GLIMPSES

Glimpses
The Indian National Academy of Engineering (INAE) is an autonomous institution partly supported by the
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(iii)
 6th Floor, Vishwakarma Bhawan, IIT Campus, Shaheed Jeet Singh Marg, New Delhi - 110016
Tele: (91)-11-26582635, Fax: (91)-11-26856635, Email: [email protected]

DR. BALDEV RAJ, FTWAS, FNAE, FNA, FASc, FNASc President, PSG Institutions
President New Administrative Block, Peelamandu
President, International Institute of Welding Coimbatore-641 004 (Tamil Nadu)
Hon. Member, International Committee on NDT Tel : 0422-4344201
Hon. Member, Indian Institute of Metals Email : [email protected]
Member, German Academy of Sciences, Academia NDT International [email protected]

FOREWORD
I feel privileged and honoured to write Foreword for the INAE Coffee Table Book on “Glimpses of Indian
Engineering Achievements”, to be released during the inaugural function of the Silver Jubilee of the
Academy. The book unfolds a saga of Indian engineering achievements in several domains. These
achievements have enabled enhanced quality of life for the Indian citizens.

The achievements in terms of benchmarks, enhancing wealth generation and quality of life continue to
grow in India. We, in the Academy, a body of eminence, work on several fronts in academia, research,
industry and policy making to realize the challenges of growing India in domains of education, health
care, water, energy, infrastructure, industries, etc., with different degree of success. We believe in
meeting the aspirations of growing India with ethics and equity through inclusive growth by appropriate
synergy of technologies and policies. The academy is committed to the purpose.

The team for the preparation of this unique publication on Indian Engineering Achievements was led by
Prof. Prem Krishna, ably supported by Prof. SS Chakraborty, Capt NS Mohan Ram, Mr. VP Sandlas and
Prof. Ranjan K Mallik. They have completed this assignment with distinction. Thus we have, for the first
time, a possibility to experience community glimpses of extraordinary technological achievements of
Indian engineering with a chronological perspective. The script has been reviewed by Prof. Ajoy K
Ghose to enhance the value and purpose. My gratitude to the team led by Prof Prem Krishana and
Prof. Ajoy K. Ghose for editing.

I am confident that this Coffee Table Book will be a prized possession by the engineers in the country
and elsewhere in the world. I can envision that the Academy shall continue to launch carefully selected
initiatives, to unfold the continuing engineering achievements.

I wish the readers, a wonderful experience of reading about engineering achievements of India.

Dr Baldev Raj
President,
Indian National Academy of Engienering (INAE)

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 Preface
The story of India's engineering development is unique as well as fascinating - there is amazing depth and great width of
engineering in India, with products ranging from the humble bullock cart to the latest Agni anti-missile system. In earlier
days, India had good knowhow and utilization of engineering, albeit in a primitive form. For centuries, our Nation was
ahead of many countries, which have since achieved greater heights of development seeded by the industrial revolution.
India experienced the same relatively late and fell behind.
The situation started improving after India achieved independence , especially after economic liberalization in the last decade
of the twentieth century. While our progress has been creditable, there continue to be severe challenges ahead of us as we
need to keep pace with the rising aspirations of a growing population and to catch up and compete with the rest of the
world.
This book attempts to capture a few vignettes of the incredible story of India's progress and achievements in Engineering.
Following a brief survey of the past, the focus shifts to independent India. The coverage in this book is domain-wise rather
than in accordance with engineering disciplines. This is consistent with the growing inter-relationship amongst disciplines.
The issues addressed encompass – Construction, primarily based on Civil Engineering, which is vital to the development of
infrastructure; Education, which is basic to all fields; and issues of great concern such as Energy and Environment:
Industry and Manufacturing an important vehicle for the growth of the Nation’s economy and Information and
Communication Technology which moves the world today. Further coverage includes Materials, again basic to all
engineering development and the strategically important area of Rocket and Missiles.
Whereas the various sections mentioned above are related to each other to a lesser or greater degree, these are presented
herein as domains on their own. The focus in this book is on reflecting the achievements post-independence, though the
historical backdrop, so important in creating the perspective, has been included, where relevant. It is an incredibly difficult
task to capture even glimpses of India's engineering progress, let alone cover the gamut of achievements in totality. The best
one can hope is to give a broad feel of the progress made. The INAE committee that has coordinated the task is grateful for the
support of many individuals (both within and outside our fellowship), industrial, educational and research establishments
,and, many others. The Committee gratefully acknowledges this support without which this task would not have been
possible. We have also made use of material from the Internet, where appropriate.
New Delhi Prem Krishna
March 2012 S. S. Chakraborty
N. S. Mohan Ram
V. P. Sandlas
R. K. Mallik
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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This is to acknowledge that the members of the INAE committee for this book have contributed a section each,
besides Prof. Subrata Ray and Mr. Paritosh Tyagi who composed the section on Materials and Environment
respectively and Dr. K.V. Raghavan who enriched the section on Energy with his invaluable inputs. Prof. Harsh
Sinvhal from IIT Roorkee helped in composing the section on Education. Mr. Ankit Dubey, Ph.D Scholar from IIT
Delhi, helped in composing the section on Communication and Information Technology. Composing the various
sections for this book would have been virtually impossible without the generous help from a number of
individuals, institutions, organisations, industrial companies in making available excellent pictures/images for
inclusion herein. While these sources are listed at the end of the respective section, their support is gratefully
acknowledged.
This is also to acknowledge the support from Brig. S.C. Marwaha and his team at the INAE office, in particular the
coordination of the project by Mrs. Pratigya Laur and help in composing the section on Energy by Dr. Geetanjali
Sawhney.
The draft has been reviewed by Prof. Ajoy K. Ghose, the chief editor of INAE publications. His invaluable
inputs, besides comments and suggestions, from time to time, from many colleagues in the Academy are
gratefully acknowledged. Also thankfully acknowledged is the work of Mr. Ashish Khosla, representing
Pratibha Printers Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, who have brought out this handsome volume.
Prem Krishna
S. S. Chakraborty
N. S. Mohan Ram
V. P. Sandlas
R. K. Mallik

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Construction
The word construction mainly relates materials of high strength-weight
to Civil Engineering construction, and ratio, such as cables, composites and
runs across like a thread through a fabric. Emphasis moved from steel
wide gamut of engineering activity, (19th century) to concrete and
whether it be in support of prestressed concrete (20th century),
infrastructure – roads, railways, ports, and lately steel experienced a
housing, power, water etc.– industry renaissance. The engineering
dealing with manufacturing, or the construction scenario has moved
engineering for space or defence. The through the primitive stocky shelters
list is long. In the primitive times, and bridges of stone and timber to the
construction of shelter was the main grandeur of the Taj Mahal and many
focus of whatever was the form temples and monuments, to the
engineering had. Today the scope has modern day exotic buildings, longer
widened enormously, as mentioned span bridges of the cable supported
above, and the largest budgetary type, magnificient airports and sports
outlay, amongst all the engineering stadia, complex roadway Bharat Ratna Sir Mokshagundam
activities, belongs to construction. interchanges, challenging hydro Visveswaraya (1860-1962), one of the
India has a history of having projects, metro rail projects such as the tallest amongst Indian Engineers, his
name continues to evoke great
constructed numerous challenging one at Delhi, and so on.
admiration and respect. His
and outstanding structures well
birthday, 15 September, is celebrated
before the development of formal Indian construction industry has as the Engineers’ Day throughout the
engineering education or modern reached a level of competence Country.
technologies for construction. whereby it can serve the needs of
From the use of natural materials such India's development in a proficient
as stone and timber to steel and manner, though in doing so the
concrete, one has moved through high bottlenecks arising out of inept
strength (and performance) materials governance have to be tided over.
to the versatile use of structural 3
4
Howrah Bridge (Rabindra Setu), Kolkata

Howrah Bridge – majestic, imposing and

complex, opened in 1942, would pose a
challenge for engineers even today. This is
one of the lasting, functional monuments
of Indian engineering. A suspension type
balanced cantilever bridge having a
central span of 457 m; cantilever arms 143
m each and a drop-in span of 172 m. The
anchor spans measure 99 m. The main
towers are 85 m tall. 26,500 tons of steel
has gone into the bridge.

5
Rajendra Pul (across Ganga, at
Mokameh), Bihar

This bridge, opened in 1959, gave the first

fixed link across the river between South
and North Bihar. It is a road-cum-rail
double decker steel truss bridge that
became a trend setter for such bridges.
This bridge carries both the Mokameh-
Baruni rail track and NH-31. The bridge is
about 2 km long and has 14 spans of 122 m
and 4 spans of 30.48 m

6
Long Belt Conveyor, between
Meghalaya and Bangladesh

The conveyor, carrying the material

requirements for a cement plant in
Bangladesh, is the longest single flight
belt conveyor in the world. Out of the
17 km of LBC, 7 km is on Indian soil and
10 km in Bangladesh. There are no transfer
towers and the belt travels at heights
above ground ranging between 5.5 m and
44 m, through plains and hills. Instead of
walkways for en-route inspection and
maintenance, it deploys a moving vehicle,
running at speeds as high as 20 km per
hour and on a wireless power system
through the induction method.

7
Pasighat Bridge, Arunachal Pradesh

The bridge, spanning the Siang River,

strengthens the road network in Dibang
Valley and Upper Subansri district. The
commissioning of the bridge in 2011 is a
marked centennial event of establishment
of Pasighat.

The project took more than 20 years to be

realized, offering lessons on such projects
in the remote regions of this vast nation.
Inclusive development and problems of
logistics in remote areas work at cross-
purposes. Yet, Indian engineers have
overcome and made this bridge, 763 m
long and costing Rs. 28 crores a reality.

8
Second Vivekananda Bridge Project,
Kolkata

The bridge stretches 880 m across River

Hooghly, mere 50 m downstream of the
existing Vivekananda Setu (Bally Bridge).
The profiles of the two bridges meld
seamlessly when looked at from the river.
Yet, the new and innovative extradosed,
multi-span bridge with a single plane of
stay cables supporting a 29 m wide deck
offers an arresting visage when looked at
along the axis.

The engineering-cum-aesthetic excellence

fetched the Bridge Award for the most
innovative bridge in the international
category from the American Segmental
Bridge Institute, in 2007.

9
Chatrapati Shivaji Terminus (CST),
Mumbai

The terminus-cum-HQ of Central

Railway - an imposing edifice,
particularly when it stood alone as in the
picture, and Mumbai was Bombay!
Considered one of the finest railway
termini of its time anywhere in the world,
this was built over a ten year period and
opened on the occasion of Queen
Victoria’s Golden Jubilee in 1887. It
represents one of the finest examples of
Italian Gothic Revival Architecture and
combines a number of features from local
Indian architectural traditions.
Construction experts must be proud for
successfully meeting the architects’
demands.

10
Gateway of India, Mumbai

One has to imagine how the monument

would have impressed through its
isolated grandeur, the visitors arriving by
boat. Even while sitting quite subdued as
a frontispiece of the tower of a hotel, it
carries its quiet dignity with the waves
lapping the sea wall. It is 26 metres high
and is built from yellow basalt and
reinforced concrete. The stone was locally
obtained, and the perforated screens were
brought from Gwalior. Even today, as one
leaves the Gateway, it takes one's breath
away - a lasting splendour of the days
goneby.

11
Capacity-wise, Wankhede is not a big
stadium - seating only about 34,000, but its
engineering aspects are impressive.

The stadium was built in 1975 and had

undergone a significant facelift for the
matches of the Cricket World Cup 2011.
The roof over the stadium offering
unrestricted view of the arena was
executed under severe time pressures, as
has become the norm for most projects.

12
Panvel Nadi Viaduct – Konkan
Railway, Maharashtra

A 424 m long railway bridge, for a single

line of broad gauge track, along the
ecologically sensitive Konkan Railway
alignment hugging the Western Ghats.
This was the first time that incremental
launch system was used in India for
construction. The tall viaduct supports
the rail at 64 m above water. The
superstructure is a single-cell continuous
prestressed concrete box girder with 30 m
+ 9 x 40 m + 30 m span configuration. The
piers are of hollow octagonal reinforced
concrete, resting on open foundations.

13
Surat-Manor Tollway, Along NH-8,
Maharashtra - Gujarat

This is the curtain raiser in the Golden

Quadrilateral initiative of NHAI. As the
first effort, it did not initially mandate a
high degree of design standards to
enhance road safety. However, during
implementation of the project, approval of
a major change in scope allowed the
necessary changes to be incorporated in
the original mandate, making them
integral to the original works.

14
One way to describe the building is that it
is the architectural statement of the future.
Is it a spaceship, or, an egg waiting to give
birth to the technology-future? It is left to
the limits of one's imagination. The
architects demanded and the engineers
responded.

15
Giant Metrewave Radio Telescope,
Pune, Maharashtra

Located near Pune, the Giant Metrewave

Radio Telescope (GMRT) is the world’s
largest array of radio telescopes at metre
wavelengths. It contains 30 fully
steerable telescopes, of 45 metre
diameter.

The design, based on the ‘SMART’

concept – Stretched Mesh Attached to
Rope Trusses – resulted in light-weight
and low cost dishes, and represented a
major technological breakthrough. The
facility is used by astronomers from all
over the world.

16
Bandra-Worli Sea Link (BWSL),
Mumbai

This is the country's second sea link, at a

total length of 5.6 kilometres, longer
than its predecessor, Pamban Bridge.
Designed as the first cable-stayed
bridges to be constructed in open seas in
India, the facility has, across the Bandra
channel a 50m-250m-250m-50m
span arrangement and on the Worli
channel, a 50m-50m-150m-50m-50m
configuration. The largest pylons for the
bridge consist of diamond shaped 128
metres high concrete towers. The
superstructure of the viaducts was built
by the span-by-span method.

17
Constructed on the former Apollo Mills,
Lodha Bellissimo, contributing to urban
rejuvenation, can properly be called
Mumbai's first "garden" skyscraper. The
design is in view of the Arabian Sea, and
reflects it in the gently-contoured sea-
wave inspired façade and a wave-like roof
element. It is amongst the first 200 m+
high-rise buildings in India. The tower
design incorporates the design
requirements of wind engineering and
earthquake engineering. The photograph
shows the model of the building being
tested in a wind tunnel.

18
The Ganges Canal and
The Solani Aqueduct

The 650 km long canal from Hardwar to

Kanpur is the longest in the country. It is
truly impressive that the project was
executed with little formal engineering
back-up. Yet, it serves the purpose well
now as it did when completed in 1853.

India's first aqueduct was constructed

over River Solani, near Roorkee, as part of
the Ganges Canal project.

Besides the irrigational benefits of the

project, 'Roorkee College' was founded in
1847 for capacity building to maintain the
civil engineering works of the Upper
Ganges Canal.

19
measures 97.40 m in length, 19.30 m high,
and has 32 arches of different spans in
four tiers of arched galleries, each of a
different configuration.

