separations

Article
Influence of Feed Rate on the Performance of Hydrocyclone
Flow Field
Yuekan Zhang 1 , Mingyuan Xu 1 , Yaoxu Duan 1 , Xinghua Yang 1 , Junru Yang 1, * and Xiangcheng Tang 2

1 College of Mechanical & Electronic Engineering, Shandong University of Science and Technology,
Qingdao 266590, China
2 Nanjing CAS BIDUN NEWMEM Technology Co., Ltd., Nanjing 210032, China
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: In order to clarify the influence of feed rate on a hydrocyclone flow field, numerical
simulation was employed to model the influence of feed rate on the pressure field, velocity field, air
column, turbulent kinetic energy, and split ratio. The results revealed that static pressure, tangential
velocity, and radial velocity increased with an increase in the feed rate. When the feed rate at
the inlet increases from 1 m/s to 5 m/s, the static pressure increases from 5.49 kPa to 182.78 kPa,
tangential velocity increases from 1.97 m/s to 11.16 m/s, and radial velocity increases from 0.20 m/s
to 1.16 m/s demonstrating that a high feed rate facilitated the strengthening separation of the flow
field. Meanwhile, with the increase in the feed rate, the split ratio of the hydrocyclone decreased,
indicating that the concentration effect of the hydrocyclone improved. Additionally, the formation
time of the air column was reduced, and the flow field became more stable. Nevertheless, the
axial velocity and the turbulent kinetic energy also increased with the increase in the feed rate, and
the increase in the axial velocity reduced the residence time of the material in the hydrocyclone,
which was not conducive to the improvement of separation accuracy. In addition, the increase in
turbulent kinetic energy led to an increase in energy consumption, which was not conducive to
the improvement of the comprehensive performance of the hydrocyclone. Therefore, choosing an
appropriate feed rate is of great significance to the regulation of the flow field and the improvement
Citation: Zhang, Y.; Xu, M.; Duan, Y.;
of hydrocyclone separation performance.
Yang, X.; Yang, J.; Tang, X. Influence
of Feed Rate on the Performance of
Keywords: hydrocyclone; feed rate; flow field performance; CFD; simulation
Hydrocyclone Flow Field. Separations
2022, 9, 349. https://doi.org/
10.3390/separations9110349

Academic Editor: Francisco J. Barba 1. Introduction

Received: 21 September 2022 Hydrocyclone is a commonly used solid-liquid separation equipment, which is widely
Accepted: 2 November 2022 used in coal [1], petroleum [2], chemical industry [3] and other fields, because of its simple
Published: 4 November 2022 structure and excellent performance. However, the internal flow field of the hydrocyclone
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
often changes with the change in operation parameters [4] and structural parameters [5],
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
which in turn affects the hydrocyclone separation performance, of which the feed rate is
published maps and institutional affil- an important operating parameter [6]. Therefore, studying the effect of feed rate on the
iations. internal flow field of the hydrocyclone can lay a theoretical foundation for analyzing the
relationship between the feed rate and separation performance.
Guo et al. [7] reported that a variation in feed rate also caused changes in the pressure
field and velocity field in the internal flow field of the hydrocyclone, and then affected
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors. the distribution law of the underflow and overflow products. Increasing the feed rate
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. reduced the cutting particle size of the hydrocyclone and improved its classification ac-
This article is an open access article curacy and separation efficiency [8–10]. Meanwhile, increasing the feed rate increased
distributed under the terms and the centrifugal force on the particles, thereby increasing the separation efficiency of the
conditions of the Creative Commons
hydrocyclone [11–13]. Despite the initial increase in separation efficiency with the increase
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
in feed rate, it eventually stabilized and no longer increased with the increase in feed
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
rate [14,15]. Although the increase in feed rate improved the separation efficiency of the
4.0/).

Separations 2022, 9, 349. https://doi.org/10.3390/separations9110349 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/separations

