SOIL PHYSICS

Lesson 3 topics:
Soil texture
Soil structure
Particle density, bulk density and pore space
Soil moisture
Soil aeration
Soil color
Soil temperature
Objectives:
Describe the concept of soil texture and its
importance.
Identify the texture of a sample of soil.
Describe the soil permeability and related properties.
Describe structure and its formation and importance.
Explain other physical properties.
Discuss soil compaction and tilth.
Conduct laboratory exercises.
 SOIL PHYSICS
Soil physics is a branch of soil science which deals with
the study of soil physical conditions.
Soil physics is generally concerned with the state and
movement of matter and energy in soils.
Physical characteristics
of soil

Texture Compaction Tilth

Aggregation Porosity Color

Consistency Permeability Temperature

 texture
Soil texture refers to the relative proportions of
sand, silt, and clay particles in the soil. It is a
fundamental physical characteristic that
influences soil properties such as water-
holding capacity, drainage, aeration, and
nutrient retention.

Soils can be classified as sandy, silty, clayey,

or loamy, depending on their texture.
 Soil Texture &
Textural Composition

Soil texture could be defined as the relative proportion of particle size

groupings in the soil on percentage basis. It describes the sand, silt
and clay composition of the soil.
The smaller the particles in a soil, the larger the internal surface area.
Similarly, the smaller the particles in a soil the more water and
nutrients the soil can retain.
 Soil Texture &
Textural Composition
Physical test for these three groups reveals that:

sandy soil is generally coarse, gritty, non-sticky with low cohesion;

silt is smooth like flour
clay is sticky and plastic when wet but very hard when dry.
loam texture soil usually exhibits a combination of the three
properties.
 Soil Texture &
Textural Composition

A soil sample usually contains a combination of at least

two separates thus there are classes of soil texture.
These combinations are therefore classified into twelve
different combinations called soil textural classes.
Table 1 shows two schemes of classification used for
defining various separates in soils.
 texture

Sand particles are clearly visible, but a microscope

must be used to see silt particles. An electron
microscope is needed to see clay particles. In
comparison to spheres we know and understand,
a sand particle may be equivalent to a basketball;
a silt particle to a golf ball; and a clay particle to
the head of a pin.
 12 textural classes

Soil Textural Class Description

Sand Very coarse, drains quickly, poor in nutrients.

Loamy Sand Slightly more silt and clay than sand, still drains well.

Sandy Loam Well-balanced, retains some moisture, good for plants.

Loam Ideal mix of sand, silt, and clay, holds moisture but drains well.

Silt Loam Smooth texture, holds water well, prone to compaction.

Sandy Clay Loam More sand than clay, better drainage than pure clay.
 12 textural classes

Soil Textural Class Description

Clay Loam Balanced mix of all three particles, good structure and moisture
retention.

Silty Clay Loam Higher silt and clay content, retains water well but can be dense.

Sandy Clay More sand than clay, drains faster but still holds moisture.

Silty Clay High silt and clay content, holds a lot of water, can compact easily.

Clay High clay content, retains water, drains slowly, can be sticky.

Silt Very fine particles, holds water well but has poor drainage.
 soil
texture
classification
 soil
textural
triangle
Size Limits of Soil Separates in the USDA
and ISSS Schemes. Source: Ivara E. Esu.
1999. Fundamentals of Pedology
 Why Study Soil Texture?

The rate at which water enters the soil (infiltration) and drains through
(percolation) depends on whether it is sandy, silt or clay soil.
The rate of nutrient leaching also depends on rate of water infiltration e.g. clay
soils have the best holding ability for water and chemical nutrients.
Soil texture influences the ease at which a soil can be worked; clay soils are more
difficult than sandy soils. iv. The knowledge of soil texture and crop requirement
of soil enable the grower to select suitable soils/land for his crop.
Growers would be able to know management practices suitable for the soil types
especially in terms of fertilization, irrigation and organic materials incorporation.
Soil Structure and Aggregates

Soil structure may be defined as the organization of sand, silt, clay

and humus particles into somewhat stable groupings (peds).

It can also be defined as the aggregation of primary soil particles

(sand, silt and clay) into compound particles termed peds or
aggregates, which are separated by adjoining peds by lines of
weakness.
 Aggregation
Soil aggregation refers to the arrangement and
aggregation of soil particles into clusters or
aggregates.