20
At 1,143 m it is the longest tunnel on the
Kalka-Simla line and represents the
longest stretch of straight track along it.
Fissured sandstone was tunneled
through, starting in 1900 and ending in
1903. An earlier effort was started from
both ends but as there was an error in
alignment of the tunnels from the two
ends, the tunnelling effort was rendered
useless. The government fined Capt.
Barog ` (Re) 1/-

21
House of Worship, completed in 1986, has
won numerous architectural awards and
been featured widely in global media. The
temple structure is architecturally
captivating and technologically
impressive with its shell façade made up
of concrete frame and precast concrete
ribbed roof. Tools of IT, as at the time of
design, circa early to middle 1980s, had to
be leveraged maximally. It was a
challenging engineering task, carried out
successfully in the cause of universal
brotherhood.

22
Delhi Metro being executed by the
Delhi Metro Rail Corporation (DMRC)
is growing rapidly. It is being
executed phase-wise and has recently
completed Phase II. Phase III has already
been initiated. Its engineering,
including construction, has garnered
respect for Indian capabilities. At present
it extends over nearly 190 km (both
elevated and underground) with 142
stations (excluding the Airport Link).
Eventually, at more than 400 km, it will be
one of the largest networks in the world.
DMRC is the first metro rail to get
“carbon credits”.

It is notable that India’s first metro rail

system was commissioned in Kolkata in
1984.

23
Jawaharlal Nehru Stadium, Delhi

The iconic sports facility defines the

country’s zeitgeist. The breath-taking
view of the action, sight-line
uninterrupted by columns, is matched by
the view of the understated yet majestic
70 m membrane cantilever roof. It is so
lightweight, yet supports the lighting, the
PA system and many other facilities as
required by the globally evolving athletic
and media standards. The engineers were
asked to accommodate without
disturbing a historical structure within the
footprint of the stadium and they
responded magnificently.

24
While the Jawaharlal Nehru Stadium
took one's breath away by its size, the
covered stand for the archery events
at the Yamuna Sports Complex asserted
its presence through its lean visual
imprint. A column-free roof offering
unobstructed sightline for the 40 lane
facility that allows the spectators a full
view of the archery events. Even while
being big enough to seat 1,500 people, the
stadium and the arena imposed the
absolute minimum on the environment –
no trees were cut.

25
Prospected Bridges Across River Chenab
and Anji Nallah, J&K

The two steel arch bridges, both along the

J & K railway line, appear to carry the
same DNA! The Chenab Bridge is at a
height of 350 m above the High Flood
Level of the river, making it one of the
highest bridges in the world. Its central
span is 480 m long. The Anji Nalla, the
smaller of the two, is no less of an
engineering feat. The central span
measures 265 m and is situated at a height
of 220 m above the valley floor. These
bridges are under implementation.

26
27
28
Annai Indira Gandhi Bridge (Pamban
Bridge), Tamil Nadu

A set of two bridges, one each for road and

rail across the Pamban Strait connecting
Rameswaram on Pamban Island and
mainland India. It was completed in 1912
and was the first Indian sea-bridge. It was
the longest fixed sea-link till Bandra-
Worli Sea Link was made. The bascule
rail bridge encounters one of the "world's
most highly corrosive situations", making
construction an extremely challenging
job. Indian engineers successfully met the
challenge of gauge conversion,
particularly of the bascule.

29
30
Some of the material included has been sourced from
the following :
Ms Alpa Sheth, FNAE, MD, VMS Consulting Services,
Mumbai.
Mr. V.K. Agarwal, FNAE, Former Chairman Railway
Board.
Prof. Harsh Sinvhal,IIT Roorkee.
Consulting Engineering Services,New Delhi.
Larsen & Toubro Ltd.

31
Engineering
Education
India has had a long and rich tradition thousands received engineering This opened the door to large
of institutions of higher learning. As degrees then in a limited number of scale expansion led primarily by the
early as the 5th century AD, ancient disciplines, the capacity today is of the private sector but growth has had its
India boasted of two centres of higher order of one million covering many side effects too– lowering of quality
education-Nalanda University in more disciplines. The period of the 50s and a dire shortage of quality faculty.
Bihar and Takshila in Punjab. and the 60s saw the emergence of a
culture of research and development A further development has been the
The earliest steps in formal in engineering education. This was substantial growth in engineering
engineering education, as we also the period when five new IITs – education amongst women, which
understand it today, were taken in Kharagpur, Bombay, Madras, Kanpur was virtually non-existent till the
earnest in India around the middle of and Delhi were established and 1950s.
the nineteenth century. The most together with the University of
significant development was the Roorkee and the IISc Bangalore,
establishment of colleges at Roorkee configured the future of India's
(1847) followed by those at Pune, engineering educational
Shibpur and Guindy, which offered 3- programmes. Teaching in new areas
year engineering programmes. These and disciplines such as electronics,
institutions have carried the flag ever robotics, earthquake, aerospace,
since. Roorkee has become an IIT, agricultural, biomedical engineering,
Shibpur a University of Engineering and so on, was initiated, and in more
and Science and the Guindy college is recent years, such disciplines as
part of the Anna University. Till the mechatronics and nanotechnology
1950s, these and other institutions set have been introduced.
up subsequently (prominent amongst
them being the IISc Bangalore) There has been a steady growth in
continued to advance engineering terms of curriculum development and
education in India. As expected, expansion in numbers till the decade of
substantial growth and diversification the 90s, when, following the
in engineering education occurred after liberalization of economic policies, new
the country became independent in challenges were created for the
1947. Whereas no more than a few engineering community of the country.
35
Nalanda University in Bihar (5th century A.D.)

Takshila, Punjab (5th century A.D.)

36
Ancient temples, other structures, arts
and artifacts available at different
locations bear testimony to the levels of
excellence achieved in ancient India,
which would not have been possible
without systematic application of
technologies such as building
construction and those related to
materials, developed and disseminated
largely through informal systems.

37
Roorkee College of Engineering–
established in 1847 and rechristened as
Thomason College of Civil Engineering in
1854 – was raised to the level of University
of Roorkee in 1949 and converted into IIT
Roorkee in 2001. Thus this, the first college
of engineering in the British empire (the
third in the world) has carried the flag of
engineering education for nearly 165
years.

38
Established shortly after the college at
Roorkee, the colleges at Shibpur, Guindy
and Pune served the cause of engineering
education in a major way for almost 100
years up to the independence of the
country in 1947. The establishment of the
IISc at Bangalore was a significant step for
science & technology research and
teaching in the country, and is today a hub
of R&D activities.

Bengal Engineering & Science University, Sibpur.

Established as an Engineering College in 1856.

39
The First IIT in the country was established at Following India’s independence, the IIT s were established in the
Kharagpur in 1953 1950s and 60s, to transform the engineering education scenario.
While the indian institute of science brought about an enhanced
culture of research in Science and Engineering, the IIT s have
become the flag bearers of high end education and research in
Engineering. The standards at all the seven IIT s at Chennai, Delhi,
Guwahati, Kanpur, Kharagpur, Mumbai and Roorkee are
generally high in all disciplines, yet each one can claim excellence in
one or more disciplines, as an example, Mechanical Engineering
and Computer Science at Chennai, Electreical Engineering and
Chemical Engineering at Mumbai, Civil Engineering at Roorkee,
and so on. Graduates from the IIT system are bringing laurels to the
country. Eight additional IIT s have been set up recently and the
latter development, when matured, will add substantially to the
strength of Indian Engineering education, besides the growing
base for engineering education including the private sector colleges
of engineering.

Open-air project class at IIT Guwahati 40

IITs ought to follow the older colleges and the IISc
 IIT Delhi
IIT Bombay

IIT Kanpur

IIT Madras

41
 Five Year Plan Wise Expenditure on Education and Higher
Education

1947-1980
1991-2011

1947 1950
1960 1961 1962
1963 1964
1965 1966 1967
1968 1969 1970 1980

Negligible

42
The increase in budgetary outlays for higher
education as well as technical education in recent 5-
year plans (see top two graphs opposite) is a
welcome sign and reflects the government's
recognition of the importance of higher and
technical education in the development of the
nation. The budgetary figures, however, have to be
looked at with caution, as the value of rupee in the
year 2011 decreased to almost 2% of its value in
1951 with an average inflation rate of 6.63%, and
the population of the country has increased from
361 million in 1951 to 1.21 billion in 2011, i.e.,
approximately 3.35 times.

The middle two graphs (opposite) show another

noteworthy development in engineering
education in India. The sanctioned strength of
engineering graduates has seen phenomenal
growth in the last decade as compared to the first
five decades after independence. This has been a
result of private entrepreneurship which started
largely in the mid 90s.

While there were hardly any women engineers in

the country at the time of independence, the
proactive approach of the government and societal
changes in the country have resulted in women
entering the profession in larger numbers and
scaling new heights. There are now some
engineering institutions set up exclusively for
women.

43
 The past 6-7 decades have also experienced
significant changes in the teaching and research
programmes in engineering. This has been so, on
account of the realisation of the increasing needs of
the Nation and thus the newer challenges,
requiring diversification. The other reason is the
growth of electronics leading to enormous
developments in instrumentation and enhanced
capabilities in computing - only a few examples are
cited herein.
Initiation of research, training and teaching in the
field of Earthquake Engineering at the University of
Roorkee in the 1960s was a unique development,
not only in engineering education, but a visionary
step which has had a profound influence on
construction engineering practices in India and for
the creation of sustainable infrastructure.

Professor Jai Krishna(1912-1999), a doyen

amongst engineering academics, and the
Foundation President of the INAE, pioneered
44 this development in India.
From the large paraphernalia of
surveying parties for a site to the total
workstation; from small capacity testing
machines to larger fully automated ones;
from the slide rule to the laptop, the tools
for engineering teaching have undergone
a sea-change, and have been duly
absorbed into the Indian scenario of
engineering education and practice.

Slide Rule-An indispensable tool for Engineers till 60s

The slide rule (see photograph above) was

an ingenious little implement for
calculations, used by engineering student
and practitioners alike. The current
generation of young engineers are hardly
expected to know about it, nor do they
need to, having access to outstanding
electronics based computing facilities –
the laptops and software packages.

45
46
 The challenge ahead is to raise the quality
of the existing workforce, balance
expansion with requirement, move
towards ‘learner’ based education, and,
bring into the ambit women and rural
population in a more pro-active manner.
Continuing education programmes from
within as well as outside the
organizations, for both academic as well
as in-practice engineers, has to become a
regular feature. Practicing engineers have
to take on a greater role in preparing the
future workforce in engineering. There
has to be a realization of the growing
reality of ‘knowledge economy’.

Some of the material included has been sourced from the following :

Prof. P.K. Garg, IIT Roorkee.

Prof. S.K. Bhattacharyya, FNAE, Director, CBRI, Roorkee.
Directors, IIT Guwahati, Kharagpur & IISc. Bangalore.
Vice Chancellor, BPS Mahila Vishwavidyalaya, Khanpur Kalan
(Sonepat).
Dean Alumni Affairs, IIT Roorkee.
K.V. Mital, “History of Thomason College of Engineering, Roorkee”.
www.attractioninindia.com
www.2012forum.com ; www.orientfayagra.com
www.popularindiaholidays.com ; www.tof.ua.edu 47
Energy
Energy is the key driver for using different fuels and forms of energy, hydro and nuclear power. The
sustainable development on energy, both conventional and non- Central Electricity Authority
economic, societal and environmental conventional, as well as new and coordinates power generation,
fronts. India's electricity supply comes emerging energy sources to ensure transmission and distribution. Power
from different sources such as coal, supply at all times with a prescribed Grid Corporation of India (PGCIL) is
hydropower, oil and gas, solar, wind, confidence level. In other words, the responsible for the national electricity
geothermal and biomass. India has goal of the energy policy is to provide grid management and operation.
made significant efforts towards low energy security to all. An attempt is
carbon technologies for power made herein to highlight the current Energy Efficiency is an area handled
generation. “Integrated Energy conventional energy status, new by Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE).
Policy” document of the Planning renewable energy options, their The Government has proposed to
Commission lists many specific historical evolution and the make it mandatory for all appliances in
recommendations to achieve this goal. contributions made by the India to have ratings by the BEE
The document states, “To ensure engineering fraternity in India for starting in January 2010. Energy
adequate supply of energy India will technological advancement of the Efficiency is the new mantra globally
have to pursue all available fuel Indian energy sector. that should cover both urban and
options and forms of energy, both rural energy use. All sectors such as
conventional and non- conventional India has a separate ministry for new transport, industry, domestic,
/renewable.” and renewable energy sources commercial, agricultural and
(MNRE) aimed at exploiting irrigation need energy efficient
The broad vision behind the Indian renewable energy in a coordinated systems. Research and Development
energy policy is to reliably meet the manner. Ministries of power, oil and (R&D) in the energy sector are critical
demand for energy requirements of all gas, atomic energy, coal, etc deal with to augment our resources; to meet our
sectors including the energy needs of different aspects of energy. The public long-term needs; to promote
households in all parts of the country sector undertakings such as National efficiency; to attain energy
with safe, clean and convenient Thermal Power Corporation (NTPC), independence and to enhance our
energy at the least cost. This must be National Hydroelectric Power energy security. The Central Power
done in a technically efficient, Corporation (NHPC) Ltd., and Research Institute (CPRI), Sardar
economically viable and Nuclear Power Corporation of India Swaran Singh National Institute of
environmentally sustainable manner (NPCIL) are dealing with thermal Renewable Energy, Kapurthala and

51
Energy is the key driver for using different fuels and forms of energy, hydro and nuclear power. The
sustainable development on energy, both conventional and non- Central Electricity Authority
economic, societal and environmental conventional, as well as new and coordinates power generation,
fronts. India's electricity supply emerging energy sources to ensure transmission and distribution. Power
comes from different sources such as supply at all times with a prescribed Grid Corporation of India (PGCIL) is
coal, hydropower, oil and gas, solar, confidence level. In other words, the responsible for the national electricity
wind, geothermal and biomass. India goal of the energy policy is to provide grid management and operation.
has made significant efforts towards energy security to all. An attempt is
low carbon technologies for power made herein to highlight the current Energy Efficiency is an area handled by
generation. “Integrated Energy conventional energy status, new Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE). The
Policy” document of the Planning renewable energy options, their Government has proposed to make it
Commission lists many specific historical evolution and the mandatory for all appliances in India to
recommendations to achieve this contributions made by the have ratings by the BEE starting in
goal. The document states, “To ensure engineering fraternity in India for January 2010. Energy Efficiency is the
adequate supply of energy India will technological advancement of the new mantra globally that should cover
have to pursue all available fuel Indian energy sector. both urban and rural energy use. All
options and forms of energy, both sectors such as transport, industry,
conventional and non- conventional India has a separate ministry for new domestic, commercial, agricultural
/renewable.” and renewable energy sources and irrigation need energy efficient
(MNRE) aimed at exploiting systems. Research and Development
The broad vision behind the Indian renewable energy in a coordinated (R&D) in the energy sector are
energy policy is to reliably meet the manner. Ministries of power, oil critical to augment our resources; to
demand for energy requirements of and gas, atomic energy, coal, etc deal meet our long-term needs; to promote
all sectors including the energy needs with different aspects of energy.
of households in all parts of the The public sector undertakings
country with safe, clean and such as National Thermal
convenient energy at the least cost. Power Corporation (NTPC), National
This must be done in a technically H y d r o e l e c t r i c P o w e r
efficient, economically viable and Corporation (NHPC) Ltd., and Nuclear
environmentally sustainable manner Power Corporation of India
(NPCIL) are dealing with thermal

52
Conventional Energy

Thermal power plants constitute about 65% of the

installed capacity in India. The installed generation
capacity in India in 2011 was about 185,000MW. To
meet the growing energy demand, the capacity
may have to reach 300,000 MW by 2020. Since the
installed capacity of thermal power plants is also
likely to increase, this would add to further
unwanted emissions. Balancing this growth with
the demand to contain emissions is the challenge
faced by this sector.