 it eventually stabilized and no longer increased with the increase in feed rate [14,15]. Alt-
hough the increase in feed rate improved the separation efficiency of the hydrocyclone,
an excessively high feed rate made the turbulence too strong, which would reduce the
separation efficiency of the hydrocyclone [7,16]. Im et al. [17] found that increasing the
Separations 2022, 9, 349 feed rate increased the overflow yield and decreased the separation efficiency.2 of Tang
14 et al.
[18] reported that an excessively high feed rate would enhance the centrifugal force on the
fine particles, reduce the overflow separation efficiency, and reduce the classification ac-
curacy of the hydrocyclone.
hydrocyclone, an excessively high Li etfeedal. [19] reported
rate made that an excessively
the turbulence too strong, high
whichor excessively
would
low feedthe
reduce rate would increase
separation efficiencythe disorder
of the of particles
hydrocyclone [7,16].within the[17]
Im et al. hydrocyclone,
found that in-thereby
creasing the
reducing thefeed rate increased
separation the overflow
performance. Zhuyield
andandLiow decreased
[20] foundthe separation efficiency.
that increasing the feed
Tang et al. [18] reported that an excessively high feed rate would
rate would enhance the fishhook effect of hydrocyclone separation, which was detri- enhance the centrifugal
force ontothe
mental thefine particles, performance.
separation reduce the overflow Indeed, separation
increasingefficiency,
the feedandrate
reduce
wasthe clas-
beneficial for
sification accuracy of the hydrocyclone. Li et al. [19] reported that an excessively high or
improving the separation performance, but a higher feed rate increased energy consump-
excessively low feed rate would increase the disorder of particles within the hydrocyclone,
tion [21,22].
thereby Jiangtheetseparation
reducing al. [23] and Jiang et al.
performance. Zhu [24]
andfound thatfound
Liow [20] increasing the feedtherate im-
that increasing
proved the separation performance of the two-stage and composite
feed rate would enhance the fishhook effect of hydrocyclone separation, which was detri- hydrocyclones, re-
spectively.
mental to the separation performance. Indeed, increasing the feed rate was beneficial for
In summary,
improving the feed
the separation rate is an important
performance, but a higheroperating parameter
feed rate increased that consump-
energy affects the flow
tion [21,22]. Jiang et al. [23] and Jiang et al. [24] found that increasing
field and separation performance inside the hydrocyclone. However, the mechanism of the feed rate improved
theeffect
the separation
of feedperformance
rate on the of the two-stage
internal flowand composite
field performancehydrocyclones, respectively.
of hydrocyclone is still un-
In summary, the feed rate is an important operating parameter
clear. In order to improve the separation performance of the hydrocyclone, the numerical that affects the flow
field and separation performance inside the hydrocyclone. However, the mechanism of the
simulation method was used in this study to further study the effect of feed rate on the
effect of feed rate on the internal flow field performance of hydrocyclone is still unclear. In
velocity field, pressure
order to improve field, performance
the separation air column,ofturbulent kinetic energy,
the hydrocyclone, and simulation
the numerical split ratio in the
hydrocyclone
method was used in this study to further study the effect of feed rate on the velocity field,the hy-
flow field, in order to provide a theoretical reference for improving
drocyclone
pressure field, separation
air column,performance.
turbulent kinetic energy, and split ratio in the hydrocyclone
flow field, in order to provide a theoretical reference for improving the hydrocyclone
2.separation
Numerical Simulation Method
performance.
2.1. Modeling Simulation Method
2. Numerical
2.1. Modeling
3D modeling of a hydrocyclone with Ø75 mm, whose structure is shown in Figure
3D modeling of a hydrocyclone with Ø75 mm, whose structure is shown in Figure 1a,
1a, was achieved
was achieved usingusing Solidworks.
Solidworks. Table 1 Table
lists the1 relevant
lists thestructural
relevantparameters.
structural The
parameters.
model The
model was meshed
was meshed with hexahedrons
with hexahedrons using ICEM using
CFD, ICEM CFD,inas
as shown shown
Figure 1b. in Figure 1b.

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure1.
1. Hydrocyclone. (a)Schematic
Hydrocyclone. (a) Schematicof of hydrocyclone;
hydrocyclone; (b) Meshing
(b) Meshing of hydrocyclone.
of hydrocyclone.
Separations 2022, 9, 349 3 of 14

Table 1. Main structural parameters.

Structural Parameters Value

Cylinder diameter/mm 75
Import equivalent diameter/mm 24.99
Overflow outlet diameter/mm 25
Underflow outlet diameter/mm 12.5
Overflow pipe insertion depth/mm 50
Cone angle/(◦ ) 20
Cylinder height/mm 75
Cone height/mm 177

2.2. Boundary Conditions

To compare and analyze the effect of feed rate on the flow field inside the hydrocyclone,
numerical simulation was performed using Fluent. Among them, the multiphase flow
model was of the volume of fluid (VOF) type. The VOF model was a simplified Euler–
Eulerian mixing model, which could capture the gas-liquid interface of the air column
in the hydrocyclone [25]. The sum of the volume fractions of each phase was 1, and the
mathematical model is shown in Equation (1). The RSM (Reynolds Stress Model) model was
used as the turbulence model. However, Shapiro et al. [26] propose a numerical simulation
method for variable density incompressible fluids, which improves the computational
accuracy of the numerical simulation of incompressible fluids. However, the RSM model is
more suitable for the numerical simulation of hydrocyclones [27], which could well predict
the change in the turbulence of the flow field in the hydrocyclone [28,29]. Its governing
equation is shown in Equation (2).
n
∑ αq = 1 (1)
q =1

where αq is the q-th phase volume fraction.

   
∂ ρu0 i u0 j ∂ ρuk u0 i u0 j
+ = DT,ij + DL,ij + Pij + Gij + Φij + ε ij + Fij (2)
∂t ∂xk

where DT,ij is the turbulent diffusion term, DL,ij is the molecular diffusion term, Pij is
the stress production term, Gij is the buoyancy generation term, Φij is the pressure strain
term, ε ij is dissipation term, Fij is production by system rotation term. The expressions are
as follows:
∂  0 0 0 
DT,ij = − ρu i u j u k + p0 u0 i δkj + p0 u0 j δik
∂Xk
 
