Chapter - Two

Bahir Dar Institute of technology

Faculty of Electrical and Computer Engineering

Ch_two_ Differential - Amplifier

By . Abrham A.
Micro-Electronics
1 (MSc)
Chapter Content
2.1 Introduction to Differential Amplifier

2.2 Characteristics of Differential Amplifiers

2.3 BJT Differential Amplifiers

2.4 DC Transfer Characteristics

2.5 Small-Signal Analysis of Differential Amplifiers

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 2.1 Introduction to Differential Amplifier
➢ Differential Amplifier is a device that is used to amplify the difference in voltage of the two input
signals.
➢ Differential Amplifier is an important building block in integrated circuits of analog system.
➢ Differential amplifiers are commonly used as
✓ operational amplifiers
✓ voltage comparators
✓ voltage regulators,
✓ video amplifiers,
✓ power amplifiers,
✓ and balanced modulators and demodulators.
➢ A differential amplifier is a very important transistor stage and determines many of the
performance characteristics of an IC.
➢ In ICs, including differential amplifiers, it is unnecessary to bias transistors by setting the values of
biasing resistors.
➢ Because of variations in resistor values, power supply, and temperature, the quiescent point of
transistors changes.
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 Cont.
►Transistors can be used to generate the characteristics of DC constant-current sources.
►Transistors can also be used to produce an output voltage source that is independent of its
load or, equivalently, of the output current.

►A differential amplifier acts as an input stage; its output voltage is proportional to the
difference between its two input voltages v1 and v2 .

►It has a high voltage gain and is directly DC coupled to the input voltages and the load.

►A DC-coupled circuit is used to eliminate capacitors.

►The cheapest component in an IC is the one that can be fabricated within the least area,
usually the transistor.

►The optimal IC has as little resistance as possible and more transistors. 4

2.1 Characteristics of Differential Amplifiers
►If the two input voltages are equal, a differential amplifier gives an output voltage
of almost zero.
►Its voltage gain is very large, so the input voltage is low, typically less than 50 mV.
►That is, 𝒗𝑮1 = 𝒗𝒈1 and 𝒗𝑮𝟐 = 𝒗𝒈𝟐

FIGURE 2.1 Small-signal equivalent circuits with differential and common-mode

inputs .Let us define a differential voltage vid as
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➢ vid =vg1 -vg2 ……. differential voltage vid as
𝑉𝑔1+𝑉𝑔2
Vic= ........... a common-mode voltage vic as
2

➢ and

➢Let vo1 be the output voltage due to vg1 only, and let vo2 be the output voltage due to
vg2 only.
➢Then we can define a differential output voltage vod as .

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➢Let A1 be the voltage gain with an input voltage vg1 at terminal 1 and terminal 2 grounded
(i.e., vg2=0).

➢Let A2 be the voltage gain with an input voltage vg2 at terminal 2 and terminal 1 grounded
(i.e., vg1=0).

➢The output voltage of the differential stage can be obtained by applying the superposition
theorem; i.e.,

➢vo =A1vg1 +A2vg2

➢Substituting .

➢Eqs vg1 and vg2 into this equation yields

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➢ Where Ad= (A1-A2) ⁄2= differential voltage gain and Ac=A1+A2 common-mode voltage gain.

➢ The output voltage vo in above equation is due to a common-mode input voltage vic and a differential in-
put voltage vid. If Ad is much greater than Ac, the output voltage will be almost independent of the
common-mode signal vic.

➢ A differential amplifier is expected to amplify the differential voltage as much as possible while rejecting
(not amplifying) common-mode signals such as noise or other unwanted signals, which will be present in
both terminals.

➢ The ability of an amplifier to reject common-mode signals is defined by a performance criterion called the

common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR), which is defined by

➢ Which is defined as CMRR is:

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The output voltage is

➢ Rid and Ric are the input resistances due to the differential and common-mode signals.

➢Which shows that, to reduce the effect of vic on the output voltage vo that is, to get voc to
approach zero—the value of CMRR must be very large, tending to infinity for an ideal
amplifier.

➢Thus, a differential amplifier should behave differently for common-mode and differential
signals. The small-signal equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 2.1(c)

➢The parameters of a differential amplifier are Ad (ideally ∞), Ac(0), CMRR (∞), Rid(∞),
and Ric (∞).
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 BJT Differential Amplifiers
➢ The BJT differential pairs are analogous to MOS differential pairs.
➢ Since BJTs, in general, have a higher trans-conductance compared to identical MOSFETs, BJT
differential pairs can give a higher voltage gain, but they have limitations of a lower input resistance.
➢ An emitter-coupled pair, as shown in Fig. 2.2, is commonly used in a differential amplifier. The
biasing current should be such that the transistors operate in the active regions.
➢ The DC biasing circuit, which is shown as a constant-current source, can be either a simple resistor, in
which case the equivalent current generator will be zero, or a transistor current source, which is
generally used in ICs.

FIGURE 2.2 Emitter-coupled differential pair

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 2.4 DC Transfer Characteristics
➢The analysis can be simplified by making the following assumptions:
1. The output resistances of the transistors are infinite: ro =∞.

2. The output resistance of the transistor current source is infinite: REE=∞.

➢Using KVL around the loop formed by the two input voltages and the two B-E junctions,
we get

(𝑽𝑩𝟏 − 𝑽𝑩𝑬𝟏 )+(𝑽𝑩𝑬𝟐 −𝑽𝑩𝟐 )=0 (2.3)

• Assuming VBE1, VBE2 >>VT and equal leakage currents IS1=IS2=IS and using the transistor
current equations, we get .

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(2.4)
Substituting vBE1 and vBE2 into Eq. (2.4) gives

Eq 2.5

Eq 2.6

This can be simplified to

Eq 2.7

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➢Where vid =vB1-vB2 is the differential DC input voltage.

