Ancient -Earliest Evidence - Cave Painting (Lascaux - 16,000 years old) of celestial

Astronomical objects - stars, moon.

Traditions -Earliest Structures - Calendar circles, aligned marks to keep track of time
(Stonehenge 3100 - 1500 BC, Goseck - 5000 BC)
In the Americas - Caracol Temple (Mayans in Mexico), Aztec Temple, Big
Horn Medicine in the US.
-The Nebra Sky Disc - Bronze Age, Germany, 1600 bc. 30 cm diameter, 2.2
kg. Blue-green patina,with gold symbols. Was in use for 400 years. Depicts
a full moon, crescent moon about 4 to 5 years old, depicted Pleiades star
cluster. It was probably used as a tool to insert the extra month between the
lunar and the solar calendar to adjust the calendar. Earliest known
astronomical inventions for calendar regulation.
-MULAPIN - Baylonian compendium. 1000 BCE. Earliest star catalogues,
‘Three Stars Each lists’, 66 stars and constellations + rising, setting,
culmination dates, to help map out the basic structure of the babylonian star
map - the name means The Plough, referring to the first constellation of the
year. Identified Cassiopeia, Andromeda, and Triangulum (according to
scholars Gossman and Kurtik).
- Rock drawing, petroglyphs of astronomical phenomena. Eg - the
petroglyphs that depict the supernova that resulted in the Crab Nebula of
1006 AD.
-MESTOPOTAMIAN ASTRONOMY - key for development of western and
islamic astronomy + main concepts used today (zodiac signs and the 360
degree circles). Cycles of the sun and moon in the form of a calendar,
beginning from the moon crescent + extra thirteenth month to keep the
calendar in line with the seasons. Omens drawn in the appearance of
celestial phenomenon. Numerical schemes for variation in length of day
and night. Star and constellation names.
Story of ANDROMEDA, CASSIOPEIA and CEPHEUS
Story of PERSEUS
GREEK TRADITION - Plato’s Platonic Academy - promotes that everything
in the universe moves in harmony with the Sun, Moon, and the planets
move around the Earth in perfect circles. Hipparchus discovered precession
of the equinoxes. Ptolemy and his star catalog - 48 constellations,
geocentric view, astronomical calculation of the sidereal revolution of the
planets, went unquestioned in Europe for 1500 years.
COPERNICAN REVOLUTION - Copernicus ‘On the Revolution of Heavenly
Spheres’ - Earth travels around the sun. Was hated by the Catholic Church
who believed in a geocentric theory.
TYCHO BRAHE - SN 1572 a supernova was observed by this guy. He took
it as evidence that heavens can change. Danish, during the Renaissance,
accurate astronomical observations. Uraniborg - a lab created by him -
allowed him to observe and develop calculations on solar system models,
an extensive and accurate catalog of stellar positions.
-HANS LIPPERSHEY - refracting telescope
-KEPLER - New Astronomy - 3 Laws of Planetary Motion. Heliocetnrist.
Influenced by Brahe. Rejected Ptolemaic model, concluded that planetary
orbits were elliptical in shape rather than circular. dISCOVERD orbital
speed of a planet is not constant by depending on its location on the orbit.
 -GALILEO GALILEI - ‘Starry Messenger’ - spots on the sun, craters on the
moon, four satellites of Jupiter, promoted copernican view, observed stars
of the Milky Way, phases of Venus, Saturn’s Rings. ‘Vehemently suspect of
heresy’.

Various Objects The Moon is Earth's only natural satellite.

in the Sky- It orbits at an average distance of 384,400 km (238,900 mi), about 30
MOON times the diameter of Earth.
Over time Earth's gravity has caused tidal locking, causing the same side
of the Moon to always face Earth. Because of this, the lunar day and the
lunar month are the same length, at 29.5 Earth days.

An eclipse is an astronomical event that occurs when one celestial body

moves into the shadow of another.
A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun,
thereby obscuring the view of the Sun from a small part of Earth, totally or
partially-

●​ Total Solar Eclipse: The Moon completely covers the Sun, as

viewed from Earth.
●​ Partial Solar Eclipse: Only a part of the Sun is obscured by the
Moon.
●​ Annular Solar Eclipse: The Moon is too far from Earth to
completely cover the Sun, resulting in a ring of sunlight being
visible around the Moon.
●​ Solar eclipses can only occur during a new moon when the Sun and
Moon are in conjunction as seen from Earth.