Note:
Well-aggregated soils have good soil structure,
which provides space for air and water
movement, root penetration, and microbial
activity. Soil structure can be granular, blocky,
prismatic, or platy, among others.
 Soil Structure and Aggregates

Three groups of characteristics are used to classify different kinds

of structure:

Type
Class
Grade
 Soil Structure and Aggregates

TYPE
refers to the shape of
the soil aggregate e.g.
granular, platy, crumb,
etc.
Soil Structure and Aggregates
Soil Structure and Aggregates
Soil Structure and Aggregates

CLASS
refers to the size of the
peds e.g. fine, medium,
coarse, etc.
Soil Structure and Aggregates

CLASS
Soil Aggregate Class Size Description

Small-sized aggregates, usually less than 1 mm in diameter,

Fine
commonly found in clayey soils.

Aggregates range from 1 mm to 5 mm in diameter, typically

Medium
found in loamy soils.

Large aggregates greater than 5 mm in diameter, often found

Coarse
in sandy or well-structured soils.
 Soil Structure and Aggregates

GRADE
describes how distinct and strong the
peds are. It expresses the differential
between cohesion within aggregates
and adhesion between aggregates
Soil Structure and Aggregates

Cohesion refers to the Adhesion is the attraction or

attraction or "stickiness" "stickiness" between soil
between soil particles particles and water. It's how
themselves. It's the force that water molecules are attracted to
holds soil particles together, and cling to the surfaces of soil
making them stick in clumps particles.
or aggregates.
 Soil Structure and Aggregates

Cohesion in Soil

Cohesion is like soil particles holding hands.

It's when tiny bits of soil stick together
because they like each other, making the soil
act like a solid. Think of making a mud ball; the
mud sticks together because of cohesion.
 Soil Structure and Aggregates

Adhesion in Soil

Think of a sponge. When you dip it in water,

CAPILLARY
the water gets soaked up and sticks to the ACTION
sponge's surface. This is adhesion. In soil,
water adheres to the surfaces of soil particles
and soil aggregates, allowing plants to absorb
it.
 Soil Consistency

Soil consistence refers to the behavior of soil when

pressure is applied, especially at various moisture
contents, usually when the soil is wet, moist, or dry.

The terms used to describe consistence include:

Wet soil
Moist soil
Dry soil
 Soil Consistency

Wet Soil
Often described in terms of stickiness:
non-sticky, slightly sticky, sticky,
very sticky.

In terms of plasticity as:

non-plastic, slightly plastic, plastic,
and very plastic.
 Soil Consistency
Wet Soil

Plasticity Level Description

Soils that do not exhibit plasticity when mixed with water. They do not change shape or consistency
Non-Plastic when water is added. Typically composed of coarse particles like sand and gravel, making them unable
to be molded into shapes.

Soils with a limited degree of plasticity. When mixed with water, they can be molded but do not hold
Slightly Plastic
their shape well and tend to crumble easily. Silts are an example of slightly plastic soils.

Soils with a moderate degree of plasticity. When water is added, they can be molded into shapes that
Plastic
hold together without breaking apart immediately. Clay soils often fall into this category.

Soils with a high degree of plasticity. They can be easily molded when mixed with water and maintain
Very Plastic their shape for a long time. Highly cohesive and sticky, often containing a high percentage of fine
particles like clay.
 Soil Consistency

Moist Soil
This is very important because it best describes
the condition of soils when they are tilled in the
field. Consistency of a moist soil is described in
the following terms; going from the material with
least coherence to that which adheres so
strongly as to resist crushing between the
thumb and forefinger: loose, very friable, friable,
firm, very firm and extremely firm.
 Soil Consistency
Moist Soil

Soil Consistency Description

Dry or has very low moisture content. Granular and not cohesive. Falls apart easily and does not hold its shape. Common in arid or
Loose
drought-prone areas.

Slightly more compact than loose soil but still relatively dry. Crumbles easily and lacks cohesiveness. Can be broken apart with minimal
Very Friable
effort.

Friable Moderately compacted and somewhat crumbly. Holds its shape better than very friable soil but can still be broken apart with minimal force.

Has moderate moisture content. Holds its shape when molded or compressed. Less deformable than loose or friable soil and has some
Firm
cohesiveness.

Very Firm Higher moisture content than firm soil. Holds its shape well, has good cohesiveness, and requires more effort to break apart.

High moisture content, very compacted, and cohesive. Difficult to deform and holds its shape under significant pressure. Often found in wet
Extremely Firm
or saturated conditions like swamps or marshes.
 Soil Consistency

Dry Soil
Terms used to describe the degree
of rigidity or brittleness to crushing
or manipulations include the
following: loose, soft, slightly hard,
hard, very hard and extremely hard.
 Soil Consistency
Moist Soil

Soil Type Description

Very dry and crumbly, lacks cohesion, easily falls apart into loose particles when disturbed. Does not hold its shape and can be easily
Loose Dry Soil
moved or dispersed.