∂ ∂  0 0
DL,ij = µ u iu j
∂xk ∂xk
 
∂u j ∂u
Pij = −ρ u0 i u0 k + u0 j u0 k i
∂xk ∂xk
 
Gij = −ρβ gi u0 j θ + gi u0 i θ

∂u0 j
!
0
0 ∂u i
φij = p +
∂x j ∂xi

∂u0 i ∂u0 j
ε ij = −2µ
∂xk ∂xk
 
Fij = −2ρΩk u0 j u0 m eikm + u0 i u0 m e jkm
Separations 2022, 9, 349 4 of 14

The inlet boundary condition is set “Velocity-inlet”; the inlet phase is clear water. The
hydrocyclone feed rate is set to 1 m/s, 2 m/s, 3 m/s, 4 m/s, and 5 m/s, respectively. The
overflow outlet and the underflow outlet are calibrated to the pressure outlet, and the air
return coefficient is set to 1. The wall setting is “Wall”, and the wall shear condition is “No
Slip”. Initialize the flow field and set the air volume fraction to 1, i.e., the hydrocyclone
is filled with air by default. Select “Standard Wall Functions” for the near-wall treatment
function. The time step is chosen as 1 × 10−4 s, and the time-averaged mass flow rate of
the hydrocyclone inlet and outlet are taken as the convergence condition. SIMPLE is used
in the Pressure–Velocity Coupling, PRESTO! is used in Pressure Spatial Discretization, and
QUICK is used in Momentum, Turbulent Kinetic Energy, Turbulence Dissipation Rate, and
Reynolds Stress Spatial Discretization.
The low hydrocyclone feed rate may cause instability of the velocity field in the
hydrocyclone. For this issue, Thornber et al. [30] propose an improved numerical simulation
method in Roe format that can effectively suppress the effects of low-velocity instability.
In contrast, Xu et al. [31] suggest that for hydrocyclones, the formation of a stable-shaped
air column inside the hydrocyclone indicates the stability of the flow field inside the
hydrocyclone and that the low-velocity instability has less impact on the stability of the
hydrocyclone flow field.

2.3. Independence Verification of Model and Grid

For the computational uncertainty, Karimi et al. [32] indicate that the grid convergence
index is a practical method for calculating computational uncertainty, which is a useful
tool for quantifying computational uncertainty in computational fluid dynamics (CFD)
simulations. Moreover, Schwarz et al. [33] point out that although computational fluid
dynamics can predict the performance of hydrocyclones, the numerical calculation model
is subject to uncertainty and combining experimental results, numerical simulation results,
and the modeling process is an effective solution to address the uncertainty in the numerical
calculation. In order to verify the accuracy of the numerical simulation, the numerical
simulation results were compared with previous literature.
Figure 2a shows the numerical simulation results and data reported in previous
studies [34]. As observed, at the same feature height (z = 192 mm), the tangential velocity
and axial velocity of the numerical simulation are in good agreement with the experimental
data, which verifies the correctness of the numerical simulation model and related settings.
The number of grids affects the accuracy of the simulation results and the time cost
of the simulation calculation. The accuracy of the results increases with the increase in
the number of elements, and the calculation time will also increase [35]. Therefore, it is
necessary to carry out the mesh independence test to determine the appropriate number of
meshes. The Ø75 mm hydrocyclone model is divided into 22,938, 33,909, 53,828, 76,417,
and 116,125 elements, and the grid independence is verified. Figure 2b shows the tangential
velocity simulated under different mesh counts. Herein, the difference in the tangential
velocity of the five grids is rather small, and in order to improve the accuracy of numerical
simulation, the number of grids is set to 116,125.
 Separations
Separations 2022, 9, 349 2022, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 14 5

(a)

(b)
Figure 2. Independence
Figure 2. Independence verification ofverification
model andofgrid.
model(a)and grid. (a) Independence
Independence verification verification
of model; of mod
Independence
(b) Independence verification verification
of grid. of grid.

3. Simulation Results and Discussion

The number of grids affects the accuracy of the simulation results and the time
In order of
to the simulation
analyze calculation.
the effect Theon
of feed rate accuracy of the results
the hydrocyclone increases
flow with
field, six the increase i
charac-
number
teristic sections, of elements,
as shown in Figure and the calculation
3, were time
selected for thewill also increase
simulation. Among[35].them,
Therefore,
z0 it is n
sary
is the reference to carry
origin, z1 andoutz2the
aremesh independence
the two test
characteristic to determine
sections the appropriate
of the conical section, numb
meshes. The section
and z3 is the characteristic Ø75 mm at hydrocyclone model is pipe.
the end of the overflow divided into
Since the22,938,
conical33,909,
section53,828, 76
and 116,125
is the main separation elements,
area and the grid independence
of the hydrocyclone, is verified.
two characteristic Figure
sections (z = 2b
90 shows
mm, the tan
z = 170 mm) aretial selected
velocity in the conical
simulated undersection for comparison.
different mesh counts.Because turbulencein the tan
Herein, the difference
intensity at the
tialend of theofoverflow
velocity pipe is
the five grids varies greatly,
rather small, the
andturbulent
in order tokinetic
improveenergy is
the accuracy o
analyzed at z3merical
. simulation, the number of grids is set to 116,125.

