- The idea that morality is rooted in human fulfillment set forth by God
- The idea that God commands actions because they are morally right

Divine command theory is the idea that morality is based on what God commands, rather than on
consequences or other ethical principles. It's a feature of many religions, including Christianity,
Judaism, Islam, and the Bahá'í Faith.

However, divine command theory can vary depending on religious contexts and interpretations. For
example, some divine command theorists believe that God commands actions because they are
morally right. Others believe that God's commands are always good because they reflect God's good
nature.

AUTONOMY
Autonomy is the ethical principle of self-governance, or the ability to make your own decisions and
live your life according to your own values and desires. It's a fundamental principle in Western ethics
and political philosophy.

Examples of autonomy:

- Setting boundaries in relationships

- Choosing to exercise in the morning because you enjoy it
- Joining a community sports team because you enjoy playing
- Making decisions about your life by researching your options

Autonomy in healthcare: In healthcare, autonomy is the basis for informed consent, truth-telling,
and confidentiality. Informed consent is a process where a patient and their healthcare provider
communicate and agree on care or treatment.

Respect for autonomy: Respect for autonomy means giving people the freedom to make their own
decisions and act on them, as long as they don't harm others or violate their rights.

Autonomy in ethics and other fields: Autonomy is also important in other fields, such as the
workplace, where it can mean valuing employees and including them in decision-making.

Ethical autonomy concerns a person's desires in the quest for the good life, in the context of the
person's values, commitments, relationships, and communities. Legal autonomy is thus the right not
to be forced into a particular set of values and commitments, and is neutral toward them.

An autonomous person can decisions without influence or direction from others. Having autonomy
means that one is free to follow one's heart. Of course, there are varying degrees of autonomy. For
example, a person who is not imprisoned can make decisions and act according to personal desires
and motives.