There are more than 90 coal based thermal power

plants located in 18 Indian states. They account for
over 75% of total power generation in India. Under
the Government of India policy to provide “power
for all”, 15 Super Thermal Power Stations (STPS)
were established and Ultra Mega Power projects,
each with a capacity of 4000 megawatts or more are
on the anvil. The Ramagundam Superthermal
Power Station, one of the biggest coal based
thermal power stations (2600 MW) in India is
situated at Jyothinagar in Karimnagar District of
Andhra Pradesh. The other major Superthermal
Power Stations are located at Korba (2600 MW) and
Vindhyachal (2600 MW) at Singrauli disrict of
Madhya Pradesh. With 15 coal based power
plants, the National Thermal Power Corporation is
the largest thermal power generating (24,000+
MW) company in India.
53
 The captive power plants set up by Indian industry
have currently the ability to generate upto 15,000
MW. It is estimated that around 30% of the total
energy requirement of the Indian industry is
currently met through in-house power plants.
The “Hydrocarbon Vision-2025” prepared by the Orissa, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and Uttar
Planning Commission and relevant Ministries of Govt. Pradesh have captive power plant capacities
of India, provides the first major policy on the future exceeding 1250 MW per annum. It is interesting
role of gas in Indian economy. The gas demand is that engineering, metals, minerals and textile
expected to touch 143 bcm/y in 2025. India's largest industries have nearly 50% share in Indian captive
gas-based power plant (2,400 MW) is located close to power plant capacity. Nearly 45% of power
the east coast in Andhra Pradesh. The Government is generation is from steam, 40% from diesel and 15%
actively encouraging private investments in the use of from gas/naptha. Recently sugar industry started
gas for power generation since it is much cleaner than establishing cogeneration power plants based on
coal based units. Gas availability and its price bagasse as feedstock. The above developments are
sensitivity are the two major obstacles to be overcome. important for realizing Indian industry's self
reliance in power.

54
Hydroelectric Energy emit polluting suspended particulate matter.
While hydropower plants have large up-front
India is blessed with sizable hydroelectric potential capital costs, they also have long and productive
th
and ranks 5 in the world in terms of exploitable lives, which significantly help reduce costs over a
hydropower (1,48,700 MW). The Brahmaputra basin period of time. While India planned to develop
potential is around 66,000 MW. The total installed mainly run-of-the-river projects, multipurpose
capacity of hydroelectric power projects in India is hydropower plants with water storage facilities
around 37,000 MW. India's first major hydro electric have helped manage critical water resources in an
power installation started generating electricity in integrated manner by serving as flood controllers
1902 in Cauvery river in South India. The power as well as sources of irrigation and drinking water.
station initially generated 4.5 MW of electricity for
mines in Kolar gold field. The Tata Hydroelectric
Power Supply Company (TMPSC) was set up in
1911. It amalgamated with the Andhra Valley Power
Supply Company in 1916 and commissioned India's
first large hydroelectric project in 1915 in Bhivpuri
and Khopali in Maharashtra. The hydropower
sector has undergone significant progress after
Indian independence in 1947. The National
Hydroelectric Power Corporation (HHPC) was set-
up in 1975. Subsequently, Tehri Hydro
Development Corporation (THDC) and Nathpa
Jhakri Power Corporation (NJPC) were established.
The Government of India has set the target for India's
optimum power system mix at 40 percent from
hydropower. Hydropower plants have the
advantage of producing power that is both
renewable and clean as they emit less greenhouse
gases than traditional fossil fuel plants and do not

55
 There are more than 30 medium and large
hydroelectric power projects in India with
an installed capacity of 37,000+ MW. The
major hydropower generating units are
located at Bhakra and Nangal(Punjab),
Nagarjunasagar and Srisailam (Andhra
Pradesh), Koyna (Mahrashtra), Dehar
(Himachal Pradesh), Sharavathy and
Kalindi (Karnataka).

Bhakradam is a concrete gravity dam

across the Sutlej river and is Asia's second
highest at 225.55 meters. Its reservoir (90
km long) can store upto 9.34 billion cubic
meters of water. It is the second largest
reservoir in India, the first being Indira
Sagar dam in Madhya Pradesh. Late
Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, the first Prime
Minister of India termed the Bhakra dam
as the “New Temple of Resurgent India”.
The Bhakra and Nangal multipurpose
dams were among the earliest river valley
development schemes undertaken
immediately after Indian independence.
Bhakra Power Project

56
Nagarjuna Sagar Dam is one of the world's
largest masonry dams built across Krishna River
in Nalgonda District of Andhra Pradesh. The Nagarjuna Sagar Power Plant
dam is 150 m tall and 1.6 km long with 26 gates
which are 13 m wide and 14 m tall. Nagarjuna
Sagar was the earliest in the series of large
infrastructure projects initiated for the Green
Revolution in India; it is also one of the earliest
multipurpose irrigation cum hydro-electric
projects in India.

57
Maheshwar Hydro-electric Project in
Madhya Pradesh is a 400 MW run-of-the-
river scheme with a barrage-toe power
house. It is about 3,420 m long and 32 m
high, incorporating 10 power generating
units. Situated close to centres of power
demand, it satisfies one of the sustainable
development considerations of local
utilization of resources. The project
assures availability of water and electricity
to the industrial areas of Indore and
Dewas. As an indirect benefit, the water
table will be raised, saving 4.3 million units
of electric power annually.

58
Nathpa Jhakri Hydro-power Project in
Himachal Pradesh is situated across a
62.50 m. high concrete gravity dam on
River Satluj to divert 486 cumecs of water
through four intakes for power generation
with an installed capacity of 1,500 MW.
An underground de-silting complex –
comprising four chambers, each 525 m.
long, 16.31 m. wide and 27.5 m. deep- is
one of the largest employed for
hydropower generation in the world. The
head and tail race tunnels, and the surge
shaft sport impressive dimensions. For
the first time in the country, steel fibre
shortcrete was applied as the final lining
in this structure.

59
 Nuclear Energy
After Indian independence, the Atomic Energy
Commission (AEC) was setup in 1948 and the
Department of Atomic Energy came into existence in
1954 with Dr Homi Jahangir Bhabha as its first
Secretary and Chairman of AEC. The Nuclear Power
Corporation of India Ltd (NPCIL) was setup
specifically for design, construction, commissioning
and operation of nuclear power plants. Sustained
efforts were made by the Department of Atomic
Energy (DAE) and NPCIL to develop the Indian
industry. The Government of India had also
established the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre
(BARC) in 1954, and the Tata Institute of Fundamental
Research (TIFR) was established to focus on
fundamental research in nuclear reactor physics and
allied sciences.
Tarapur Nuclear Power Plant, Maharashtra
The Nuclear Fuel Complex (NFC) at Hyderabad was
established by DAE in 1971 for the uninterrupted
supply of nuclear fuel bundles and core components
to all nuclear power plants in the country. Natural
and enriched uranium fuel, zirconium alloy cladding
and reactor core components are its manufactured
products. It is significant that India had established a
world class safety regulatory body viz., Atomic
Energy Regulatory Board (AERB) in 1983 to carryout
regulatory and safety functions under the Atomic
Energy Act (1962) and Environmental (Protection) act
1986.

60
Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC),
Mumbai

Besides nuclear technology, the conventional

fields of engineering played and continue to
play a significant role in the realisation of the
Nuclear programme. One of the foundational
requirements of nuclear safety is the integrity
and robustness of the nuclear containment
facility – an achievement of Indian engineers.

India has adopted a three stage nuclear energy

development programme to tap its vast
thorium resource to become self-sufficient in
nuclear fuel beyond 2050. The first phase
involves setting up of 10,000MW of power
plants using Pressurized Heavy Water
Reactors (PWHR) based on domestic uranium.
The spent fuel from these plants can be
reprocessed to separate plutonium and use it
along with depleted uranium in Fast Breeder
Reactors (FBR) which can provide up to
5,00,000 MW of capacity while also breeding
additional plutonium. The third phase involves
using the plutonium from fast breeder reactors
to convert thorium to fissile U233 to run thorium
based reactors.

61
 Considering the long duration sequential
nature of Indian nuclear power programme,
efforts are also being made to develop new
innovative design of reactors for direct use of
thorium. They include Accelerated Driven
Systems (ADS) and Advanced Heavy Water
Reactors (AHWR). India has developed
comprehensive capabilities in all aspects of
nuclear power from siting, design,
constitution and operation of nuclear power
plants. At present 17 nuclear reactors with a
capacity of 4120 MWs are in operation and
six new reactors with a capacity of 3160 MWs
are under various phases of construction. In
addition, setting up of 4 FBRs and AHWR are
under various stages of development.

62
A 500 MWe Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor
(PFBR), designed by Indira Gandhi Centre
for Atomic Research, is under advanced
stage of construction at Kalpakkam by Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor
BHAVINI. Lessons learnt from the operating
experience of 400 reactor years of fast reactors
have been well incorporated in the design of Capacity : 500 MW(e)
PFBR. The commissioning of the reactor will Primary &
begin in the later half of 2012. Secondary : Sodium
Indian scientists and engineers associated Coolant
with nuclear technology have developed Fuel Material : PuO2 – UO2
outstanding engineering capabilities in Design Life : 40 years
reactor design and development, Distinctive Features: First
sophisticated control instrumentation, high industrial scale fast breeder
temperature metallurgy, material science reactor in India
and turbine technology. They developed
new techniques in nuclear power plant
construction including remote handling of
nuclear power plant fuels. They have made
exemplary contribution to the strengthening
of safety in Indian nuclear power plants on
par with international standards.

63
Renewable Energy Scenario

Renewables account for about 33% of

primary energy consumption in India.
Major contributors are traditional
biomass used for cooking followed by Renewable Energy Source
generation from large hydro power In wind Power, India ranks 5th in the world. Source Potential
plants. India is endowed with abundant l
A potential of 45,000MW is feasible from Biomass Power 69,000 MW
sunlight, wind, water and biomass. biomass plantation on around 20 m ha of
Vigorous efforts made by the government Agro residues 16,000 MW
waste lands yielding 10MT/ha/annum of
and private bodies during the past two woody biomass given 4000 kcal/kg with Bagasse 5,000 MW
decades have started yielding good system efficiency of 30% and 75% Plant
Load Factor (PLF). Bringing waste lands Plantations 45,000 MW
results in terms of centralized and
under biomass cultivation would require a Waste to Energy 3,000 MW
decentralized energy access to people in
major inter ministerial effort.
urban and semi-urban centres. The Wind Power 45,000 MW
Government of India has established the
l Considering sites having wind power
density of 250 W/sq.m. or higher and Solar Power 50,000 MW
Department of Nonconventional Energy assuming 3% land availability and area
Sources (DNES) in 1982 and after a requirement for wind farm at 12 a/MW. Small Hydro 15,000 MW
decade, a full fledged Ministry of Power
l Depending upon future developments that
Nonconventional Sources which was might make solar technology cost Biogas Plants 12 million
renamed as Ministry of New and competitive for grid power generation. Biofuels 20 MMT/a
Renewable Energy (MNRE) in 2006. The
current Indian renewable energy
generation capacity is around 16,500 MW
largely through wind power.

64
Power Plants with generation capacity of upto 25
MW fall under the small hydropower (SHP) project
category. India has an estimated SHP potential of
about 15,000 MW and the current installed capacity
of 2500 MW has been achieved through 674 projects
(public and private) and another 188 projects with
aggregate capacity of 482 MW are under
construction. The SHP projects are located in 29
states and Union Territories predominantly
covering the rural and remote regions from
Himalayas in Kashmir to Arunachal and Western
Ghats in southern peninsula.
Wind Energy
The development of wind power in India began in
the 1990s and it is a relative newcomer to the electric
power industry. Tamil Nadu is a leading state in
India for wind power. The initial cost for wind
turbines is greater than that of conventional fossil
fuel generators per MW installed. Wind is a success
story in India; as far as grid connected systems are
concerned, with nearly 12,000 MW of current
installed capacity. India stands fifth in the world
after USA, Spain, Germany and China. Current
estimates of wind power potential is about 45,000
MW in India mostly in the states of Tamil Nadu,
Gujarat, Andhra, Karnataka, Maharashtra, MP,
Rajastan, Orissa and West Bengal. Optimistic
prediction of wind potential in India goes upto
100,000 MW. At present, wind power accounts for
more than 6% of India's total installed power
capacity. Suzlon, the Indian owned wind power
equipment manufacturing company, has captured
nearly 8% of global market share.
65
 Solar Energy

In 1945, Indian pioneer Shri M K Ghosh designed

st
the 1 solar box cooker for commercial use. In
1997, Solar Electric Light Company (SELCO) was
established in Bangalore and sold 90,000 solar
home systems. Around the same time, the
International Fund for the promotion of solar
energy supported photovoltaic projects in India.
It was estimated to cost about Rs 2.5 Lakhs per
KW for setting up a captive solar PV system with
battery storage. There are over 100 small scale
solar PV based captive power generation units in
the country. India's theoretical solar power
reception capability is around 5 trillion KWh/yr.
Assuming the efficiency of PV modules to be as
low as 10%, it works out to be 1000 times greater
than electricity demand projected for 2015.

Tapping of solar energy to a usable form of heat

or electricity is expensive. Solar- thermal and
solar photovoltaic systems are being researched
in order to make them commercially viable and
economical. India has launched the solar
mission with a target of achieving 20GW by 2020.
The Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission
(JNNSM) aims to secure India's energy future.