3.1. Static Pressure Distribution

3. Simulation Results and Discussion
Figure 4 shows In the clouds
order of staticthe
to analyze pressure
effect ofatfeed
a characteristic
rate on the section under different
hydrocyclone flow field, six ch
feed rates, and Figure 5 illustrates the distributions of the static pressure at
teristic sections, as shown in Figure 3, were selected for the simulation. the character-
Among the
istic section cone
is thez1reference
and z2 . As observed,
origin, z1 andthe static
z2 are thepressure had consistent
two characteristic trends
sections of theand
conical sec
symmetric distributions
and z3 is theunder differentsection
characteristic feed rates.
at theThe
endstatic
of thepressure
overflowwas highest
pipe. Sinceatthe
theconical se
wall, decreased gradually
is the from the wall
main separation area toof the
the axis, and became
hydrocyclone, twonegative at the axis;
characteristic that (z = 90 m
sections
is, negative pressure occurred at the axis, resulting in an air column. The static pressure
= 170 mm) are selected in the conical section for comparison. Because the turbulenc
gradually decreased radially from the wall to the axis because of the increase in the tangen-
tensity at the end of the overflow pipe varies greatly, the turbulent kinetic energy is
tial velocity along the same direction. This implies that more and more static pressure is
lyzed at z3.
converted into kinetic energy. Additionally, as the feed rate increased from 1 m/s to 5 m/s,
the maximum value of the static pressure increased from 5.49 kPa to 182.78 kPa, with an
increase of 177.29 kPa. Since the static pressure of the hydrocyclone was an important
 Separations 2022, 9, 349 6 of 14

Separations 2022, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW

indicator 6 of
of its handling capacity, this result indicated that increasing the feed rate was15
beneficial to improving the processing capacity of the hydrocyclone.

Figure 3. Schematic of axial characteristic section of the hydrocyclone.

3.1. Static Pressure Distribution

Figure 4 shows the clouds of static pressure at a characteristic section under different
feed rates, and Figure 5 illustrates the distributions of the static pressure at the character-
istic section cone z1 and z2. As observed, the static pressure had consistent trends and
symmetric distributions under different feed rates. The static pressure was highest at the
wall, decreased gradually from the wall to the axis, and became negative at the axis; that
is, negative pressure occurred at the axis, resulting in an air column. The static pressure
gradually decreased radially from the wall to the axis because of the increase in the tan-
gential velocity along the same direction. This implies that more and more static pressure
is converted into kinetic energy. Additionally, as the feed rate increased from 1 m/s to 5
m/s, the maximum value of the static pressure increased from 5.49 kPa to 182.78 kPa, with
an increase of 177.29 kPa. Since the static pressure of the hydrocyclone was an important
indicator of its handling capacity, this result indicated that increasing the feed rate was
Figure 3. Schematic
beneficial of axialthe
to improving characteristic
processingsection of the
capacity of hydrocyclone.
the hydrocyclone.

3.1. Static Pressure Distribution

Figure 4 shows the clouds of static pressure at a characteristic section under different
feed rates, and Figure 5 illustrates the distributions of the static pressure at the character-
istic section cone z1 and z2. As observed, the static pressure had consistent trends and
symmetric distributions under different feed rates. The static pressure was highest at the
wall, decreased gradually from the wall to the axis, and became negative at the axis; that
is, negative pressure occurred at the axis, resulting in an air column. The static pressure
gradually decreased radially from the wall to the axis because of the increase in the tan-
gential velocity along the same direction. This implies that more and more static pressure
is converted into kinetic energy. Additionally, as the feed rate increased from 1 m/s
Separations 2022, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of to
15 5
m/s, the maximum value of the static pressure increased from 5.49 kPa to 182.78 kPa, with
Figure
an Clouds
4. Clouds
increase of static
of 177.29 pressure
kPa. Sinceunder different
the static feed rates.
pressure of the hydrocyclone was an important
indicator of its handling capacity, this result indicated that increasing the feed rate was
beneficial to improving the processing capacity of the hydrocyclone.

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 5.4.
Figure 5. Clouds of static
Distributions
Distributionsofof pressure
the static
the staticunder different
pressure. (a)(a)
pressure. feed
z1z=1 90 rates.
mm;
= 90 mm;(b)(b)
z2 z=2170 mm.
= 170 mm.

Figure 6 shows the distribution of the pressure gradient. As observed, the pressure
gradient is symmetrically distributed around the axis, and the pressure gradient first in-
creases and then decreases along the radial direction from the device wall to the axis,
reaching a maximum near the air column and a minimum at the axis. Meanwhile, the
pressure gradient increases with the feed rate at the inlet. As the feed rate increases from
 (a) (b)
Separations 2022, 9, 349 7 of 14
Figure 5. Distributions of the static pressure. (a) z1 = 90 mm; (b) z2 = 170 mm.

Figure 6 shows the distribution of the pressure gradient. As observed, the pressure
Figure 6 shows the distribution of the pressure gradient. As observed, the pressure
gradient is symmetrically distributed around the axis, and the pressure gradient first in-
gradient is symmetrically distributed around the axis, and the pressure gradient first
creases and then decreases along the radial direction from the device wall to the axis,
increases and then decreases along the radial direction from the device wall to the axis,
reaching
reachinga amaximum
maximumnear nearthe
theair
aircolumn
columnand anda aminimum
minimumatatthe theaxis.
axis.Meanwhile,
Meanwhile,the the
pressure gradient increases with the feed rate at the inlet. As the feed rate
pressure gradient increases with the feed rate at the inlet. As the feed rate increases increases from
from
1 1m/s to to
m/s 5 m/s,
5 m/s,thethe
maximum
maximum pressure
pressure gradient
gradient increases
increasesfrom
from2.04
2.04kPa/m
kPa/m toto
64.43
64.43kPa/m.
kPa/m.
Since the radial migration of fine particles is mainly affected by the pressure
Since the radial migration of fine particles is mainly affected by the pressure gradient force, gradient
force, increasing
increasing the rate
the feed feedisrate is conducive
conducive to the to the migration
radial radial migration of fine particles
of fine particles from thefrom
outer
theswirl to the inner swirl, reducing the proportion of fine particles in the outer in
outer swirl to the inner swirl, reducing the proportion of fine particles the thereby
swirl, outer
swirl, therebythe
improving improving
separationthe separation
accuracy accuracy
of the of the hydrocyclone.
hydrocyclone.