A lunar eclipse is an astronomical event that occurs when the Moon

moves into the Earth's shadow, causing the Moon to be darkened.

●​ Total Lunar Eclipse: The entire Moon passes through Earth's umbra
(the central, darkest part of its shadow).
●​ Partial Lunar Eclipse: Only a part of the Moon passes through the
Earth's umbra.
●​ Penumbral Lunar Eclipse: The Moon passes through the Earth's
penumbra (the outer part of the shadow), causing a subtle shading
on the Moon's surface.
●​ Lunar eclipses can only happen during a full moon when the
Sun,Earth, and Moon are aligned in a straight line.

SUN and the Basic Facts About the Sun

STARS ●​ Nearest star to Earth, ~8 light minutes away
●​ Mass: 2 × 10³³ g (~4 × 10³³ lbs)
●​ Radius: 6 × 10¹⁰ cm (~370,000 miles)
●​ Escape velocity: 618 km/s (Earth: 11.2 km/s)
●​ Surface gravity: 274 m/s² (Earth: 9.8 m/s²)
●​ Composition: 70% hydrogen, 28% helium, 2% metals
●​ Energy output: 2 × 10³³ ergs/s, converts 600 million tons of
hydrogen to helium every second
The Sun Compared to Other Stars
●​ Most massive known star: ~100 solar masses
●​ Least massive star: ~0.1 solar masses
●​ 90% of stars in the Milky Way are less massive than the Sun
●​ 50% of stars are binaries
●​ 66% of solar-type stars are binaries
Structure of the Sun
●​ Core (T ≈ 15 million K) – Where fusion occurs
●​ Radiative Zone – Photons slowly transfer energy
●​ Convective Zone – Hot gas rises, cool gas sinks
●​ Photosphere (T ≈ 5500K) – The Sun’s visible surface
●​ Corona (T ≈ 1 million K) – The Sun’s outermost layer
Sunspots and Solar Activity
●​ Sun rotates every ~27 days (varies by latitude)
●​ Sunspots are cooler areas (~4000K) caused by magnetic activity
●​ Solar flares & coronal mass ejections impact Earth (auroras)
●​ The solar cycle (~11 years) affects sunspot activity
Why Doesn’t the Sun Explode?
●​ Hydrostatic equilibrium – Balance between gravity (inward) and
pressure (outward)
●​ Nuclear fusion (H → He) generates energy to counteract gravity
Stellar Evolution: Life Cycle of Stars
1.​ Star Formation – Gas and dust collapse under gravity
2.​ Main Sequence – Hydrogen fusion (e.g., Sun ~10 billion years)
3.​ Red Giant Phase – Core contracts, outer layers expand
4.​ White Dwarf (low-mass stars) – Hot, dense remnants (~Earth-sized)
5.​ Supernova (high-mass stars) – Massive explosion
6.​ Neutron Star or Black Hole – Super-dense remnants
White Dwarfs
●​ End state for 90% of stars
●​ Mass ~0.6 solar masses, Size ~ Earth
●​ No fusion, energy from residual heat
●​ Max mass ~1.4 solar masses (Chandrasekhar Limit)
Neutron Stars & Pulsars
●​ Mass ~2 solar masses, Diameter ~20 km
●​ Density ~2 × 10¹⁴ g/cm³ (incredibly dense)
●​ Some neutron stars become pulsars, emitting beams of radiation
Black Holes
●​ Escape velocity > speed of light
●​ Schwarzschild radius R = 2GM/c²
●​ Event horizon: point of no return
●​ Extreme gravitational time dilation
Star Formation Regions
●​ Stars form in gas & dust clouds (e.g., Orion Nebula)
●​ Protostars heat up, eventually begin fusion

What Happens When Fusion Stops?

●​ Stars maintain hydrostatic equilibrium: radiation pushes outward,

gravity pulls inward.
 ●​ Once fusion stops, the core collapses, leaving behind a compact
object.
●​ The remnant type depends on the original star's mass:
○​ < 8 M⦿ → White dwarf
○​ 8 M⦿ < M < 20 M⦿ → Neutron star
○​ > 20 M⦿ → Black hole

White Dwarfs

●​ Formed when outer layers are ejected, creating a planetary nebula.