Somewhat dry but has a little cohesion. Retains its shape better than loose soil but is still easily crumbled with minimal effort. Not
Soft Dry Soil
compacted and feels loose to the touch.

Moderate level of dryness and cohesion. Can be molded or compressed with some effort but still breaks apart relatively easily. May
Slightly Hard Dry Soil
have a slightly compacted feel.

Quite dry and compacted. Holds its shape well and does not crumble easily. Requires significant force to break apart or compress
Hard Dry Soil
further.

Extremely dry and compacted. Very resistant to deformation and feels extremely hard to the touch. Breaking it apart or compressing it
Very Hard Dry Soil
requires substantial force.

Exceptionally dry and densely compacted. Extremely resistant to deformation and feels as hard as concrete. Very challenging to break
Extremely Hard Dry Soil
apart or compress further.
 SOIL COMPACTION
This is the natural packing of soil particles by natural force into a more dense
or closer pack. The forces acting to compact soil are:

Overburden weight of material above the soil.

Implement traffic from mechanized agriculture
Foot traffic
Tillage pressure due to implement moved through the soil
Micro-organism as in the ant-hills.
 SOIL COMPACTION
Over the years, the implements cause pressure on the lower layer of tillage soil.
There is thus a low infiltration rate on this layer of soil. That is, the porosity
becomes low and bulk density increases, other effects of compaction are:

Reduced permeability, aeration and water infiltration

Difficulty in root penetration
Severe compaction inhibits production
 SOIL COMPACTION

Soil compaction is measured by the bulk density and the use

of cone penetrometer.
 Porosity and Pore Spaces

The volume of open spaces (pores) in the soil.

Porosity influences the movement of air, water, and
roots through the soil.

Note:
Sandy soils have larger pores, which result in
higher permeability but lower water-holding
capacity.
Clayey soils have smaller pores, leading to lower
permeability but greater water retention.
 Porosity and Pore Spaces

Pores are spaces or voids between solid soil materials. The

occurrence or abundance of pores in soils are of pedological
significance because a soil with many coarse pores will be
much more aerated and better drained than one with few very
fine pores.
 Porosity and Pore Spaces

The pores allow the soil to act as medium for air and water
transport and it is within the pores that physical, chemical and
biological processes occur in the soil.

Pore Space could also be defined as the portion of given volume

of soil which is not filled with solid matter.
 Porosity and Pore Spaces

Macropores are the big pores which are mainly meant for aeration while
micropores (small pores) are meant to transmit water after wetting.
Pores are connected with one another in the soil and are usually
described by their retention of water and air. An ideal soil for
agricultural purposes has fairly equal proportion of macropores and
micropores. This is usually put at 25% for each of the two pore sizes.
 Porosity and Pore Spaces

Porosity - It is the percentage of total pore space in the soil,

showing how much space is available for air and water.

Where:
Φ = Porosity (%)
1 = represents the total soil volume (solids +
pores).
ρb = Bulk density (g/cm³)
ρp = Particle density (g/cm³)
 Porosity and Pore Spaces

Given Data:
Bulk Density (ρb) = 1.3 g/cm³
Particle Density (ρp) = 2.6 g/cm³
 Porosity and Pore Spaces

INTERPRETATION
The soil porosity is 50%, meaning half of the soil volume consists of pore spaces for air and water.
 Porosity and Pore Spaces

Given Data:

Aiming for optimal rice growth, a farmer examines his soil and
measures a bulk density of 1.5 g/cm³ and a particle density of
2.7 g/cm³ to assess its ability to hold water.
 Porosity and Pore Spaces

INTERPRETATION
The soil porosity is 44.44%, which means nearly 44% of the soil is pore space for air and water.
 soil density

The density of a soil is its weight per natural volume or bulk

volume and it is related to the amount of empty space in the
soil. Soil density is expressed in two ways:

particle density
bulk density
 soil density

Particle density

the mass per unit volume of soil solids.