(a) (b)
Figure 6. 6.
Figure Distribution ofof
Distribution the pressure
the gradient.
pressure (a)(a)
gradient. z1 z=1 90 mm;
= 90 (b)(b)
mm; z2 z=2170 mm.
= 170 mm.

3.2.
3.2. Velocity
Velocity Distribution
Distribution
3.2.1. Distribution of Tangential Velocity
3.2.1. Distribution of Tangential Velocity
Figure 7 illustrates the distributions of the tangential velocity. As observed, the tangen-
Figure 7 illustrates the distributions of the tangential velocity. As observed, the tan-
tial velocity curves under different feed rates are all “M”-shaped symmetrical distributions
gential velocity curves under different feed rates are all “M”-shaped symmetrical distri-
centered on the axis. At the hydrocyclone wall, the tangential velocity is zero. From the
butions centered on the axis. At the hydrocyclone wall, the tangential velocity is zero.
wall to the center, the tangential velocity increases first and then decreases radially. This is
From the wall to the center, the tangential velocity increases first and then decreases radi-
because the tangential velocity distribution in the swirl field presents a combined vortex
ally. This is because the tangential velocity distribution in the swirl field presents a com-
distribution. The outside is a free vortex, and the tangential velocity increases with the
bined vortex distribution. The outside is a free vortex, and the tangential velocity increases
decrease in the radius. The inside is a forced vortex, and the tangential velocity decreases
with the decrease in the radius. The inside is a forced vortex, and the tangential velocity
with the decrease of radius, reaching a maximum value at the confluence of the free vortex
decreases with the decrease of radius, reaching a maximum value at the confluence of the
and the forced vortex. Additionally, the tangential velocity increases with the feed rate. As
free
thevortex andatthe
feed rate theforced vortex. Additionally,
inlet increases from 1 m/s tothe5 tangential velocity increases
m/s, the tangential with the
velocity maximum
increases from 1.97 m/s to 11.16 m/s. The increase in tangential velocity enhances the
centrifugal strength, and increasing the feed rate increases the centrifugal force on the
particles. This is beneficial to particle separation.

3.2.2. Distribution of Axial Velocity

Figure 8 shows the distributions of the axial velocity. As observed, the axial velocity is
axisymmetrically distributed, and the axial velocity is zero at the wall. In the outer swirl,
the axial velocity is negative, and the absolute value of the axial velocity increases with the
increase in the feed rate, indicating that increasing the feed rate can improve the underflow
yield. In the inner swirl, the axial velocity is positive, which increases with the feed rate,
indicating that increasing the feed rate can improve the overflow yield. The results show
that increasing the feed rate improves the processing capacity. However, the increase in
axial velocity will reduce the residence time of the particles in the swirl chamber, resulting
in insufficient particle separation and reducing the separation accuracy of the particles.
 feed rate. As the feed rate at the inlet increases from 1 m/s to 5 m/s, the tangential velocity
maximum increases from 1.97 m/s to 11.16 m/s. The increase in tangential velocity en-
Separations 2022, 9, 349 hances the centrifugal strength, and increasing the feed rate increases the centrifugal force
8 of 14
on the particles. This is beneficial to particle separation.

(a) (b)
Figure 7. Distribution of the tangential velocity. (a) z1 = 90 mm; (b) z2 = 170 mm.

3.2.2. Distribution of Axial Velocity

Figure 8 shows the distributions of the axial velocity. As observed, the axial velocity
is axisymmetrically distributed, and the axial velocity is zero at the wall. In the outer swirl,
the axial velocity is negative, and the absolute value of the axial velocity increases with
the increase in the feed rate, indicating that increasing the feed rate can improve the un-
derflow yield. In the inner swirl, the axial velocity is positive, which increases with the
feed rate, indicating that increasing the feed rate can improve the overflow yield. The re-
sults show that increasing the feed rate improves the processing capacity. However, the
increase in axial velocity will reduce the residence time of the particles in the swirl cham-
(a)
ber, resulting in insufficient particle separation and reducing the (b) separation accuracy of
the particles.
Figure
Figure7.7.Distribution
Distributionofofthe
thetangential
tangentialvelocity.
velocity.(a)
(a)z1z = =9090mm;
mm;(b)
(b)z2z= 170 mm.
= 170 mm.
1 2

3.2.2. Distribution of Axial Velocity

Figure 8 shows the distributions of the axial velocity. As observed, the axial velocity
is axisymmetrically distributed, and the axial velocity is zero at the wall. In the outer swirl,
the axial velocity is negative, and the absolute value of the axial velocity increases with
the increase in the feed rate, indicating that increasing the feed rate can improve the un-
derflow yield. In the inner swirl, the axial velocity is positive, which increases with the
feed rate, indicating that increasing the feed rate can improve the overflow yield. The re-
sults show that increasing the feed rate improves the processing capacity. However, the
increase in axial velocity will reduce the residence time of the particles in the swirl cham-
ber, resulting in insufficient particle separation and reducing the separation accuracy of
the particles.