●​ Small, Earth-sized core left behind, slowly cooling over time.
●​ Supported by electron degeneracy pressure (Pauli Exclusion
Principle).
●​ Examples: The Ring Nebula, The Cat’s Eye Nebula.

Neutron Stars

●​ Core collapse overcomes electron degeneracy, forming an

ultra-dense neutron star.
●​ 1967: Jocelyn Bell discovered pulsars – rapidly rotating neutron
stars emitting radiation beams.
●​ Key Facts:
○​ Mass: ~1.5 M⦿
○​ Radius: 10-15 km
○​ Density: 10× atomic nuclei
○​ Rotation: Up to 700 times per second (due to conservation
of angular momentum).
○​ Surface gravity: >100 billion times Earth’s.
○​ Magnetic field: Trillion times stronger than Earth’s.
●​ Where do we see them?
○​ Young neutron stars found in supernova remnants (e.g.,
Crab Nebula – 1054 AD).
○​ X-ray binaries: Gas from a companion star accretes onto a
neutron star, emitting X-rays.

Black Holes
●​ Karl Schwarzschild (1916): Predicted singularities, now called black
holes.
●​ John Wheeler (1960s): Coined the term "black hole."
●​ Event Horizon: Point of no return—escape velocity exceeds speed
of light.
●​ Evidence for Black Holes:
○​ X-ray emissions from accreting matter.
○​ Stars orbiting "empty" space (e.g., Milky Way's center).
●​ Types of Black Holes:
○​ Stellar-mass (few M⦿): Formed in supernovae.
○​ Supermassive (~millions to billions M⦿): Found at galaxy
centers.
Quasars & Supermassive Black Holes
 ●​ Quasars: Extremely bright, distant objects powered by accretion
onto supermassive black holes.
●​ First Quasar: 3C 273 – discovered by observing redshifted light.
●​ Energy Source: Accretion, not nuclear fusion.
○​ Gravitational energy is released as gas spirals into a black
hole.
○​ More efficient than nuclear fusion.
●​ Supermassive Black Holes:
○​ Observed at the center of every large galaxy.
○​ Example: Milky Way’s black hole (Sgr A)* has ~4 million
M⦿.

Celestial The celestial sphere is an imaginary sphere that extends infinitely into
Sphere space with the Earth at its centre. It is a useful tool for astronomers and
navigators to map the positions of stars and other celestial objects.
Imaginary sphere surrounding Earth, on which all celestial bodies can
be projected.
Celestial Poles: Extensions of Earth's North and South Poles onto the
celestial sphere.
North Celestial Pole (NCP): Directly above Earth's North Pole.
South Celestial Pole (SCP): Directly above Earth's South Pole.
Zenith : Point directly above an observer on the celestial sphere.
Nadir : Point directly opposite the zenith, beneath the observer.
Horizon: Circle on the celestial sphere that separates the visible sky
from the part hidden by Earth.
Celestial Equator: Projection of Earth's equator onto the celestial sphere,
dividing it into northern and southern hemispheres.
Ecliptic: Apparent path the Sun takes through the sky over the course of a
year, inclined at about 23.5° to the celestial equator.
Meridian: Great circle passing through the celestial poles and the zenith
(point directly overhead).

Coordinates Right Ascension (RA): Measured along the celestial equator from the
vernal equinox, analogous to longitude.
Declination (Dec): Measured north or south of the celestial equator,
analogous to latitude.
Altitude: Angle between an object in the sky and the observer's local
horizon.
Azimuth: Angle along the horizon, usually measured from the north point,
eastward.

Inner Planets - MERCURY

Mercury, Has a revolution period of 88 days.
Venus, Earth, Has 1000° temperature swings from day to night because there is no
Mars atmosphere to trap heat.
-Small rocky Is about 1/3 of Earth’s size
planets Is about 1/3 Earth’s distance from the sun (0.39 AU)
-They are made
up mostly of VENUS
rock and metal. Has retrograde rotation – so the sun rises in the west and
-They are very sets in the east!
heavy. Reaches 900°F at the surface due to a strong greenhouse effect.
-They move Venus has no moons and takes 225 days to complete an orbit.
slowly in space. Is about the same size as Earth Is about 2/3 Earth’s distance from the sun
-They have no (0.72 AU)
rings and few
moons (if any). EARTH
-They have a Is the only planet known to support life!
diameter of less Has a surface composed of 71% water.
than 13,000 Water is necessary for life on Earth.
km. Is the basis for the Astronomical Unit (distance from sun to Earth = 1 AU)