The engineering of microstructures on atomic

scale in nano crystals provides unique
opportunity to boost solar current output.
Tremendous engineering challenges need to be
overcome to develop mass storage devices as
well as fuel cells for solar energy.
66
Energy from Bio and Other Wastes gasification. More than 1600 gasifiers centres) and 38 billion litres of sewage are
with electricity generation capabilities generated in India. This is in addition to
In India, biomass fuels are predominantly have been established. Latest estimates those generated by the industries. This
employed by the rural households for suggest that India has the potential to waste generation is increasing at a rate of
cooking and water heating. Some of the generate more than 30,000 MW power 1.5% annually. It is estimated that India
successful Indian programmes till 2000 from crop wastes alone. has so far realized only about 2% of its
are improved cooking stoves, family sized waste potential for energy generation.
biogas plants (2.4 million) and community The potential for agro, municipal and
biogas plants (1600+). However, the plantation wastes based power
government policy shift towards market generation in India is large and will play
oriented economic reforms in 1990s, had an important role in the future. Every
led to the introduction of modern biogas year, about 55 million tonnes of municipal
technologies based on biomass solid wastes (from more than 300 urban

6.6 MW MSW based Power Project at Mahboobnagar by

M/s.SELCO International Ltd., Hyderabad

67
Biomass based energy technologies in the Other Forms of Renewable Energy
\

world are based on biomass energy

production processes and energy conversion Ocean and hydrogen energy options are relevant to India. However, very little
technologies. Versatility of modern biomass success has been achieved in them on a commercial scale. Ocean thermal energy
technologies lies in the use of a variety of employs the thermal difference between cooler deep and warmer surface ocean
biomass feedstocks and their enhanced waters to run a heat engine and to produce electricity. The main engineering
supply potential. Small economic size and challenge of this technology (OTEC) is to generate significant amount of power
ability to co-fire with various fuel options efficiently from small temperature differences. India has built a 1 MW floating
have opened up their decentralized OTEC pilot plant for commercialization in the near future.
application potential. The later development Hydrogen energy concept has a long term prospect in India since it provides a
is the biomass integrated gasifier/combined clean energy source. Fuel cell power pack is the most important example of
cycle technology and its application in hydrogen energy. The Banaras Hindu University (BHU), Indian Institute of
electric power generation. Typical power Technology Madras and National Physical Laboratory (NPL), Delhi are working
plant sizes range from 0.1 to 50 MW. Gas on hydrogen storage methods.
turbines are currently available in sizes
ranging from 20 to 50 MW.
Some of the material included is sourced from the
following:
Dr. K.V. Raghawan, FNAE.
Dr. Kamachi Mudali, FNAE.
Consulting Engineering Services, New Delhi.
Integrated Energy Policy, Planning Commission,
Government of India.
S.S.Murthy,"Low Carbon Green Energy Technologies
for Electricity Generation and Effective Utilization for
Developing Economies- Some New Challenges". A
note prepared for INAE.
INAE Discussion Paper on "Research Policy for
Sustainable Energy”.
National Action plan on Climate Change, Government
of India.
Baldev Raj,"Challenges and Opportunities of Meeting
Growing Indian Energy Needs with Sustainability and
Competitiveness”. A presentation.
Report of the Working Group on R&D for the Energy
Sector for the formulation of the Eleventh Five Year
Plan (2007-2012) submitted to the Planning
Commission, December 2006. 68
Environment
Till as recently as less than fifty years ago,
engineering activities related to
environment were confined to supply of
safe water for drinking and proper
disposal of sewage and solid wastes. In
general, the engineering activities
(whether for irrigation, buildings, roads,
railways, power supply or manufacture of
goods) did not include an assessment of
impact of the activity on environment.

Things have changed and continue to

change. There is widespread awareness
that environment is not a sector: it is a
concept. Environment may be reflected in
a set of regulations enforced by Central
and State Pollution Control Boards; it may
comprise appraisal of development
projects before sanction of environmental
clearance, it may be the concern before a
court of law to direct adopting or avoiding
a practice, it may be the issue around
which a society rallies, and it may be a
scientific investigation in great depth
about something that can affect life on the
earth. Engineering and environment have
amalgamated into a new configuration.

71
A few glimpses of engineering works that
have changed the environment for the
better are presented below in a broad
chronological order.

Ganga Action Plan

Ganga is a mighty river, 2500 km in length

and has nearly 100 towns on its banks. To
clean it could be just a dream in 1985,
when the Ganga Action Plan was taken up
to intercept sewage flowing from 29 major
towns along the river. The task was
completed in 15 years in two phases at a
cost of nearly ` 900 crores.

Pictures show the sewage pumping

station along the Ghats of Varanasi to
divert sewage to the main sewer to carry it
to a sewage treatment plant from where it
could go to a sewage farm.

The vision was first enlarged to similarly

cover a few other rivers of the country and
next, quite recently, to formulate Ganga
River Basin Management Plan to adopt a
basin-wide approach to manage the river.

72
Automobile fuels

In the last two decades, the policy for

selection of fuel has introduced lead-free
petrol, low sulphur diesel and
compressed natural gas (CNG) for
automobiles. Admittedly, the orders of
the apex court of the country played a
significant role in enforcing the use of
CNG in all taxis and public buses in Delhi,
giving Delhi the pride of running world's
largest fleet of environment-friendly
buses. Compulsory installation of
catalytic converters on new cars also
helped in reducing pollution. Thus while
vehicles doubled in number from 1996 to
2006, pollution load in air reduced to
about half. Picture shows a typical street
scene of Delhi showing buses, taxis and
three-wheelers run on CNG.

Other alternatives have also been tried.

Notable among them are the use of
liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), the electric
car and the attempts to make use of solar
energy by fitting panels of photo-voltaic
cells on the roof of the automobile.

73
Noise barriers

Noise on roads used to be high due to

honking and rattling of the vehicles frame.
Better driving discipline and improved
road surface have reduced noise from
these sources. However, at high speed
attained in modern day traffic, main
sources of noise are the tyres and high rate
of revolution of engines. Unlike the older
days, traffic does not come to rest in the
night. Communities living near trunk
roads and highways demand measures
for abatement of noise.

Thin barriers are installed along noisy

roads to deflect the noise upwards. The
picture on the left shows India’s first ever
noise barrier installed on the 1150 meter
stretch of Mumbai’s Bandra-Kurla
Complex (BKC).

74
Green belt

Green belts have been placed along the

periphery of large campuses or to
segregate residential area from the
industrial zone. Largely, they have
served as a tool for landscaping. Present
concept about the green belt is to use it as
a special tool for environmental
management.

Green belts are capable of arresting dust,

mitigating noise and abating odour.
Creating habitat for birds and squirrels
and improving the microclimate can be
additional advantages. The pictures on
the right show a green belt along a busy
road that links Delhi and Noida,
effectively protecting the residents of a
new housing complex.

75
Source: Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur”.

Green buildings

Construction of buildings is the largest

activity for creating infrastructure for
development in terms of cost, use of energy
and materials and the involvement of people.
The concept of green buildings is to draw
attention to modifications in the design,
construction and maintenance of buildings,
which can reduce consumption of resources
and impact on environment.

The Ministry of New and Renewable Energy

in collaboration with The Energy Research
Institute has evolved a rating protocol for
green buildings in Indian conditions. It is
named Green Rating for Integrated Habitat
Assessment (GRIHA).

Architects and architectural engineers with

support from public health and
environmental engineers, energy auditors
and specialists in materials science are
working hard to cut down costs while
substantially improving the interior
environment of buildings. The top picture
shows the first five star rated building, which
is the Centre for Environmental Sciences and
Engineering at the Indian Institute of
Technology, Kanpur. The other photograph
shows CII building at Hyderabad.

76
Road Traffic

Buses are required to ply within a lower speed

limit than that permitted to a car. Buses also
find it difficult to find space on road.
Attempts to share space resulted in accidents
for which buses have been blamed in most
cases.

Bus Rapid Transport (BRT) which came as a

concept to provide space equitably, make it
possible for the buses to maintain comparable
speed, facilitate transit passengers and thus
promote the use of buses and reduce the
number of cars on roads. Pictures of BRT
Corridor, Delhi can be seen on this page.

77
Environmental Flows
Call it murder of the river because a barrier
across the total width of a river is nothing else.
Inadvertently, engineers continued to
construct barrages and dams across the
rivers. There have been agitations against
construction of dams, which centred on
compensation, rehabilitation and risks of
failure of the dam.

The understanding of ecological significance

of longitudinal and lateral connectivity in the
body of the river has changed the concept of
minimum flow that had to be left in the river
to environmental flows, which is a regime of
flows that can sustain the various functions of
the river. Understanding has also improved
about the social and cultural aspects related to
management of flow in a river.

The picture on the top left shows the trickle

remaining of the Bhagirathi (upper reach of
the Ganga) downstream of Maneri Dam,
which is created to divert water for
generating hydropower. The bottom left
picture depicts the water outflow from the
dam.

78
On-line monitoring

Recent achievements in developing sensors

for specificions and compounds together
with electronic transmission of data have
made it possible to carry out on-line
monitoring of water and air quality.

Process control, performance evaluation and

regulatory control have received a major
support from on-line monitoring. The
pictures show inauguration of an Air Quality
Monitoring Station (AQMS) being set up in
Uttar Pradesh at the Industrial Estate
Chandpur, Varanasi in February 2011.

79
Secured landfill

Hazardous effluent and solid wastes from

industries and hospitals, as also the
discarded electronic equipment have to be
disposed in a secure manner. Central
Government has issued rules to be
followed in this regard.

The need for safeguarding the quality of

groundwater imposes strict requirements
in the design and construction of secured
landfill. Collection, segregation, transport
and transfer of hazardous matter require
many other provisions that need to be
planned and included in the handling and
disposal of hazardous wastes including
the bio-medical and electronic wastes. The
accompanying picture shows a secured
land fill under construction.

80
Electric crematoria

Wood is becoming a scarce commodity.

The tradition of cremation requires three
to five quintals of wood for one dead
body. Improved crematoria saved wood
only by about 30 per cent. Electric
crematoria were introduced within the
Ganga Action Plan. While they avoid the
use of wood altogether, fuel is needed to
generate the power at Thermal Power
Stations.

Social acceptance of electric crematoria

will follow public awareness of the need
to conserve wood vis-à-vis an urge to
show respect to the departed soul by
following the traditional rituals. The
forlorn looks of the crematorium in the
picture confirm the need for generating
public awareness.

81
Clean stacks of Thermal Power Plants

Only a little over two decades ago, one

may not be able to say where the stack of a
thermal power plant ended because the
body of the stack and the stream of fly ash
emitting from it seemed without a divide.
Industry responded well for conserving
air quality. Electrostatic precipitators
installed at coal-based thermal power
plants are usually capable of arresting up
to 99.99 per cent of fly ash generated at
these plants. Fly ash has been increasingly
utilised for various purposes that range
from manufacture of bricks and
aggregates to foundation material of
roads and other structures. The picture
shows Giral Thermal Power Station; the
stacks are so clean that it looks as if the
plant is shut down.

82
Bio-remediation
One of the consequences of rapid
industrialisation is the creation of many
sites degraded by the disposal of
industrial solid wastes on land. In the
West, bio-remediation was applied to
reclaim such sites at great cost. The need
for such action is felt acutely in India too
but several hindrances, including high
cost, are in the way.

Bio-remediation has found another

application in treating wastewater in-
stream. Several experiments have been
made in India with varying success, using
patented consortia of bacteria and other
micro-organisms.

Research and field experiments are

expected soon to develop a protocol for
treatment of sewage and biodegradable
industrial wastes in existing drains at a
fraction of the cost of conventional
treatment. The picture shows relatively
clean water after bio-remediation in a
drain at Kanpur, which earlier carried
dark-coloured effluent.

83
 Industry
and
Manufacturing
Manufacturing sector is the backbone of India’s manufacturing' sector has to focus India faces acute power shortages and
any economy. Manufacturing fuels on improving the infrastructure, ensuring transportation bottlenecks which impede
growth, productivity, employment, and fair competition and access to markets, efficiency. Major investments are required
strengthens agriculture and service reduction of import duties, quality in Infrastructure- power, transportation,
sectors. India’s Manufacturing sector has improvements in vocational and higher ports, roads and railways. While there is
the potential to elevate the population education, increased investment in R&D some improvement in the infrastructure,
above poverty, by moving a large and support of small and medium scale major bottlenecks still remain to be
proportion of the workforce out of low- industries. Government leaders, experts, addressed. The Government has planned
wage agricultural employment. and researchers are now working towards for a major increase in infrastructure
The foundations of Indian manufacturing making Indian manufacturing globally investment to 9 % from 5 % of GDP.
capability were laid in the second five year competitive. This will ensure sustained
Indian Government has prepared a new
plan (1956-61) which emphasized heavy and significant contribution to GDP,
draft National Manufacturing Policy that
investments in basic industries like Steel, employment generation and overall
seeks to increase the share of
Fertilizers, Machine Tools, and Chemicals economic development.
manufacturing in the GDP to 25% by 2025
etc. After economic liberalization and de- A National Manufacturing from the current 16%. The policy
licensing, private sector investments are Competitiveness Council under the envisages creation of mega industrial
outpacing public sector. India is slowly chairmanship of a distinguished zones with world class infrastructure
but surely emerging as a manufacturing technocrat, has been set up by the facilities.
powerhouse. Government of India. Its aim is to
Since the turn of the century Indian increase the share of manufacturing The draft policy was prepared by the
economy has relied mainly on growth in (which had remained stagnant around Department of Industrial Policy and
Services and Consumer Support. Service 17% for many years) to around 30-35% of Promotion in consultation with the
Sector has helped the Indian economy to GDP required to create adequate National Manufacturing Competitiveness
take-off. But a corresponding boost has employment for youth and to sustain the Council and the Planning Commission.
not occurred in the manufacturing sector. desired growth of GDP over 9 %. The The policy aims to create additional 100
Manufacturing is labor-intensive and can council has estimated that India needs an million jobs by boosting the share of
create substantial blue collar annual growth of 12-14% in manufacturing in GDP through creation
employment. Revitalization of the manufacturing to reach the targets set for of National Investment and
manufacturing sector is essentially the year 2015. Manufacturing Zones (NIMZs), as mega
needed to address the employment needs investment regions equipped with world-
of a growing young population. class infrastructure.
87
The proposed zones will enjoy special
policy regime, tax concessions, less
stringent labor and environment laws,
and relaxed compliance. Currently,
manufacturing provides employment to
12% of the workforce. The share of
manufacturing in GDP is around 32% in
China, about 35% in Thailand, about 30%
in Malaysia and around 25% in South
Korea. The low share of manufacturing is
despite India enjoying significant edge
over other countries. India was ranked
second on manufacturing competence, by
the 2010 Global Manufacturing
Competitiveness Index, prepared by
Deloitte and the US Council on
Competitiveness.

The big challenge in activating the policy

would be to secure land, which has
become increasingly difficult. It will also
involve an unprecedented level of skilling
of the workers to enable them to produce
world class goods. To this end,
Government of India has set up a
“National Skills Development
Corporation” under the chairmanship of a
distinguished industrialist. In the
following pages, a few vignettes of Indian
Industry are presented.

88
 Machine Tool Industry
in India
The machine tool industry in India dates
back to pre-independence days. Batala and
Ludhiana in Punjab had a flourishing
machinery industry which included
manufacture of machine tools. Some
original designs developed then survive
even to this day. Kirloskar and Cooper
Engineering had also built a strong brand in
machine tools from the 1940s.
The modern era in Indian machine tool Prime Minister Jawahar Lal Nehru at Inauguration of HMT
industry began with the establishment of
Hindustan Machine tools in Bangalore, one First Machine Tool from HMT
of the “Temples of modern India” (as termed
by Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru). HMT laid the
foundation for the development and growth
of the industry in India. Through technology
transfer collaborations in the 1960s and 70s,
the company produced machines ranging
from simple machines to complex
machining lines, metal forming machinery
and special products. From the mid 70s, a
vigorous local design and development
effort saw HMT introduce CNC machine
tools and SPMs on its own.
The 1990s saw the emergence of technocrat
promoted “new-economy” machine tool

89
companies. Many of the promoters were
designers and engineers earlier associated
with HMT. These companies have become
large producers of standard and special
machines and established volume
production of CNC machines.
Concurrently, companies have emerged
specializing in electrical machining,
automation, precision measurement,
large machine tools and metal forming
machinery, mostly based in Pune.
Today the industry meets the
requirements of most manufacturing
sectors, both for standard products and
special machines. However, it needs to
step up production substantially and
develop cutting edge technologies to meet
global competition head-on. The industry
has to some extent lagged behind global
manufacturers in the technology race for
modern products. This was mainly due to
lack of "product-specialization" by Indian
companies, and the large financial
resources for carrying out R&D. The
absence of a strong domestic demand till
recently discouraged major investments
in R&D. Things are changing for the
better now. The efforts of the government
have resulted in a closer industry-
academia collaboration during the last
few years. Several projects have been put

90
up for funding support with the
participation of academic institutions for
developing cutting edge technology.