For example, one cubic centimeter of soil solids weighing 2.0g, has particle
density of 2.0g cm-3. Mineral soils have particle density range of 2.60-2.75g cm-
3 with an average value of 2.65gcm-3. organic matter tends to lower particle
density.
 soil density

Where: Vs indicates volume of solids (Solid space) and solid space is bulk volume – air space.
Organic matter which promotes soil aggregation tends to lower the bulk density.
 soil density

Bulk density

The mass of soil per unit bulk volume of dry soil

 soil density

Bulk density

1. Calculate the bulk density of a 400 cm3 soil sample that

weighs 575 g (oven dry weight).
b = Ms/Vs
= 575g / 400cm3
= 1.44g / cm3
 Permeability

Soil permeability refers to the

ability of soil to allow water
and air to pass through it. It
depends on soil texture,
structure, and compaction.
 Permeability

Here’s a general classification of soil permeability:

Permeability Level Description

Very High Water drains extremely quickly. Found in sandy soils with large particles and high porosity.

High Water drains quickly but retains some moisture. Common in loamy sandy soils.

Water drains at a balanced rate, providing good moisture retention and aeration. Found in loam and silt
Moderate
loam soils.

Low Water drains slowly, leading to potential waterlogging. Found in clay loam or silty clay soils.

Water drains extremely slowly or not at all. Found in compacted clay soils with very fine particles and
Very Low
poor aeration.
 Permeability
Hydraulic conductivity is the measure of a soil's ability to transmit water through its
pores under a given hydraulic gradient. It is influenced by soil texture, structure, porosity,
and moisture content. It is typically expressed in units of length per time (e.g., cm/sec,
m/day).

High hydraulic conductivity → Found in sandy soils, where water moves quickly.
Low hydraulic conductivity → Found in clay soils, where water movement is very slow.

It is an important factor in irrigation, drainage, and groundwater flow studies.

 soil tilth

Tilth is the physical condition of the soil in relation to ease of

tillage and permeability. It is a function of texture and structure
of the soil. Soil with good tilth makes room for rapid root
growth and ease of seedling emergence.
 soil tilth

Tilth can be improved by improving soil structure and avoiding

compaction by adopting the following practices:

Avoid working too wet or very dry soils.

Reduce traffic or overburdened weight on the soil. iii.
Number of tillage operations could be reduced as in
minimum tillage.
 soil tilth

Subsoil or deep ploughing is good to break up hardpans

Mulching or cover-cropping protect the soil from raindrop impact.
Incorporation of organic matter into the soil such as compost, FYM
or green manures.
Acid soils should be limed to enhance rapid organic matter
decomposition.
 soil color

Soils come in a wide range of colors – shades of brown, red, orange,

yellow, gray, and even blue or green.

Soils with significant organic material content appear dark brown or black.
The most common soil hues are in the red-to-yellow range, getting their
color from iron oxide minerals coating soil particles.
Red ion oxides dominate highly weathered soils.
Soils frequently saturated by water appear gray, blue, or green because the
minerals that give them the red and yellow colors have been leached away.
 soil color

color

munsel
color
chart
 soil color

Soil colour is an important indicator of soil conditions. It

reveals considerable information about any given soil. The soil
can take several shades of colours such as:
Brown-Black where dark soils result from the level of
organic matter contents which is usually high in
waterlogged soils.
 soil color

White-Light grey which indicate leaching of colouring

materials such as organic matter, or due to accumulation
of lime or salts.
Yellow-Red soils contain iron oxides in well-drained soils
Mottling Color develops when the soil is waterlogged for
part of the year.
 soil color

Patches of different colours are shown.

Soil colour is described by using the munsell system in a
soil colour chart.
 soil temperature

Soil temperature refers to the warmth of the soil, which

fluctuates due to factors like sunlight, moisture, and seasonal
changes. It plays a vital role in plant growth, microbial activity,
and nutrient availability.
 soil temperature

Effects of Soil Temperature on Plants:

Seed Germination – Optimal temperatures

promote faster and uniform germination (e.g.,
corn requires 10-12°C).
 soil temperature

Effects of Soil Temperature on Plants:

Root Growth – Warm soils encourage root

development, while cold soils slow growth
and reduce water uptake.
 soil temperature

Effects of Soil Temperature on Plants:

Microbial Activity – Decomposers thrive in warm soil, improving nutrient

cycling.
Nutrient Availability – Extreme temperatures can limit nutrient absorption,
affecting plant health.
Water Uptake – Cold soils reduce root water absorption, leading to drought
stress.
 soil temperature

Tropical Regions – Warm soils (25-30°C) promote year-round plant growth

(e.g., banana plantations).
Temperate Climates – Seasonal variations affect planting schedules (e.g.,
wheat farming).
Cold Climates – Frozen soils delay planting and limit growth (e.g., Arctic
tundra with permafrost).
for Listening!