MARS
Mars appears red because of iron oxide, or rust, in its soil.
Mars has two moons and takes about two years to complete an orbit.
Is about ½ of Earth’s size
Is about 1 ½ times as far from the sun as Earth (1.52 AU)

Outer Planets JUPITER

Gas Giants Is the largest, most massive planet.
They are made Takes about 12 years to orbit the sun.
up mostly of Jupiter has 17 known moons.
gases (primarily Is about 11 times larger than Earth.
hydrogen & Is about 5 times farther from the sun than Earth (5.19 AU)
helium).
They are very SATURN
light for their Has many rings made of ice that extend about 260,000 miles from the
size. surface but are less than 1 mile thick.
They move Has 19 known moons
quickly in Takes about 30 years to orbit the sun.
space. Is almost 10 times larger than Earth
They have Is nearly ten times farther from the sun than Earth (9.5 AU)
rings and many
moons. URANUS
They have a Has 21 known moons
diameter of Takes 84 years to complete one orbit.
49,000 km or Is about 4 times larger than Earth
greater Is about 19 times farther from the sun than Earth (19.1 AU)

NEPTUNE
Takes 165 years to orbit the sun
Has 8 moons
Is about 3.8 times larger than Earth
Is about 30 times farther from the sun than Earth (30 AU)

Asteroids, An asteroid is a minor planet of the inner Solar System. Sizes and shapes
Asteroid Belts, of asteroids vary significantly, ranging from 1-meter rocks to a dwarf planet
Comets, the almost 1000 km in diameter; they are rocky, metallic or icy bodies with no
Kuiper Belt and atmosphere.
the Oort Cloud
 The asteroid belt is a torus-shaped region in the Solar
System located roughly between the orbits of the planets Jupiter and Mars.
It contains a great many solid, irregularly shaped bodies, of many sizes, but
much smaller than minor planets called asteroids.

A comet is an icy, small Solar System body that, when passing close to the
Sun, warms and begins to release gases, a process that is called
outgassing. This produces a visible atmosphere or coma, and sometimes
also a tail. These phenomena are due to the effects of solar radiation and
the solar wind acting upon the nucleus of the comet.

The Kuiper belt is a circumstellar disc in the outer Solar System, extending
from the orbit of Neptune at 30 astronomical units (AU) to approximately 50
AU from the Sun. It is similar to the asteroid belt, but is far larger—20 times
as wide and 20–200 times as massive. Like the asteroid belt, it consists
mainly of small bodies or remnants from when the Solar System formed.
While many asteroids are composed primarily of rock and metal, most
Kuiper belt objects are composed largely of frozen volatiles (termed "ices"),
such as methane, ammonia, and water.

The Oort cloud, sometimes called the Öpik–Oort cloud, first described in
1950 by the Dutch Astronomer Jan Oort is a theoretical concept of a
predominantly icy cloud ranging from 2,000 to 200,000 AU (0.03 to 3.2
light-years). It is divided into two regions: a disc-shaped inner Oort cloud or
a spherical outer Oort cloud. Both regions lie beyond the heliosphere and
are in interstellar space.

Newton’s Laws Newton’s Laws of Motion are three basic laws of classical mechanics that
of Motion describe the relationship between the motion of an object and the forces
acting on it. These laws can be paraphrased as follows:
1. A body remains at rest, or in motion at a constant speed in a
straight line, unless acted upon by a force. Inertia.
2. When a body is acted upon by a net force, the body’s acceleration
multiplied by its mass is equal to the net force. FA=MxA
3. If two bodies exert forces on each other, these forces have the same
magnitude but opposite directions. “For every action, there’s an equal
but opposite reaction.”
Newton’s law of universal gravitation says every particle attracts every other
particle in the universe with a force that is proportional to the product of
their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance
between their centers. Separated objects attract and are attracted as if all
their mass were concentrated at their centers. The publication of the law
has become known as the “first great unification”, as it marked the
unification of the previously described phenomena of gravity on Earth with
known astronomical behaviors. The equation for universal gravitation thus
takes the form:
f - gravitational force b/w two objects
m1,m2 - masses of the objects
r - distance between the centers of the masses
g - gravitational constant
Kepler’s Laws Kepler’s laws of planetary motion, published by Johannes Kepler between
of Planetary 1609 and 1619, describe the orbits of planets around the Sun. The laws
Motion modified the heliocentric theory of Nicolaus Copernicus, replacing its
circular orbits and epicycles with elliptical trajectories, and explaining how
planetary velocities vary. The three laws state that:
Kepler’s First Law: A planet orbits the Sun in an ellipse, with the Sun
at one focus of the ellipse.
Kepler’s Second Law: A line connecting a planet to the Sun sweeps
out equal areas in equal time intervals.
Kepler’s Third Law: The square of a planet’s orbital period is
proportional to the cube of the length of the semi-major axis of its
orbit.