(a) (b)
Figure 8. 8.
Figure Distributions ofof
Distributions the axial
the velocity.
axial velocity.(a)(a)
z1z=1 90 mm;
= 90 (b)(b)
mm; z2 z=2170 mm.
= 170 mm.

Figure9 9isisthe
Figure theLZVV
LZVV(locus
(locusofofzero
zerovertical
verticalvelocity),
velocity),which
whichis isa acurve
curveformed
formedbyby
connecting points whose axial velocity is 0 and is also the dividing line
connecting points whose axial velocity is 0 and is also the dividing line between the between the inner
inner
swirl and the outer swirl. Inside the LZVV is the inner swirl, and this part of the fluid is is
swirl and the outer swirl. Inside the LZVV is the inner swirl, and this part of the fluid
discharged
discharged fromthe
from theoverflow.
overflow.Outside
Outside thethe LZVV
LZVV is is theouter
the outerswirl,
swirl,
andandthis
thispart
partofofthe
the
fluid is discharged from the underflow. Therefore, its position and shape have an important
impact on the separation performance of the hydrocyclone. As observed, the LZVV falls
sharply as the feed rate at the inlet reaches 1 m/s and becomes stabilized once the feed
rate at the inlet reaches a critical level. In summary, a high feed rate at the inlet favors the
stability of the flow field and improves the separation performance of the hydrocyclone.
(a) (b)
3.2.3. Distribution of Radial Velocity
FigureFigure
8. Distributions of the axial
10 illustrates velocity. (a) z1of
the distribution = 90
themm; (b) zvelocity.
radial 2 = 170 mm.
As observed, the radial
velocity is distributed symmetrically around the center, and the radial velocity is zero at the
wall.Figure 9 is the
The radial LZVV
velocity (locus
first of zero
increases andvertical velocity),
then decreases which
from is a curve
the wall formed
to the axis, by
reaches
connecting points whose axial velocity is 0 and is also the dividing line between
a maximum value near the edge of the air column, and then decreases sharply, becoming the inner
swirl
zero and theaxis.
at the outer swirl. Insidethe
Additionally, theradial
LZVV is the inner
velocity swirl,
increases andthe
with this part
feed of the
rate. As fluid is
the feed
discharged fromincreases
rate at the inlet the overflow.
from 1Outside
m/s to 5the LZVV
m/s, is the outerradial
the maximum swirl,velocity
and this part of from
increases the
0.20 m/s to 1.16 m/s. Since the increase in radial velocity can shorten the time for fine
particles to gather to the axis in the inner swirl, increasing the feed rate leads to enhanced
separation efficiency of fine particles.
 fluid is discharged from the underflow. Therefore, its position and shape have an im-
portant impact on the separation performance of the hydrocyclone. As observed, the
LZVV falls sharply as the feed rate at the inlet reaches 1 m/s and becomes stabilized once
the feed rate at the inlet reaches a critical level. In summary, a high feed rate at the inlet
Separations 2022, 9, 349 9 of 14
favors the stability of the flow field and improves the separation performance of the hy-
drocyclone.

Figure 9. LZVV diagram.

3.2.3. Distribution of Radial Velocity

Figure 10 illustrates the distribution of the radial velocity. As observed, the radial
velocity is distributed symmetrically around the center, and the radial velocity is zero at
the wall. The radial velocity first increases and then decreases from the wall to the axis,
reaches a maximum value near the edge of the air column, and then decreases sharply,
becoming zero at the axis. Additionally, the radial velocity increases with the feed rate.
As the feed rate at the inlet increases from 1 m/s to 5 m/s, the maximum radial velocity
increases from 0.20 m/s to 1.16 m/s. Since the increase in radial velocity can shorten the
time for fine particles to gather to the axis in the inner swirl, increasing the feed rate leads
toFigure
enhanced
Figure separation
9. LZVV
9. LZVV diagram.efficiency of fine particles.
diagram.

3.2.3. Distribution of Radial Velocity

Figure 10 illustrates the distribution of the radial velocity. As observed, the radial
velocity is distributed symmetrically around the center, and the radial velocity is zero at
the wall. The radial velocity first increases and then decreases from the wall to the axis,
reaches a maximum value near the edge of the air column, and then decreases sharply,
becoming zero at the axis. Additionally, the radial velocity increases with the feed rate.
As the feed rate at the inlet increases from 1 m/s to 5 m/s, the maximum radial velocity
increases from 0.20 m/s to 1.16 m/s. Since the increase in radial velocity can shorten the
time for fine particles to gather to the axis in the inner swirl, increasing the feed rate leads
to enhanced separation efficiency of fine particles.

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure10.
10.Distribution
Distributionofofthe
theradial
radialvelocity.
velocity.(a)
(a)z1z=1 =
9090
mm; (b)(b)
mm; z2z=2 170 mm.
= 170 mm.