The industry has an annual turnover of

around ` 40000 million. Being cyclic in
nature it is the first to be impacted and the
last to recover from down-turns! Despite
this, the Indian machine tool industry is
growing at an average of 20-25% per year.
This has been spurred by increasing
demand for machine tools primarily from
the auto-component sector. Despite its
relatively small size, investment in
machine tools result in hundredfold
leverage on downstream output. It has
been recognized as a strategic industry
having an important bearing on national
security. Machine tools play a major role
in the manufacture of defence equipment,
ordnance, aero-space, nuclear sectors.

The industry is projected to continue to

grow at 20-25% annually over the next
decade, in line with the country's
ambitions to raise the share of
manufacturing in GDP to 25% from the
present 16%. The output of the Indian
machine tool industry is expected to reach
around ` 20,0000 millions per year by
2020.

91
 Farm Machinery
manufacture in India
Though agriculture and related activities
contribute only around a quarter of the
GDP, over sixty percent of India's
population derive their livelihood from
the agricultural sector. Government of
India policies aim to ensure better
remuneration for farmers by assuring
minimum support price for staple grains,
increasing farm incomes and providing
farmers greater purchasing power and
employment opportunities. A targeted
subsidy system to improve output has
encouraged rapid farm mechanization.
There is a paradigm shift in Indian
agricultural practices with movement
from labor intensive methods towards
increased farm mechanization.

Agriculture is the mainstay of the Indian

economy providing employment for a
large rural population. The Indian tractor
industry has reported a compounded
annual growth rate (CAGR) of over
twenty percent in volume terms during
the last few years. The production and
sales figures of tractors are likely to cross
500000 in 2010-2011. India ranks second in
the world in total farm output.
92
Indian agriculture has unique
characteristics. Over two hundred and
fifty different crops are cultivated in its
widely varying climatic regions unlike
the thirty or so varieties grown in
developed nations. Moreover, power
sources for farming range from the
humble arm of the farmer to the largest
tractor. In terms of numbers, India is
one of the largest tractor markets besides
China and the USA. India is one of the
largest manufacturers of tractors in the
world.

Two large manufacturers in India rank

second and fourth in the world, just
behind a large US multinational. Over
the past few years, Indian tractor
manufacturers have started targeting
international markets. The industry
exported a total of 37900 tractors during
2009-2010, whereas in 2010-11 it is likely
to be just under 60000.

Tractors in India are versatile machines

which are put to a wide variety of uses.
Agricultural tractors are used for
haulage for carrying farm produce,
transporting bricks and other rural
loads, employing towed trailers.

93
 Tractors are also used for industrial
applications and for road construction
like dozer, front end loader and backhoe,
for pumping water from wells and also
as a power generator through power
Pulling the loads Cheapest Chinese tractor - Angad
take off application.
The Cruzer (Tractor Harvester) is a
totally Indian innovation. In this
application, a tractor is placed on top of a
harvester and used as prime mover for
harvesting grains. These harvesters are
much more economical than self
propelled dedicated harvester. India's
unique blend of technology and low cost
Active role in flood relief Eicher tractor
of production makes it extremely export
competitive.
Indian tractors today employ high-tech
features like 4-wheel drive, independent
power take off, anti-lock braking
systems, electro-hydraulics, automatic
transmission, GPS systems, etc. Tractors
are now available for specialized
applications, e.g. combined harvester,
with the Thresher Tractor powered road roller
puddling operations, orchard, potato
planting, laser levelers for minimum
water consumption, etc.

94
New Holland India’s tractor Escorts Farmtrac tractors
In spite of the spurt in tractor
production, penetration level of tractors
in India is 13 tractors on every 1000
hectares, against the global average of 19
and the USA's average of 29 per 1000
hectares. Therefore, there is much scope
for the tractor industry to grow further.

95
 Automobile Industry
in India
After remaining highly regulated for
decades, the automobile industry in India
was de-licensed in July 1991 when a new
Industrial Policy was announced by the
Government of India. Passenger cars were
de-licensed in 1993. Today, licenses are
not required for setting up units for
manufacture of automobiles. The norms
for foreign investment and import of
technology have also been progressively
liberalized over the years for vehicles
manufacture including passenger cars in
order to make this sector globally
competitive..

With the gradual liberalization of the

automobile sector since 1991, the number
of manufacturing facilities in India
have grown exponentially. At present,
there are 19 manufacturers of passenger
cars and multi utility vehicles, 15
manufacturers of commercial vehicles, 8
manufacturers of two wheelers and seven
of 3 wheelers.

The automotive industry comprising the

automobile and the auto component

96
sectors, has made rapid strides since
opening up of the sector. Last year, the
automotive industry had attained a
turnover of around ` 3,10,000 crores
(almost USD 70 billion). The industry
provides direct and indirect employment
to over 17 millions. The industry is also
making a contribution of around 17% to
the indirect tax revenue of the
Government . Turnover of this industry
has crossed 6% of India’s GDP. India has
emerged as the world’s second largest
manufacturer of two wheelers and fifth
largest manufacturer of commercial
vehicles. It is the sixth largest passenger
car manufacturer in the world.

A supplier driven market having not more

than a handful of vehicular models two
decades back, Indian automobile industry
is demand driven and today offers more
than 150 passenger car models and
variants. The industry has effectively
restructured itself, absorbing newer
technology, aligning itself to the global
developments to achieve sustainable
growth in the country. In 2010-11, India
produced 2.99 million passenger vehicles,
13.4 million two wheelers, more than
750,000 commercial vehicles and almost
800,000 three wheelers. We exported over

97
450,000 passenger vehicles and over 1.5
million two wheelers.

A key factor in the Indian automobile

story has been the ability of firms in India
to design, develop and produce their own
vehicles. Many of them have found global
markets. Our competitive strength is in
the fact that this has been done at one tenth
of the global cost of such launches! And,
over time, the development costs are
getting further reduced. Also, Indian
automobile industry today is changing
the design paradigm globally. The buzz
Tata Nano created worldwide was
unprecedented in the history of Indian
industry. Indian two wheelers, though of
smaller capacity, are the most fuel
efficient in the world and produce least
emissions. India is rapidly becoming the
hub for small car production in the world.

Currently, the Indian automobile

industry’s growth rate is among the
highest in the world. The Automotive
Mission Plan released by Mr. Manmohan
Singh, Prime Minister of India, had the
following vision : “To emerge as the
destination of choice in the world for
design and manufacture of automobiles
and auto components with output

98
reaching a level of US$ 145 billion
accounting for more than 10% of the GDP
and providing additional employment to
25 million people by 2016”. India is well
on track for achieving this aim, thanks to
government policies and industry
initiatives in a growing economy.

99
 Automotive Component
Manufacture in India
The Indian automotive industry has come
a long way since its inception in 1947
when only about a few thousand cars
were being produced annually and only
the wealthy could afford a car.

Today, India has emerged as the sixth

largest manufacturer of cars and the
fourth largest car market in the world. It
produces over 2.9 million cars annually
and over thirteen million two and three
wheelers. India is the world's largest
manufacturer of tractors, second largest in
the production of two-wheelers and
fourth largest, in the production of
commercial vehicles. For global players,
India has become a preferred sourcing
destination for components.

With the launch of the Tata's Nano, the

world's most affordable small car, the
global auto industry has taken notice of
India's capabilities for cost effective
innovation in engineering and design. It is
estimated that the Indian economy will
witness growth rates in the range of nine
percent. It is this huge potential that has

100
attracted several global companies to set
up base in the country and has led many
Indian companies to invest in capacity
expansion, research & development
(R&D) and product innovation.

World over, the automotive industry is

the growth driver of economies, as it has
deep linkages with multiple sectors. In
India, this sector has been a major revenue
generating component, contributing over
seven percent to the Gross Domestic
Product (GDP) in 2009-10 and employing
17 million people directly and indirectly
across the country. Production of
passenger vehicles, commercial vehicles,
two- and three-wheelers increased from
14.05 million vehicles in 2009-10 to 17.9
million in 2010-11.

By 2020, the turnover of the auto

component sector in India could rise to
US$110 billion, from US$35 billion in 2010.
By then, the auto component industry is
expected to account for 3.6 percent of the
GDP and provide direct and indirect
employment to about 2 million people. Of
this, export could contribute around USD
30 billion. To meet these targets, the auto
component industry has envisioned
average investment of USD 3.5 billion per

101
annum totalling USD 35 billion of
additional investments by 2020.
Challenges of access to capital and
technology, availability of skilled
manpower, rapidly increasing inflation,
and lack of proper infrastructure,
including power, are being addressed
with urgent and timely intervention by
the government and proactive action by
the industry.
Various initiatives have been taken to
strengthen the relationships of its
members with India based International
Purchase Organisations (IPO) that play a
crucial role in inter-linking the Indian
automotive component manufacturers
with the OEMs and IPOs based across the
world. With the support of the industry
association (ACMA), an IPO forum was
launched in 2008 representing the 30-odd
IPOs in the country. Since its inception,
members have benefited from sharing of
the best practices on logistics, suppliers,
development, packaging an other
common issues with regard to product
liability, etc.
The auto component industry in India is
renowned for the quality of its
engineering and operations. Next to
Japan, India claims the largest number of
Deming quality award winners in the auto

102
component space. Apart from a
pneumatic braking systems company,
which won the Deming award, and the
prestigious Japanese Quality medal,
eleven India-based companies spanning
diverse areas such as auto electrics,
hydraulic braking systems, sheet glass for
auto applications, bearings, seats, steering
systems, brake linings and engine valves
have won the Deming prize for quality.
Many Indian companies are now
preferred suppliers of auto components to
the elite OEMs around the world.

103
 Indian Textile
Machinery Industry
The Indian Textile Machinery Industry,
which began as an offshoot of the textile
industry, is today reckoned as a large
industrial sector in the country. Indian
textile machinery manufacturers produce
sophisticated machines of higher speeds
and production capability, at competitive
prices. The sector also gets significant
support from the well-developed IT
industry. Earlier the growth of textile
engineering industry was hampered due
to lack of automation. However, the
technology for automation of textile
machinery has improved immensely
leading to development of indigenous
machines comparable to those
manufactured in industrially advanced
countries. Substantial and sustained
efforts to strengthen indigenous
technology were made and today the
major manufacturers supply modern
machines. Most of the latest technologies
in automation are concentrating largely
on making the new versions, more
flexible, energy efficient and perfect
through use of microprocessors and
computers. The Textile Engineering

104
Industry (TEI) has developed over the last
five decades and has played a vital role in
the modernization of the textile industry.
Efforts to develop indigenous R&D and
technical back up have been hampered to
some extent by the dependence of
indigenous textile engineering units on
the foreign manufacturers to supply
advanced technology. Most of the
prominent textile machinery
manufacturers across the globe have
technical/financial collaborations with
indigenous producers. A Textile
Machinery Research & Development
Centre has been set up at the Indian
Institute of Technology, Mumbai with the
intention of developing modern
technology machinery, with a long term
vision of becoming self-sufficient in
technology development. The project is
coupled with academic training in textile
machinery for the engineering graduates
leading to post-graduation in textile
machinery. The total turnover of the
textile machinery industry is over ` 42,000
Million, with approximately ten percent
being exported. About 4500 million
rupees worth of advanced textile
machinery is still imported.

105
 Warship Building
India has unostentatiously and quietly
built up the capability to design and build
complex warships. Starting with just three
naval architects in 1957, in just fifty years,
an elite and expert corps of naval
constructors with over two hundred
specialists in warship design has been
created in the Indian Navy. Naval
constructors, marine engineers, electrical
and weapons specialist work together in a
multi-disciplinary Directorate of Naval
Design, which has designed over sixty
warships of different kinds inducted
into the Navy.

The first fully Indian designed warship,

INS Godavari, armed with a rare
combination of western and (erstwhile)
Soviet weapons, was commissioned in
1983. India has since then designed and
built frigates, landing ships, destroyers,
and a host of other support vessels.
Shipyards dedicated to warship
construction, Mazagon Docks Ltd
Mumbai, Garden Reach Shipbuilders,
Calcutta and Goa Shipyard have
developed expertise in construction of
warships. Hindustan Shipyard at Vizag

106
joined the defence production fold
recently. India is one of the few nations in
the world to design and build a stealth
frigate. A major milestone was reached
with the launch of India's first nuclear
submarine in 2009; this is due to be
commissioned in 2012. An aircraft carrier
is currently under construction at Cochin
Shipyard. A feature of the ship is the large
extent of indigenous equipment and
machinery.

The Navy has lived up to its epithet “The

silent service”!

Some of the material included has been sourced from

the following :

"New Manufacturing Policy", Government of India.

Commodore. RB Verma, FNAE, EVP, Tafe Limited.

Mr. P.J. Mohanram, Advisor, Indian Machine Tools

manufacturer's Association, Society of Indian
Automotive Manufacturers, Automative Component
Manufacturer's Association of India.

Dr. P.L. Narasimhan, formerly VP (R & D) Lakshmi

Machine Works Limited.

Rear. Admiral K. Vaidyanathan - Paper written for

Golden Jubileee of Corps of Naval Constructors.

107
 Information
and
Communication Technology
Information and communication technology (ICT) is a combined term used to
describe information technology and communication technology together,and
deals with the process of obtaining knowledge from any event, while
communication technology deals with the process of exchanging the information.
ICT only includes the technologies for e-communications; thus, postal services are
omitted from its scope. This is one of the important pillars to build a developed
nation. ICT has evolved in an incremental manner in India .

Development in ICT of India started well before Independence, when the first
electric telegraph service was opened in 1851 for use of the British East India
Company. This was followed by construction of telegraph throughout the country.
Telephone exchanges also started operating in early 1881. Moving one step further,
wireless communication systems like radio-telegraph and radio-telephone were
also established in India before Independence. After Independence, ICT of India
was further developed by introduction of new technologies by the Government of
India.

India started its space programs to provide satellite communications and

established the first satellite earth station for domestic communications in 1980.

The Government of India started research and development centres to improve its
ICT by establishing Telecom Centres of Excellence (TCOEs), Centre for Department
of Telematics (C-DOT), etc. TCOE is based on Public Private Partnership (PPP).
Currently there are seven TCOE programmes in progress at IIT Kharagpur, IIM
Ahmedabad, IISc Bangalore, IIT Delhi, IIT Kanpur, IIT Bombay, and IIT Madras.

Today ICT of India is well developed. The Indian telecom market is one of the
fastest growing and second largest in the world. Call rates in India are the cheapest
in the world. The Indian National Satellite System (INSAT) and the Indian Remote
Sensing (IRS) satellite system are one of the largest satellite networks in the world.
ISRO is working on a new concept of Village Resource Centre (VRC) by combing
services provided by INSAT and IRS. Indian IT companies have emerged as the
global leaders for providing information technology solutions at very low cost. 111
First wireless telegraph station
established

After development in wired

communication technologies, India
moved towards the wireless era. After
some development across the globe
wireless telegraph touched India in 1902,
when the first telegraph station was
established between Saugor Islands and
Sandheads. Traffic was maintained with
ships at sea from Calcutta stations at
Diamond Island.