➢Using KCL at the emitter terminal of the transistors, we get

Eq 2.8

➢Where α=βF⁄ (1 +βF) ≈1. Solving Eqs. (2.7) and (2.8) for iC1and iC2, we get..

(2.9)
Eq 2.9

➢Thus, if iC1 increases, iC2 decreases such that iC1+iC2=αIQ≈αIEE remains

constant.

➢ 13
▪ The plots of the two collector currents are shown as a function of vid in Fig. 2.3(a). Notice that, for
vid>>VT, iC1and iC2 become independent of vid and all the currents flow through one of the
transistors. For vid <<VT, iC1and iC2 have an approximately linear relation.

▪ The differential voltage change Δvid required to shift the current distribution from iC1=0.9IQ and
iC2=0.1IQ to the opposite case, iC1=0.1IQ and iC2=0.9IQ, is called the transition voltage; it will
have a value of approximately 2VT=52.6 mV.

▪ FIGURE 2.3 Transfer characteristics of emitter-coupled pair

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15
 Cont.
▪ The plot of vod as a function of vid is shown in Fig. 2.3(b). If vid is zero, vod is also zero, and this
feature allows direct coupling of cascaded stages without introducing DC offsets.

▪ Thus, the amplifier is a true differential, or difference, amplifier, responding only to the difference in
the voltages applied to the two input terminals.

▪ If vB1= -vB2, then vic =(vB1+vB2)⁄2 is zero and there will be only a differential voltage.

▪ If, on the other hand, vB1=vB2, then vid is zero and there will be a pure common-mode voltage (i.e.,
no output voltage).

▪ However, the range of the differential input voltage vid over which the emitter-coupled pair exhibits
a linear characteristic is very small, typically two or three times VT.

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 Cont.
▪ This range can be extended by inserting emitter degeneration resistors, as shown in Fig. 2.4(a); in this case,
the range over which the characteristic is linear is approximately equal to IQRE.

▪ The factor by which the voltage gain is reduced is approximately the same as the factor by which the input
range is increased. The variations of vod with several values of RE are shown in Fig. 2.4(b).

Fig 2.4 a and b Transfer characteristics of emitter-coupled pair 17

 Small signal analysis
▪ In studying a BJT differential amplifier, it is often of interest to examine the small-signal
behavior for small DC differential voltages near zero, when the amplifier operates in the
linear portion of the transfer characteristic.

▪ Small signal analysis used to know internal parameter of transistor such as

✓ differential voltage gain Ad

✓ common-mode gain Ac

✓ common-mode rejection ratio (CMMR)

✓ common-mode input resistance Ric, and

✓ differential mode input resistance Rid

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Differential amplifier analysis

•.

2.5
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 Cont
• Assuming that the two transistors are identical and the circuit is balanced, the increase in
voltage at the emitter junction due to vid ⁄ 2 will be compensated for by an equal decrease
in voltage due to - vid ⁄ 2.
• As a result, the voltage at the emitters of the transistors will not vary at all.
• The emitter junction, which experiences no voltage variation, can be regarded as the
ground potential.

2.6
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 Cont
• The characteristic of a balanced amplifier can be determined from only one side of the
amplifier.
• This simplified circuit, shown in Fig. 2.8(a), is known as a differential-mode half circuit; its
small-signal equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 2.8 (b).
• The output voltage vod is given by

• which gives the differential voltage gain Ad as:

• A high value of [rπ =VT IC] that is, a low collector biasing current (IC1= IC2= IQ  2) is
required to achieve a higher value of Rid. 21
 Small Common-Mode Signal
• An emitter-coupled pair with only common-mode input vic is shown in Fig. 2.7(a).
• If the DC common-mode biasing is removed, the result is the small-signal equivalent circuit shown
in Fig. 2.7(b).
• Assuming that the two transistors are identical, the collector currents must be identical, and the
voltage at the emitter junction will increase by the same amount in response to inputs at both
transistors.
• Since the voltage across REE will be the same for both inputs, the resistor REE can be split into two
parallel resistors, each of value 2REE,
• As a result of symmetry, no current will flow through the lead that connects the two
sides, and ix =0. Thus, this lead can be disconnected without affecting the circuit
behavior; as shown in Fig. 2.7(d), the two half circuits may be considered to be
completely independent.

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 Small Common-Mode Signal

• ..

Fig 2.7 Emitter-coupled pair with common-mode input

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• ..

2.8

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..
• ..

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.

which indicates that a high output resistance REE on the biasing current source will improve the CMRR; that is, the
value of REE should be as large as possible.
To obtain a high value of gm (IC ⁄ VT), the collector biasing current (IC1 IC2 IQ ⁄ 2 IEE ⁄ 2) should be made large.

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. The small-signal input currents, which will flow when both vid and vic are
applied, can be found by superposition. Since Ric is common to both ib1 and ib2,
we get

2.9
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 Example

• Designing an emitter-coupled pair

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 Advantages of Differential Amplifier
• Noise immunity: When we use a differential amplifier, it responds to the only difference signal between
input terminals and ignores all common mode signals such as noise pick-up and ground voltages.

• Drift Immunity: One major problem that arises in amplifiers is the change in voltage levels or value by
the effect of temperature. These changes occur slowly and are known as drift. Differential amplifiers
exhibit tremendous ability to eliminate the problem of drift.

• The ideal differential amplifier eliminates the common-mode signal at the output and only amplifies the
differential input.

• Using the differential amplifier it is possible to eliminate or reduce any noise or interference which is
common to both input terminals.

• When multiple differential amplifier stages are cascaded together, then it also eliminates the use of
coupling capacitors between each stage.
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Thank you

END chapter
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