3.3.Turbulent
3.3. TurbulentKinetic
KineticEnergy
Energy
Figure 11a shows
Figure 11a shows the theaxial
axialdistribution
distributionofofturbulent
turbulentkinetic
kineticenergy.
energy.AsAsobserved,
observed,the the
turbulentkinetic
turbulent kineticenergy
energyshows
showsa agradually
graduallyincreasing
increasingtrendtrendwith
withthe
theincrease
increaseininfeed
feed rate.
rate.
Along the axial direction, the turbulent kinetic energy at the underflow
Along the axial direction, the turbulent kinetic energy at the underflow outlet (z = −25 outlet (z = − 25 mm)
and and
mm) the overflow
the overflow outlet (z = 283
outlet (z =mm) is negligibly
283 mm) small,small,
is negligibly tending to zero.
tending At theAt
to zero. hydro-
the
cyclone cone (0 mm < z < 177 mm), the turbulent kinetic energy tends to be stable, with
a small change. In the hydrocyclone column (z > 177 mm), the turbulent kinetic energy
begins to change sharply with the increase in the feed rate and increases with the increase
in the z value, reaching (a)a maximum value at the bottom of the overflow (b) pipe (z = 202 mm).
Finally, there is a decreasing trend as the z value increases. The extreme value at the bottom
Figure
of 10. Distribution
the overflow pipe isofcaused
the radial
by velocity. (a) z1 = 90ofmm;
the intersection the (b) z2 =swirl,
inner 170 mm.short-circuit flow, and
strong eddy current, where the turbulent kinetic energy distribution curve is shown in
3.3. Turbulent
Figure 11b. AsKinetic Energy
the feed rate at the inlet increases from 1 m/s to 5 m/s, the extremum of
kineticFigure
energy 11aranges
showsfrom
the axial
0.49 m 2 /s2 to 27.27
distribution ofm 2 /s2 . Thekinetic
turbulent larger energy.
turbulentAskinetic
observed, the
energy
turbulent
will cause kinetic energy flow
a disordered shows a gradually
field, increasing
which tends trendthe
to reduce with the increase in
hydrocyclone feed rate.
separation
Along theTherefore,
accuracy. axial direction,
to improvethe turbulent
the overall kinetic energyperformance
separation at the underflow outlet (z = the
of hydrocyclone, −25
mm) and
choice the rate
of feed overflow
must be outlet (z = 283 mm) is negligibly small, tending to zero. At the
reasonable.
 at the bottom of the overflow pipe is caused by the intersection of the inner swirl, short-
circuit flow, and strong eddy current, where the turbulent kinetic energy distribution
curve is shown in Figure 11b. As the feed rate at the inlet increases from 1 m/s to 5 m/s,
the extremum of kinetic energy ranges from 0.49 m2/s2 to 27.27 m2/s2. The larger turbulent
kinetic energy will cause a disordered flow field, which tends to reduce the hydrocyclone
Separations 2022, 9, 349 10 of 14
separation accuracy. Therefore, to improve the overall separation performance of hydro-
cyclone, the choice of feed rate must be reasonable.

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure11.11.Turbulent
Turbulentkinetic
kineticenergy.
energy. (a)
(a) Axial distribution
distribution of
of turbulent
turbulentkinetic
kineticenergy
energy(b)
(b)Distribution
Distribu-
tion of turbulent kinetic energy at
of turbulent kinetic energy at z3 . z3 .

3.4.Effects
3.4. Effectsofofthe
theFeed
FeedRate
RateatatInlet
Inletononthe
theAir
AirColumn
Column
Theair
The aircolumn
column hashas a great
a great influence
influence onon
thethe separation
separation performance
performance of the
of the hydro-
hydrocy-
cyclone, and its formation is an important sign of the stability
clone, and its formation is an important sign of the stability of the flow field in the hydro- of the flow field in the
hydrocyclone [36]. Figure 12 illustrates the evolution process of
cyclone [36]. Figure 12 illustrates the evolution process of air column generation and the air column generation and
the development of stability under different feed rates. Herein,
development of stability under different feed rates. Herein, the red part represents the the red part represents
the volume
volume fractionfraction
of air,ofand
air,the
andblue
the blue part represents
part represents the volume
the volume fractionfraction of water.
of water. As ob- As
observed,
served, the feed
the feed rate rate
has ahas a great
great influence
influence on theonformation
the formationtime oftimetheof airthe air column.
column. The
The time from the appearance to the stabilization of the air column
time from the appearance to the stabilization of the air column is shortened with the in- is shortened with the
increase in the feed rate. Figure 13 shows the axial distribution
crease in the feed rate. Figure 13 shows the axial distribution of the air column diameter.of the air column diameter.
AsAsobserved,
observed,the thefluctuation
fluctuationofofthe theairaircolumn
columndiameter
diameterbecomes
becomessmaller
smallerwith withthetheincrease
increase
in feed
inxfeed
Separations 2022, 9, rate,indicating that increasing the feed rate can reduce the formation time ofthe
indicating
rate, REVIEW
FOR PEER that increasing the feed rate can reduce the formation time of theair 1
air column and strengthen its morphology, resulting in increased stability of the flow fieldin
column and strengthen its morphology, resulting in increased stability of the flow field
inthe
thehydrocyclone.
hydrocyclone.

(a)

Figure 12. Cont.