Radio-telegraph system between the UK

and India

From the year 1902 India drastically

changed from cable telegraph to wireless
telegraph, radio telegraph, radio
telephone and trunk dialing. Radio-
telegraph system between the UK and
India was developed with imperial
wireless chain beam stations at Khadki
and Daund, and was inaugurated by Lord
Irwin on 23 July, 1927 by exchanging
greetings with King George V.
Radio-telephone system inaugurated
between the UK and India

A radio-telephone is a communications
system for transmission of speech over

112
radio and is not connected to public line.
To exchange the current information on
military operations, during British period,
all major cities and towns in India were
linked with radio-telephone system, in
1933.
First optical fiber system for local
junction commissioned at Pune

Development of communication over

Optical Fiber cable started a new phase in
telecommunication field. India also
introduced in 1979, the Optical Fiber
system by commissioning its first optical
fiber system for local junction at Pune.

First satellite earth station for domestic

communications established at
Secunderabad, Andhra Pradesh

India has launched more than 50 satellites

of various types, since its first attempt on
19th April 1975 as ARYABHATA. It was
made and assembled by Indian Space
Research Organization (ISRO). After
successful launch of communication
satellite, India established its first earth
station for domestic communication in
1980, at Secunderabad. This was a
milestone for India in the field of
telecommunication.

113
 Government policy towards IT sector
changed when Mr. Rajiv Gandhi became
Prime Minister of India

Information Technology (IT) industry in

India is one of the fastest growing
industries. Indian IT industry has built up
valuable brand equity for itself in the
global markets. This present situation is a
result of change in government policies
towards IT sectors when Mr. Rajiv Gandhi
became Prime Minister of India. His New
Computer Policy (NCP-1984) laid the
foundation for the development of a
world-class IT industry in India.

C-DOT (Center for Development of

Telematics), a telecom R&D
organization, established by Sam
Pitroda

C- DOT was set up in August 1984 by the

Government of India. The Center for
Development of Telematics is an
autonomous body and is the center for the
development of telecom technology. It
was vested with full authority and total
flexibility to develop state-of-the-
art telecommunication technology to
meet the needs of the Indian
telecommunication network. Nearly 50%
of present fixed line infrastructure, after

114
allowing the entry of MNCs into the
Telecom Market is from C-DOT
technology. The Government of India
corporatized the operations wing of C-
DOT in 2000 and renamed the
Department of Telecom as Bharat Sanchar
Nigam Limited (BSNL).

First mobile telephone service started

by Bharti Airtel on 15 August, 1995 in
Delhi

Bharti Airtel Limited is an Indian

telecommunications company that
operates in 19 countries across South Asia,
Africa and the Channel Islands and was
the first to provide mobile telephone
service in India. After the introduction of
many more telecommunication
companies and their cheap services,
luxuriousness of mobile telephone
changed into necessity for a common man
in India.

Currently, the Indian telecom market is

one of the fastest growing in the world. It
is the second largest telecommunication
network in the world in terms of wireless
subscribers after China. Call rates in India
are cheapest in the world. Mobile phone
has become a means of utility for every

115
common person. India provides IT
services at one-tenth the price and India is
among the three countries that have built
supercomputers on their own. India is
among six countries that launch satellites
and do so even for Germany and Belgium,
India's INSAT is among the world's
largest domestic satellite communication
systems. Indian companies such as Tata
Consultancy Services, Infosys etc. are
world renowned for their IT prowess.

Formation of separate Posts and

Telecommunications Departments

Two separate Departments for the Posts

and the Telecommunications were
created in January 1985. Earlier, postal,
telegraph and telephone services were
managed by only Posts and Telegraphs
Department.

Formation of Telecom Regulatory

Authority of India (TRAI)

To provide fairness to both

telecommunication market and the
consumers of this market TRAI was
established with powers to issue
directions to service providers and to
resolve any disputes between service
providers.

116
Formation of Bharat Sanchar Nigam (PPP) in 2006. Recently there are seven information on natural resources, land
Limited (BSNL) TCOE programmes in progress at IIT and water resources management, tele-
Kharagpur, IIM Ahmedabad, IISc medicine, tele-education, adult education,
BSNL was formed in October, 2000, to Bangalore, IIT Delhi, IIT Kanpur, IIT vocational training, health and family
operate services in different parts of the Bombay and IIT Madras welfare programmes has been
country as a public sector unit. About 74% established. There are nearly 500 such
switching infrastructure is covered by India enters the world of 3G mobile VRCs in the country.
BSNL, 10% by MTNL and rest 16% by systems
other private operators. 40 million copper Some of the material included has been sourced from
loops in the country are available with 3G mobile systems provide mobile TV, the following :
BSNL and MTNL, out of which 14 million video on demand, videoconferencing,
tele-medicine and various location based BSNL (www.bsnl.co.in) ; COAI (www.coai.com)
loops are in rural areas. DOT (www.dot.gov.in) ; DRDO (www.drdo.nic.in)
services. This has became a part of India ISRO (www.isro.org) ; MTNL (www.mtnl.net.in)
Broadband Policy
with the launch of 3G-enabled Mobile and TCOE (www.tcoe.in) ; TRAI (www.trai.gov.in)
Launch of Broadband in 2004, changed the Data services by Government owned
quality of life by introducing applications Mahanagar Telephone Nigam Ltd
such as tele-education, tele-medicine, e- (MTNL) in Delhi since 2008. This was
governance, entertainment and also introduced in Mumbai and was followed
provided high speed access to by BSNL and other private-sector service
information and web-based providers.
communication. Recent Programmes at ISRO
Establishment of Telecom Centers of India's INSAT is among the world's
Excellence (TCOE) largest domestic satellite communication
system as well as the Indian Remote
TCOE programme is based on the concept Sensing (IRS) satellite system is one of the
that the overall progress of the country largest constellations of remote sensing
cannot be achieved without local research, satellites in operation in the world today.
development and innovation for local Combining the services offered by INSAT
needs. The TCOE was translated into a and IRS satellites, a new concept namely
reality through Public Private Partnership Village Resource Centre (VRC) to provide

117
Materials
 Materials
Materials provide the vehicle for properties. Alloying elements like to the surface and create composite
technological progress of a civilization. chromium, nickel, manganese etc. are surface layer. To create a hard surface
In ancient times, the progress from added to steel to impart some special with low friction, carbon nanotubes have
Paleolithic age to Neolithic age took properties in the alloy steel. Many of been grown in hexagonal array of pores
place with the discovery of fracturing these alloy steels were not produced obtained by two stage anodization of
and grinding of stones leading to the earlier in our country because of limited aluminium. There is growing search for
development of finer and lighter but market demand. As there has been electrode materials with high energy
more capable tools. Indus Vavey progress in the sectors like construction, capacity for lithium ion battery and
civilization started using burnt bricks, space, defence and nuclear technology, multi-walled carbon nanotube has
painted potteries and metals like copper demands for different kinds of special shown significant promise. Low cost
and bronze. Although India does not steels increased and the major producers silicon solar cells are being pursued for
have significant resource of tin, there of steels in the country started cost effective route to harness solar
was zinc to alloy with copper to make developing those grades of steel. energy. Zinc oxide used extensively in
brass. The technology of zinc extraction Application of many of these grades of displays, has been grown in flower
started in Zawar, Rajasthan. In the era of steel has been highlighted in the context morphology and it shows interesting
post Vedic civilization, the discovery of of their applications. photoluminescence characteristics.
the technology of direct reduction of iron Apart from metals and alloys, materials, Irreversibility of microstructure due to
ore led to stronger tools to clear the dense in general, include ceramics, polymers thermal cycling is an important issue in
jungles of Ganga-Yamuna Doab to and even combination across these shape memory alloys, which find
spread civilization to the centre of India. categories of materials, known as applications in thermal switches, space
India developed the technology of composites. The materials could be in structures and a number of other
making steel, an alloy of iron and carbon crystalline or amorphous state. The sizes applications. Joining of similar and
(%2wt£) and it had monopoly over this could also vary from the meter (bulk) to dissimilar materials is a critical area of
technology till about thousand years micron and nano-meter scales in technology which is being pursued in
ago. aggregates and particles. Metal matrix different institutions. Joining by epoxy
Steel constitutes the largest tonnage of composites have been reinforced by containing nanoparticles shows
engineering material used by civilization ceramic particles, short fibers and potential for high strength joints
still to-day. There are broadly two types continuous fibers with size varying from between metals and polymers.
of steel – plain carbon steel and alloy microns to nanometers. The hard Materials encompass a vast area and
steel. Plain carbon steel has carbon as the reinforcing particles of micron size often there is extensive research and
only alloying element. Other elements, if improve strength, particularly at development activity in materials in
present, have been inherited from iron elevated temperatures, but the ductility India. The development of materials
due to their presence during extraction is often limited. When the particle size presented here captures the trends. It is
but these are not intentional addition for decreases to nanometers the ductility by no means exhaustive.
the purpose of alloying to improve improves. One may limit reinforcement

121
 Indian civilization has passed through
Paleolithic and Neolithic era when
mankind evolved the technology of
shaping stones progressively by
fracturing and grinding

Thereafter, the civilization learnt to make

Neolithic
copper and use it for tools entering
Chalcolithic age. India had very limited
resource for tin and so use of bronze was
very limited and there was no clearly
demarcated bronze age in Indian
civilization, which entered directly into
iron age.

Copper
Paleolithic

Iron 122
Ancient furnace for copper melting
discovered in Amba, Rajasthan

Copper melting Furnace

Bronze statue of dancing girls found in

Mohenjo-Daro, possibly made with
imported tin.

123
Dancing Girls , Mohenjo-Daro
 India learnt to distil zinc vapors in
inverted retorts in 400 AD

Schematics of Row of inverted Retorts

Large scale zinc production started in

India in 1000 AD. Battery of retorts in
Zawar, Rajasthan

124
Row of inverted Retorts
Pioneering Indian
Technology of Steel

- Direct reduction of iron ore (oxide) by

charcoal to obtain a mix of iron, iron-
oxide, carbon particle and slag
- squeeze out slag to produce wrought
iron
- Re-carbonize wrought iron to produce
high carbon steel (1.5-2% C) known as
wootz steel

This technology of steel was used for

Damascus sword and Delhi iron pillar.

Indian monopoly of steel remained till

thousand years ago when Iraq, Syria and
Japan began to acquire this knowledge.

125
 Corrosion resistant TMT Rebars possess
higher corrosion resistance as compared
to conventional rebars which are derived
through addition of corrosion resistant
elements like Cr, Cu, P, etc. These rebars
are produced by SAIL and Tata Steel as
per IS:1786-2008 in different diameters for
use in RCC construction in coastal and
industrially polluted regions.

RCC construction in progress 126

TMT rebars are characterized by high
UTS/YS ratio (1.18 min.), high uniform
elongation (8% min.) and low variation in
strength to reduce the risk of catastrophic
failure of the constructed structure in the
event of an earthquake. SAIL is the first in
the country to pioneer the technology of
producing such rebars at its steel plants at
Bhillai and Durgapur.

Destruction Through Earthquake in Bhuj

127
 High Strength Roof Bolt quality TMT
rebars provide an active support element
used for enhancing inherent strength of
the rock mass by keying/ beam-building
effect. Adoption of innovative alloy
design and optimized process
parameters, roof bolt grade TMT rebars
with superior mechanical properties
(yield strength : 600 MPa and tensile
strength : 720 MPa) was developed for the
first time by SAIL at its Durgapur and
Bhillai plants

Roof-bolt and its application in underground mines and excavation

128
High strength steel plates (Yield Strength:
550 MPa minimum) find their
applications for construction of dams,
bridges, ATM chests, penstocks and earth
movers. SAIL is the first to develop in the
country the process technology for
production of such high strength plates in
as-rolled condition and marketing it
under the brand name of SAILMA 550
HI/ SAILMA 600. These plates are
characterized by high strength, good
toughness and weldability and are cost-
effective substitute for imported plates of
equivalent strength.

129 Excavator ATM

 Process technology for the manufacture
of ASTM A 517 Gr. F plates with good
abrasion resistance and weldability was
successfully developed in SAIL and these
plates are used for fabrication of
penstocks, impeller for industrial fans etc.

Highly formable hot rolled steels,

conforming to IS 6240, are regularly being
produced by SAIL for manufacturing
domestic as well as auto cylinder for
Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG).
Development of Ti stabilized LPG steel
resulted in improved formability.
Titanium was replaced by boron to reduce
the cost of production. Recently, an
innovative approach has been attempted
by increasing the silicon content not only
Penstock for hydelprojects to reduce cost of production but also to
improve castability and for better
desulphurization

130
Various Types of LPG Cylinders
Recently, a new variant of high strength
formable quality grade has been
developed by SAIL and the hot rolled coils
of 5.1 mm thickness have been
successfully tried and tested for
fabrication of large cylinders of 1000 litre
capacity by M/s Lakhmi Appliances,
Chennai. This design is approved by Chief
Controller of Explosives and the
customer.

High strength LPG steel equivalent to

EN10120 P265NB and JISG3116 SG295 is
used for manufacturing cylinders
exclusively for export market. An
innovative cost effective chemistry with
and without Nb addition was designed
and hot rolled under controlled condition
at BSL.

1000 Liter cylinder for storage of LPG/ Propane gas

131
 Steel pipelines are the most economical
means for the transportation of water, oil
and natural gas over long distances. The
expected growth in oil and gas segment is
24% between 2010-15 with addition of
20,000 km pipeline length by 2013 which
will require 2.0 million tonnes steel per
year
Strips/plates of API X-70 grade based on
low carbon steel microalloyed with Nb-V-
Ti and with varied Mn content (1.4%
min.), are manufactured by SAIL, TATA
steel, ESSAR Steel and JSW, for making
pipes to transport oil and natural gas at
high operating pressures. Recently,
because of increasing demand for API X-
80 grade plates and HR coils, steel
producers in India like SAIL, ESSAR Steel,
JSW are developing this steel.

Pipes for use in transportation of oil and gas

132
The demand of steel for Auto is expected
to increase to 11.8 million tonnes in 2016-
17 and 14.5 million tonnes in 2020-21.
High strength steels owing to their higher
strength with moderate forming capacity
favour application of thinner gauge
sheets, reducing overall weight of car and
saving in fuel consumption. In line with
global development, TATA Steel has
developed two grades of interstitial free
(IF) steels (Nb-stabilised and Ti-
stabilised). Tata Steel is also the first steel
producer to make bake hardenable and
high strength IF steels in India for auto
applications.

Auto-body

133
 High strength fine-grained steel has been
developed by SAIL with innovative alloy
chemistry with Nb and Si to achieve
higher elongation (32 %) and hole
expansion ratio (45 %) coupled with lower
YS/UTS (0.86). Production of such fine
grained steel (< 3 micron) uniformly
distributed across coil thickness in
industrially processed 3.2 mm thick hot
band is being reported as a major
breakthrough in technology for
development of cost effective ultra fine
grained steel with high strength (>500
MPa) and good formability.