(b)
Separations 2022, 9, 349 11 of 14

(a)

(b)

(c)

Separations 2022, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12

(d)

(e)
Figure 12.ofDevelopment
Figure 12. Development of air different
air column under column under different
feed rates feed(a)
at inlet. rates at inlet. (a)ofDevelopment
Development air
column at a feedcolumn at a feed
rate at inlet of 1 rate
m/s;at(b)
inlet of 1 m/s; (b)ofDevelopment
Development air column atof air column
a feed at a feed
rate at inlet of 2 rate
m/s;at inlet of
(c) Development (c)ofDevelopment
air column atofa air
feedcolumn
rate at at a feed
inlet of 3rate
m/s;at(d)
inlet of 3 m/s; (d)ofDevelopment
Development air column atofa air colum
feed rate at inlet of 4 m/s; (e) Development of air column at a feed rate at inlet of 5 m/s.
feed rate at inlet of 4 m/s; (e) Development of air column at a feed rate at inlet of 5 m/s.
 (e)
Figure 12. Development of air column under different feed rates at inlet. (a) Development of air
column at a feed rate at inlet of 1 m/s; (b) Development of air column at a feed rate at inlet of 2 m/s;
Separations 2022, 9, 349 12 of 14
(c) Development of air column at a feed rate at inlet of 3 m/s; (d) Development of air column at a
feed rate at inlet of 4 m/s; (e) Development of air column at a feed rate at inlet of 5 m/s.

Figure 13.
Figure Axial distribution
13. Axial distribution of
of air
air column
column diameter.
diameter.

3.5. Effects of the Feed Rate at Inlet on the Split Ratio

3.5. Effects of the Feed Rate at Inlet on the Split Ratio
The split ratio is the ratio of the volume flow of the hydrocyclone underflow outlet
The split ratio is the ratio of the volume flow of the hydrocyclone underflow outlet
to the volume flow of the feed port, and it is an important parameter for evaluating the
to the volume flow of the feed port, and it is an important parameter for evaluating the
hydrocyclone separation performance. Figure 14 is the influence curve of the different
hydrocyclone separation performance. Figure 14 is the influence curve of the different
feed rates on the split ratio. As observed, the split ratio decreases with the increase in feed
feed rates on the split ratio. As observed, the split ratio decreases with the increase in feed
rate. When the feed rate increases to a certain value, the split ratio gradually becomes
rate. When the feed rate increases to a certain value, the split ratio gradually becomes
stable. In summary, the flow discharged from the underflow outlet becomes smaller with
stable. In summary, the flow discharged from the underflow outlet becomes smaller with
the increase in feed rate, which is more conducive to the improvement of hydrocyclone
the increase in feed rate, which is more conducive to the improvement of hydrocyclone
concentration performance. Nevertheless, an excessively high feed rate can sometimes
concentration performance. Nevertheless, an excessively high feed rate can sometimes
Separations 2022, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 15
cause a large amount of fluid to accumulate in the underflow outlet, causing a blockage of
cause a large amount of fluid to accumulate in the underflow
the discharge and affecting the normal operation of the hydrocyclone. outlet, causing a blockage
of the discharge and affecting the normal operation of the hydrocyclone.

different feed
Figure 14. Split ratio curves under different feed rates
rates at
at inlet.
inlet.

4. Conclusions
4. Conclusions
In
In this study, the
this study, the influence
influence of
of feed
feed rate
rate on the flow
on the flow field
field performance
performance in
in hydrocyclone
hydrocyclone
was
was determined through numerical simulation. The main conclusions are as follows:
determined through numerical simulation. The main conclusions are as follows:
(1) (1)
Increasing
Increasing thethe
feedfeed
raterate
led led
to increased
to increasedstatic pressure,
static radial
pressure, pressure
radial gradient,
pressure tan-
gradient,
gential
tangential velocityand
velocity andradial
radialvelocity,
velocity,and
andreduced
reducedthe thesplit
splitratio
ratio in
in the
the swirl
swirl field, which
was beneficial
was beneficial to thetoseparation
the separationof theoftwothe solid-liquid
two solid-liquid
phasesphases
in theinhydrocyclone.
the hydrocyclone.
This
This was beneficial in improving the separation accuracy
was beneficial in improving the separation accuracy of the hydrocyclone. of the hydrocyclone.
(2) (2)
Increasing
Increasing the the
feedfeed
raterate
led to
ledreduced fluctuations
to reduced of theofairthe
fluctuations column and theand
air column LZVV,
the
as well as reduced the formation time of the air column, which
LZVV, as well as reduced the formation time of the air column, which was beneficial was beneficial to the
to
stabilityofofthe
the stability theflow
flowfield
fieldininthe
thehydrocyclone.
hydrocyclone.
(3) Increasing the feed rate led to increased axial velocity and turbulent kinetic en-
ergy, resulting in a negative impact on the separation accuracy and energy consumption
of the hydrocyclone.

Author Contributions: Y.Z. and M.X. designed this study. J.Y. and Y.D. were mainly responsible
Separations 2022, 9, 349 13 of 14

(3) Increasing the feed rate led to increased axial velocity and turbulent kinetic energy,
resulting in a negative impact on the separation accuracy and energy consumption of
the hydrocyclone.

Author Contributions: Y.Z. and M.X. designed this study. J.Y. and Y.D. were mainly responsible for
all simulations and data analysis. M.X., X.Y. and X.T. contributed to writing of the manuscript. All
authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This study was financially supported by the Natural Science Foundation of Shandong
Province, China (ZR2020ME105) and the National Natural Science Foundation of China (22108159).
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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