134
Microstructure of Fine grained steel
In view of likely demand for cold rolled
non-grain oriented (CRNO) steel
increasing to 8.5 lakh tonnes in 2016-17,
SAIL developed the technology for
production of M-47, M-45 and M-43
grades of electrical steels used extensively
for fabrication of transformers,
generators, motors. SAIL had also
developed and supplied l i mit ed
quantities of M-36/M-27 grade CRNO
steel. Semi processed steel is a cost
effective product which finds applications
in making of cores for fractional and low
horsepower motors and generators.

M/s ThyssenKrupp Electrical Steel Pvt.

Ltd has developed its own technology for
production of high permeability CRNO
and semi processed steels

Modified 9Cr-1Mo steel used for

fabricating various components of
thermal power plants, is one of the creep
resistant steels developed by SAIL for
high temperature applications.

135
Transformer Assembly
 Bhilai Steel Plant (BSP) of Steel Authority
of India Limited (SAIL) is one of the
largest producers of rail in the world.
Responding to the technological
improvements in Indian Railways, new
grades of rails recently developed by SAIL
are: high tensile strength (UTS ≥ 1260
MPa), high YS/UTS ratio (0.58) with Nb
and V micro alloying 880 grade rail, Cu-
Mo corrosion resistant rail for coastal
areas, Ni-Cr-Cu alloyed low cost
corrosion resistant rail and high strength
110 UTS rails with YS/UTS ratio (0.60).

Attempts have been made by SAIL to

develop bainitic rails with high
toughness.

136
Railway Track
A number of stainless steel grades in
Ferritic, Austenitic and Martensitic
varieties are being produced in the
country for various applications, like
utensil, surgical, nuclear, construction,
etc. SAIL and Jindal, Hissar are the major
producers of such steel and are already
producing all such grades. Recently, SAIL
has taken up an initiative for the
development of duplex grades of stainless
steel as well as cost-effective low nickel
austenitic grade for utensil applications.

In addition, SAIL in association with

NPCIL has started working on the
development of various other stainless
steel grades, likes 410, ASTM A 276, SS17-
4PH, ASTM A 564 Gr.640 for use in the
construction of nuclear power plant.

137
 SAIL has developed Spade Q&T plates for
meeting the requirements of Indian
Defence for fabrication of MBT (T-90,
Arjun), Bullet/ Mine Proof Vehicles,
BMP-II. This steel is characterized by high
strength and superior impact toughness
properties to achieve desired ballistic
properties. Mishra Dhatu Nigam
(MIDHANI) has developed armour
modules for MBT-Arjun.

High strength plates (YS: 690 MPa min.,

UTS: 770-940 MPa min.) with good low
temperature impact toughness properties
have been developed indigenously for
fabrication of carriage system of Bofors
T-90 Main Battle Tank Guns.

MIDHANI has developed a number of

high strenth low alloy and stainless steels
for application in barrel, breech ring,
breech screw and muzzle brake of 155 mm
Howitzer, barrel, breech ring, block and
coupling torsion bar, crank shaft, friction
disc in T-72 Tank, barrel, breech rings,
driving shaft in MBT(Arjun) and barrel in
Vijayanta Tank.

138
Bofors Gun with Carrier
Quenched and tempered plates of DMR
249 Gr.B steel is used mainly for building
landing and take-off platforms in aircraft
carriers. It is characterized by high
strength (YS: 588-686 MPa) and superior
low temperature impact toughness
property (Charpy impact energy: 78 J at
o
–40 C). Right now, SAIL has developed
process technology for production of this
quenched and tempered steel product and
is producing it regularly as per the
requirements of Indian Navy.

DMR 249 Gr. A Plates are used for the

fabrication of warships and aircraft
carrier. This steel is produced through
specially designed alloy chemistry
containing Nb, V, Ti, Ni and very low
amounts of hydrogen (2 ppm max).
SAIL’s plants at Bhilai, Bokaro and Aircraft Carrier
Rourkela Steel Plants along with Essar
Steel are the major producer of such steels.

MIDHANI has developed low alloy steel

forgings and weld consumables for “INS
ARIHANT”, first nuclear submarine of INS ARIHANT
INDIA's First Nuclear
India.
Submarine

139
 For application in MiG engine
programme, MIDHANI has made
significant advancements in production
of large diameter ingots of complex super
alloys by double vacuum melting to
achieve high degree of structural
homogeneity.

Ni-based Super alloys have been

developed through in -house R&D efforts
of MIDHANI for application in typical
components like flame tube, combustion
chamber, reheat system, thrust deflector
system, casing, exhaust ducts, bearing
housing, cooling rings, flanges in Kaveri
Engine .

Fabrication for MiG Engine Programme

140
Kaveri
Mishra Dhatu Nigam (MIDHANI) has
developed a range titanium alloys, super
alloys and special Steels for the fabrication
of a range of fasteners for space and
defence applications.

MIDHANI has developed steam Generator

forgings for nuclear power plant (BHAVINI)
using 9Cr1Mo(Modified) alloy.

FASTENERS FOR SPACE & DEFENCE APPLICATION

DISHED END WELD NECK FLANGE

141
 SAIL with Mishra Dhatu Nigam has
produced maraging steel plates for various
space research related applications.

Maraging steels are carbon free iron-nickel

alloys with additions of cobalt,
molybdenum, titanium and aluminium.
The term maraging is derived from the
strengthening mechanism, which is
transforming the alloy to martensite with
subsequent age hardening. The principal
alloying element in this steel is 15 to 25%
nickel. In Maraging steel, high strength
(YS: 1400 - 2400 MPa depending upon
tempering temperature) is combined with
good impact toughness properties (CIE:
20 – 48 J at RT depending upon grade) and
weldability.

Geo-synchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV)

142
Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV)
Aluminising is a cheaper alternative to tin
plating on steel for protection against
environmental corrosion. Technology for
thermal spray diffusion aluminising has
been developed by Indira Gandhi Centre Al sprayed + diffusion treated
for Atomic Research (IGCAR) in
collaboration with industrial partner M/s
G&M, Chennai. They have also developed
uniform 80 20 micron thick NiAl coating
only on bearing surfaces and formation of
NaAlO2 on aluminide, which prevents
fretting of Cr-Mo tube. It is a very low cost Al sprayed
technology and 10 times more productive
than pack cementation process. Thermal Spray Diffusion Aluminising

The components subjected situations of

high wear, are often coated with hard
materials to enhance its service life and it
is called hardfacing. The technology for
hardfacing with Ni-Cr-B alloy has been
developed at Indira Gandhi Centre for
Atomic Research (IGCAR) and are
employed in several components.

Hardfacing of Cup and Cone of

143 Transfer-arm Roller Bearing
 Composites are a class of engineered
materials where constituents are
synergistically combined by human
ingenuity to impart unique spectrum of
properties. The constituents could be
metals, ceramics and polymers and are
combined on micron scale. In it, the
dispersed phase in the shape of particles,
fibers or laminates of micron size, is
distributed in the continuous phase called
the matrix, which could be metal,
ceramics or polymer. Composite provides
a route to improve stiffness, to impart
smartness and also to combine strength,
toughness, low friction, low wear and
other required properties.

Light weight composites offers weight

saving in automobile, aerospace and
Schematics of Shapes of Dispersed Phases space industries. Solidification processing
by stir-casting provides the cheapest
lightweight composite pioneered in India
at IIT Kanpur in 1968 by wetting addition
of magnesium. Subsequently research in
stir-casting spread to IISc, Bangalore and
RRL, Trivandrum, before Japan and US
entered this area in the seventies led by
automakers and producers of aluminium.

Microstructure of pioneering Aluminium-

alumina composite prepared by stir-casting 144
Silicides offers the advantages of a
ceramic as well as certain characteristics of
metal. MoSi2 and it has been proposed as a
model material for high temperature
structural applications. It has recently
become a potential candidate material for
several advanced high temperature
aerospace applications. Toughening of
MoSi2 has been investigated by laminating
it with refractory metals like tungsten,
molybdenum, tantalum and niobium.

Increased attention to nano-materials by

the turn of the century resulted in the
development of nano-composites where
the dispersed phase is of nanometer size.
Hybrid of nano-micro composite (NMC) Laminated Tantalum – MoSi2 composite
have been developed with vastly
improved strength and ductility.

Stress-strain diagram of TEM Micrograph of NMC

Matrix Al-alloy AM and NMC
containing alumina
145
 Alumina with nanometer size pores has
been prepared by two step anodization of
pure aluminium. Carbon nanotubes/
nanofibres (CNTs/CNFs) have been
grown within the pores by chemical vapor
deposition technique.

Synthesis of nano-structured
carbonaceous materials within the nano-
porous oxide template has high potential
for many applications (e.g., electronics,
Nanopores in the anodized aluminium oxide and magnetic, etc.). Development of
its transverse section composite surface of anodized alumina
with embedded carbon nano tubes or
rods show significantly lower wear rate
and coefficient of friction attributed to
formation of transfer layer of hard wear
resistant alumina mixed with graphitic
CNTs/CNFs.

TEM image of nano-pores Carbon nano-rods grown

inside nano-pores 146
Carbon is a wonder atom which could
arrange itself to result in variety of
properties, from soft graphite to hard
diamond. When carbon atoms are
arranged in hexagonal array as in
graphene sheet it results in interesting
electronic properties. Graphene sheet
could be rolled up into nano sized tubes
with either single wall (SWCNT) and
multiwalls (MWCNT). These tubes also
have very high elastic modulus, unusual
friction and electronic properties . There is
increasing effort to employ nanotubes in
useful products.

Carbon nanotubes grow over nano

particles of catalysts when a carbon
bearing gas decomposes at an elevated
temperature over these particles of either
transition metals or their oxides. It has
been claimed that the surface melting
temperature of oxides and their size are
important in deciding what type of
nanostructures of carbon, like nanotubes,
nanorods/fibers or nano-tapes, may
form. Doping of oxide may alter the
surface melting temperature and create
specific conditions for the growth of
MWCNT or fiber.

Carbon nano structures of tube rod and tape

grown using cobalt oxide based catalyst by
147 catalytic chemical vapor deposition
 Lithium ion battery is powering most of
the mobile devices be it mobile phone,
camera or laptop. There is an effort to
increase its power density so that it may be
employed in powered mobile tools and
cars. Currently available Li-ion batteries
employ graphite (intercalated by lithium
to LiC6) as anode and cobalt oxide, a costly
toxic oxide, as cathode.

An anode consisting of carbon nanotube

in place of graphite has been tried in a cell
Typical first charge–discharge profile of a cell Li/LiPF6 (in with Li metal foil as cathode along with
EC:DEC)/electrode of CNTs synthesized by catalytic conventional electrolyte of Li-battery. The
decomposition of acetylene gas over LiNi0.5Co0.5O2 currently used anode has limited specific
charge capacity of 372 mAhg−1. The first
discharge capacity of the cell with CNT is
765 mAhg−1 and the reversible capacity of
−1
the MWCNTs is 485 mAhg which is
higher than the currently used anode. The
columbic efficiency in the first cycle is
observed to be nearly 65% but remains
constant from second to eleventh cycle at
96.6%. Carbon nanostructures may have
potential application in the anode of next
generation of Lithium ion battery.

Variation of coulombic efficiency with number of 148

cycles in cells with electrode made of CNTs
Shape-memory alloys (SMA's) are smart
materials which have the ability to
“remember" a high temperature shape
even after significant deformations at low
temperature. Cooling and deformation
below a critical temperature, induces such
changes which could reverse and recover
on heating. Thus, heating of the material
bring back the original shape at high
temperature. This is the “shape memory
effect”. This material could be employed
in space structures, heat engines and
thermal switches. The complete cycle under which the material
exhibits pseudoelasticity & shape memory effect
The microstructural irreversibility in
these materials have been investigated in
terms of change in grain size with
repeated thermal cycling.

The microstructures obtained after different

149 numbers of thermal cycle
 Energy is a key challenge for sustaining
our civilization when conventional
energy sources are dying out real fast. It is
now imperative to harness alternative
energy sources like solar energy, wind
energy, geothermal energy etc.

Various solar cell technologies exist

starting from conventional silicon wafer
based technologies to the upcoming third
generation solar cell technologies like hot-
carrier cells. a-Si:H thin film solar cells
(second generation technology) have been
a-Si:Hthin film solar cells over developed on mild steel substrates, which
plain (bare) steel substrates. have several advantages like low costs,
Thin film layers forming the cell
flexibility, stability and higher strength.
The cell has an external quantum
efficiency of 2.79%. The cell could deliver
a maximum power of ~ 2.8 mW/cm2.

I-V characteristics under light and performance

parameters of the cell 150
Solar cells over polymer coated mild steel
substrates have also been developed and
in these cells, a protective polymer coating
was used to isolate the steel substrate from
the back silver contact layer. The coating
was developed by Tata Steel. This cell
showed an external quantum efficiency of
4.23% and it could deliver a maximum
power of 4.2 mW/cm2.

a-Si:Hthin film solar cell on polymer coated

steel substrate

I-V characteristics under light and cell

151 performance parameters.
 Luminescence refers to emission of light
and it may arise due to chemical, electro-
chemical, bio-chemical reaction or
exposure to light (photon) but not due to
heating, which is called incandescence.
Luminescent core-shell nanostructures of
silicon and silicon oxide having two
different morphologies – spherical and
rod-like, have been prepared by
controlled oxidation of mechanically
milled crystalline silicon and by
Phase contrast AFM images of (a) rod like core- exfoliation of the affected layer of porous
shell structures of silicon nanocrystalsin silicon silicon.
and (b) spherical core-shell structures of silicon
nanocrystalssurrounded by silicon oxide. Photoluminescence is luminescence due
to absorption of light. Colloidal
suspensions of core-shell nanostructures
exhibit intense room temperature
photoluminescence (PL), detectable with
the unaided eye. These light emitting
nanocrystals and in addition, the oxide
coated nanocrystals could increase the
efficiency of crystalline solar cells. Work is
continuing for the application of these
nanostructures in solar cells.

Wavelength vs. open-circuit voltage curve for

coated and uncoated solar cell
152
Zinc oxide is a semiconductor which may
be employed in solar cells, gas sensors,
ceramics, catalysts, cosmetics and
varistors. Different zinc oxide
nanostructures with shapes like cube, rod
with different diameter and length, and
flower, have been developed by a simple
chemical-solution process, which is low-
cost and can be easily scaled up. Among
the different morphologies, flower like
structures having high surface area is
important in applications for catalysis,
dye-sensitized solar cells and gas-sensors.
Zinc oxide may be employed in solar
energy conversion due to its stability
against photo-corrosion as well as
photochemical properties similar to
titanium dioxide (TiO 2 ). The dye-
sensitized nanocrystalline solar cell is
cost-effective with the added advantage
of tailoring the surface structure further to
improve the performance of the cell. Growth of the ZnOflower during heating at 80°C at
different times of (a) 3hr, (b) 4hr, (c) 5hr and (d) 6hr.

Room temperature
photoluminescence
spectra of ZnO

153
 In a structure, it is often necessary to join
different components made of similar
materials or of different alloys. Joining is
critical for developing engineering
structures. Narrow gap hot wire tungsten
Narrow Gap Hot Wire
inert gas (TIG) process has been
TIG Process
developed with increased deposition rate,
and oscillation of torch tip to ensure side-
wall fusion and elimination of lack of
penetration (LOP) defects. The gap refers
to the gap between two ends being joined
by deposition of weld metal when the
side wall of the ends also get fused. There
is decrease in gap at the top of joint to less
than 12 mm for 50 mm thick joints and
consequently, a decrease in the volume of
weld metal. The technology has been used
in fabricating fast breeder reactor (FBR)
steam generator.

High temperature vacuum brazing

technique has been developed to join
Inconel 600 sleeves to 316L stainless steel
sheath of the tri-axial MI cable.

154
Vacuum Brazing Technique
Welding of titanium to 304 stainless steel
in dissolver for reprocessing fast breeder
test reactor (FBTR) fuel has been carried
out by explosive cladding.

Cracks in shrouds and blades in steam

turbine leads to substantial annual loss
due to plant outages. Repair procedures
using TIG welding has been developed
along with a set-up developed for
localised in-situ repair.

Titanium/304 SS Welding

155
Cracks in Turbine Blade
 Repair welding has been developed for
repairing critical components.
Technology for on-line monitoring of
weld quality has been developed using
infra red thermal signatures of weld
defects.

Worn out tenon In-situ build-up of tenon

by weld deposition

Repair Welding of worn-out tenon by weld-build up

Defective Region Repaired Region

156
Repair Welding of CA-15 Cast Pump Impeller
Polymeric materials like high-density
polyethylene (HDPE) and polypropylene
(PP) are progressively replacing the
traditional engineering materials like steel
and aluminium in fabrication of
secondary structures in aircraft,
automobiles, railway coaches, as well as in
many civil constructions. Often these
polymeric materials are adhesively
bonded to primary metal structures. But
unfortunately, these polymers exhibit
insufficient adhesive bond strength due to
their low surface energy. Thus, it is
necessary to modify the surface of
polymers to enhance their surface energy,
which in turn, improves their adhesive Surface modification (a)
bond strength. Surface modification of by DC glow discharge
polymer by exposure to DC glow
discharge is found to be more effective
than RF glow discharge.

Optical micrograph of HDPE fracture

surfaces of HDPE-steel adhesive joints
(a)polymer-adhesive interface failure, (b)
failure at adhesive interface (A),
adhesive cohesively at (B) and through
the adhesive-steel interface at (C) in
polymer exposed to DC glow discharge
(c) failure at the steel-adhesive interface
(C) in mechanically polished polymer
prior to exposure under glow discharge
before joining to mild steel.

157
(b) (c)
 Efforts have been under way to strengthen
epoxy adhesive used for joining polymers
to metals/polymers by dispersion of
nanoparticles. To avoid agglomeration of
particles, an innovative ultrasonic dual
mixing process (ultrasonic mixing along
with impeller stirring) has been
developed to disperse round
nanoparticles of Al2O3 (<25 nm) in epoxy
resin.

Some of the material included has been sourced from

Nano-void Lattice Formed in Epoxy due to Ultrasonic stirring the following :
Dr. Sanak Mishra, FNAE ,CEO Greenfield Projects,
India (supported by Dr. B.K. Ojha from SAIL R&D).
Dr. A.K. Bhaduri, FNAE, Associate Director, IGICAR,
Kalpakkam.
Dr. Prita Pant, Associate Professor , IIT Bombay.
Dr. Nilratan Bandyopadhyay, Director, Materials
Science, BESU, Kolkata.
Mr. Dinesh K Likhi, Director (Marketing), Mishra
Dhatu Nigam.

Prof. Amitabha Basumullick, Department of

Metallurgy and Materials Engineering, BESU,
Kolkata.

158
Nano-particles of alumina dispersed in epoxy; clusters marked by white boundaries
Rockets
and
Missiles
Hazrath Tipu Sultan, the Tiger of Mysore scholars to suggest that, perhaps, India operational PSLV and GSLV, we are self
(1783-1799) was the first person who used had also contributed significantly to sufficient and ‘second to none’ in building
rockets for the purpose of warfare. initial developments of Science and and launching any satellites required for
However, Chinese are generally credited Technology, in addition to Metallurgy, Indian needs.
with the first use of gunpowder to propel Mathematics and Astronomy. In the
projectiles for fireworks and for rockets. modern times, the Indian achievements Development work on Guided Weapons
The rockets used in Mysore were by far and contributions to Rockets and Missiles and Missiles started in India with the
more advanced than those used for the are significantly related to the two formation of a Guided Missile Study Team
purpose of entertainment as fireworks; visionaries: Dr Homi Jehangir Bhaba and in 1958 (renamed as Special Weapons
they were superior and used iron tubes for Dr Vikram Ambalal Sarabhai who Development Team in 1959) under the
holding propellant. William Congreve spearheaded the start of Indian Space Ministry of Defence and subsequently
(1772-1828) improved upon the Mysore Programmes with the launching of a two- reorganized as the Defence Research &
rocket and further developed the stage Nike Apache sounding rocket from Development Laboratory, Hyderabad in
technology for better accuracy and TERLS (Thumba Equatorial Rocket 1961-1962. Sanctioning of the Integrated
stability. But the real effective use of Launching Station) on Nov 21, 1963. Guided Missile Development Programme
rockets as weaponry was possible only by Subsequent Space developments were led (IGMDP) in 1983 provided a major thrust
the end of World War II using German V-II by Dr Sarabhai’s philosophy: “To us, there for the development of missiles in India;
rockets. Subsequent developments were is no ambiguity of purpose… we are the programme included PRITHVI
led by the United States and Russia – in convinced that if we are to play a (tactical surface to surface missile),
the race to maintain supremacy in guided meaningful role nationally, and in the AKASH (medium range surface to air
missiles and space programmes – community of nations, we must be second missile for air defence applications), NAG
glamorized by the launchings of Sputnik to none in the application of advanced (third generation anti tank missile),
(1957) and Explorer (1958), and peaking technologies to the real problems of man TRISHUL (quick reaction surface to air
with man-on-the-moon on July 21, 1969. and society” and the courage to leapfrog to missile), and AGNI (technology
state-of-the-art engineering and demonstrator). Today, with operational
Two popular Indian epics – Ramayana technology pursuits rather than step-by- PRITHVI, AGNI and BrahMos range of
and Mahabharata – demonstrate step scientific developments. This missiles, India has demonstrated its fire
spectacularly imagination and potential of philosophy motivated ISRO to initiate the power to defend itself under any
rocketry and archery-aided firepower in development of Satellite Launch Vehicle circumstances.
ancient times; prompting historians and (SLV-3) as early as 1969. Today, with the

161
 Rockets and Missiles
Symbols of National Strength and Power

Satellite Launch Vehicle (SLV-3) Agni: Technology Demonstrator

First Successful Launch: July 18, 1980 First Successful Launch: May 22, 1989
Strength of Indigenous Technology 162 Power of Indigenous Engineering
The Visionaries:
Dr Homi Jehangir Bhaba
(Oct 30, 1909 – Jan 24, 1966)
The Chief Architect of Indian Atomic
Energy Programme

Dr Vikram Ambalal Sarabhai

(Aug 12, 1919 – Dec 31, 1971)
The Father of Indian Space Programme

163
The Beginning:

November 21, 1963 marked India’s foray

into space, with the launch of a two-stage
Nike Apache sounding rocket from
TERLS (Thumba Equatorial Rocket
Launching Station), near Trivandrum.

164
Within three years of the beginning, on 20 Nov 1967,
the first indigenous sounding rocket – a Rohini (RH)
Rocket – was launched from Thumba – heralding the
arrival of a new era, followed by International
recognition through ‘Dedication to the United Nations’
on Feb 2, 1968 by the then Prime Minister of India,
Indira Gandhi.

‘Indian Space’ goals have since grown and matured:

Commercial Satellites and Operational Launch
Vehicles; Chandrayaan, the Moon Mission; and
ambition of Manned Mission – signal encompassing
economic and strategic objectives.

In fact, soon after the start of ‘Space Race’ with the

launches of Sputnik in 1957 and Explorer in 1958, in
Aug 1961, the Government of India entrusted the
responsibility of looking after space research and
peaceful uses of outer space to the Department of
Atomic Energy (DAE); followed by the constitution of
INCOSPAR (Indian National committee on Space
Research) under the Chairmanship of Prof Vikram A
Sarabhai. The Indian Space Research Organisation
(ISRO) came in to existence in 1969.

165
With spectacular success of sounding rockets, the rockets became bigger with
time. The Rohini series of Indian sounding rockets (RH) helped study the
upper atmosphere. They include RH-125, RH-200, RH-300, and RH-560 for
covering altitudes up to 550 km and payloads up to 100 kg.

166
 Indian
Satellite Launch Vehicles

167
168
Nation Enters the Elite Club

Satellite Launch Vehicle-3 (SLV-3), India's

first experimental satellite launch vehicle
was successfully launched on July 18, 1980
from SHAR Centre, Sriharikota. The first
experimental flight of SLV-3, in August
1979, was only partially successful. Apart
from the July 1980 launch, there were two
more launches held in May 1981 and April
1983, orbiting Rohini Satellites carrying
remote sensing sensors.

169
Bridging Technology Gaps

Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle

(ASLV) was developed to act as a low cost
intermediate vehicle to demonstrate and
validate critical technologies. The strap-
on stages consisted of two identical
one-metre solid motors of SLV-3
configuration. ASLV-D3 was successfully
launched on May 20, 1992.

170
 PSLV- A class of its own: The Polar
Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) is the first
operational launch vehicle of ISRO. PSLV
is capable of launching 1600 kg satellites in
620 km sun-synchronous polar orbit and
1050 kg satellite in geosynchronous
transfer orbit in the standard
configuration. With superbly reliable and
successful variants, PSLV has proved its
multi-payload, multi-mission capability
in a single launch and also its
geosynchronous launch capability.
Another variant of PSLV was used in
Chandrayaan-1 mission.

171
 More Muscle at Lift Off

Geo-synchronous Satellite Launch

Vehicle (GSLV) is capable of placing
INSAT–II class of satellites (2000 – 2,500
kg) into Geo-synchronous Transfer Orbit
(GTO). This three stage vehicle is 49 m
tall, with a lift off weight of 414 t. The first
flight of GSLV took place from SHAR on
April 18, 2001 by launching the 1540 kg
GSAT-1.

172
271
‘Space Power with Solid Thrust’

The first stage of PSLV and the strap-ons

for GSLV-Mk III are among the largest
solid propellant boosters in the world.

S200 of GSLV-MkIII
• 200 t Propellant
• 22 m long
• 3.2 m diameter

173
World’s First Rocket Weapon
Hazrath Tipu Sultan (1750-1799), Sultan of Mysore,
used rockets as weapons, for the first time for military
purposes, against British Army, in the Battle of
Seringapatam in 1792. Although the Indian rockets
were primitive by modern standards, their sheer
numbers, noise and brilliance were said to have been
quite effective at disorienting British soldiers. The
rocket, 60 mm in diameter and 250 mm long, used about
2 kg of gun powder in iron tube fixed to a 1 m long
sword blade as a guide, and had a range of 1 to 1.5 km.

Missile developments in India are being managed

under the Defence Research and Development
Organisation (DRDO) – with the Motto ‘Balasya
Moolam Vigyanam’ (The Roots of Power Lie in
Science).

Real development work on Guided Weapons and

Missiles started in India with the formation of a Guided
Missile Study Team in 1958 ( renamed as Special
Weapons Development Team in 1959) and
subsequently reorganized as the Defence Research &
Development Laboratory, Hyderabad in 1961-1962.

The related developmental effort got a major push with the

sanctioning of the Integrated Guided Missile Development
Programme (IGMDP) in 1983. The programme included
PRITHVI (tactical surface to surface missile), AKASH
(medium range surface to air missile for air defence
applications), NAG (third generation anti tank missile),
TRISHUL (quick reaction surface to air missile), and AGNI
(technology demonstrator).
174
Nation becomes a Missile Power

Agni Technology Demonstrator (TD) was,

first time, successfully launched on May
22, 1989 from the Missile Test Range near
Balasore – hailed as a ‘Irreversible
Forward Step’ by the country;
demonstrated Reentry and several other
critical technologies. This was followed by
the development and operationalisation
of Agni series of IRBMs: Agni I, Agni II
and Agni III.

175
 PRITHVI

• Tactical surface to surface missile for

battle field support

Range Payload
• Army version 40 to 150 km 1000 kg
• Air Force version 250 km 500 kg
• Navy version 250 km 500 kg

176
 AKASH

• Medium range air defence system

with a multi-target, multi directional
capability

• Uses ramjet-rocket propulsion for the

sustainer phase.

• Rajendra, the multi function phased

array radar, forms part of the Battery
Control Centre – for surveillance,
target tracking, missile acquisition,
missile guidance and launcher
control.

• Maximum intercept range – 25 km

• Fragmentation warhead weight –

55 kg

177
NAG - Third Generation Anti-
Tank Guided Missile

• With “fire and forget” and ‘top

attack” capabilities

• Homing guidance through Imaging

Infrared (IIR) system for autonomous
and day and night operation

• Range – 4 km

TRISHUL

• Quick reaction missile system for

low-flying aircrafts, helicopters and
anti-ship missiles

• Uses dual thrust high energy solid

propulsion

• Range – 9.5 km

178
 ASTRA
• Air to air missile for “Beyond Visual
Range”

• Range – 80 to 100 km

• Uses Inertial Navigation mid-course

guidance assisted with a data-link
and Active Radar Seeker in terminal
guidance

SHOURYA

• Long Range Surface to Surface

Hypersonic Missile

• Canisterised – a two stage solid-solid

propulsion

• Range – 700 km

179
 AGNI – I

• Medium range surface to surface

missile
• Single stage solid propulsion
• Carbon Composite re-entry vehicle
• Closed loop emplicit guidance
• Road mobile system
• Range 700 km
• Launch weight 12 T
• Length 15 m

180
 AGNI – II

•Intermediate range ballistic missile

•Two stage solid propellant rocket motors
•Carbon composite re-entry vehicle
•Strap-down inertial navigation system
•R a i l m o b i l e l a u n c h e r s y s t e m
•Range 2500 km
•Launch weight 17 T
•Pay load weight 1T
•Length 20 m

181
 AGNI - III

• Intermediate range ballistic missile

• Two stage solid propellant rocket
motors
• Carbon composite re-entry vehicle
• Strap-down inertial navigation system
• Rail mobile launcher system
• Range 3000 km
• Pay load weight 1T

182
 BRAHMOS

• Supersonic cruise missile

• Can be launched from land, sea,
sub-sea and air.
• Maximum range 300 km
• Maximum velocity 2.5 to 2.8 Mach
• Cruise altitude Up to 14 km
• Terminal altitude 10 to 15 m
• War head mass 200 to 300 kg

Some of the material included has been sourced from

the following :

Sh RK Gupta, Director DPI, DRDO, New Delhi.

Dr K Radhakrishnan, Chairman ISRO and Secretary,
DoS.
Dr PS Veeraragavan, Director VSSC, Trivandrum.
Dr VP Balagangadharan, Group Head, VSSC,
Trivandrum.
Sh BR Guruprasad, PRO, ISRO, Bangalore.
Dr VK Saraswat, SA to RM and Secretary, Defence
R&D.
Dr SK Mishra, Director Missiles, DRDO, New Delhi .
www.isro.org
vssc,gov,in
drdo.gov.in
www.brahmos.com

183