History of ARYABHATTA (476 A.D)

Astronomy in -23 years old when he composed Aryabhatiyam in modern Patna, Bihar. 4
India parts - Gikita, Ganita, Kalakriya, Gola. His book includes the
Apogees/Aphelia, nodes, positions of planets, diameters of the planets,
inclinations of the orbital planes of the planet, ecliptic and the peripheries of
the epicycles of planets.
-Most significant contribution is the solution of the ‘first order indeterminate
equations’ (Kuttaka) to find the solution of ax+by+c.
-Kalakriyapada - 25 verses on positions of planets for a given day, concept
of weekdays, angular speed of planetary motions, intercalary months.
-Golapada- geometrical, trigonometric aspects of the celestial sphere
(celestial equator, node) shape of the earth, cause of the day and night,
rising zodiacal signs on the eastern horizon.
- Also mentions the spheroidal shape of the earth. -”circular in all
directions’, realized the luminosity of the sun to illuminate other planets,
realized the motion of the earth relative to that of the sun and the moon.
POST ARYABHATTA
Bhaskara I,
Varahamihira (505 AD) and his work Panchasiddhantika - mentions that
amongst the 5 systems the Surya Siddhanta is the best
BRAHMAGUPTA
-Born in 598 CE. In modern Bhinmal in Rajasthan during the reign of the
Chavda dynasty ruler Vyagrahamukha. In the year 628, he composed the
Brahmasphutasiddhanta (improved treatise of Brahma) incorporating a
considerable amount of new and original material. At the age of 67 he
composed his well known work Khanda-khadyaka to be used by students.
-He gave the general linear equation, two equivalent solutions to the
general quadratic equation, sum of the squares and cubes of the n integers,
his books involved arithmetic manipulations that apply to zero and negative
numbers, treated zero as a digit in its own right, provides a formula for
generating Pythagorean triples, formula for cyclic quadrilaterals, value of pi
that has less than 1 percent error which allowed him to compute volume of
various solids, he also devised a new case of Newton-Stirling interpolation
formula, described gravity as an active force.
MANJULA - 932 AD, SRIPATI - 1000 AD introduced additional corrections
to the moon.
NILAKANTHA SOMAYJI - inspired by PARAMESVARA (1400 AD),
 developed an early model of the solar system in which the sun moved
around the earth. This model was adopted by the late astronomers of
Kerala - JYESTHADEVA, ACYUTA PISARATI, CITRABHANU.

Constellations, Nakshatra: 27 constellations through which the moon travels (this may be
their origin, the sidereal period of the moon that is 27.3 days). Each star group was
nakshatras and known by the brightest star. These identifying stars are called yogataras
their (Aswini, Bharani, Revati). Only 27 nakshatras are recorded in the Rigveda
significance in but 28 nakshatras are recorded in the Tattiriya Samhita including Abijit.
Indian culture. Vedanga Jyotisha: Fix suitable times for performing different sacrifices.
The text is found in 2 recensions - Rigveda Jyotisha and Yajurveda
Jyotisha. This was recorded around 1200 to 1400 BC - the last part of the
vedic ages, depending on the calculations of the longest and shortest day
the place of composition of the Jyotisha appears to be Kashmir.
Siddhantas: Specific line of development of a thought - school of thought -
established theory. A new class of Indian astronomical literature. Common
contexts of this siddhantic texts included - new nakshatra system (12
rashis of the zodiac or signs), precise value for the length of the solar year,
computations of the motions of movement of planets, solar, lunar eclipses,
ideas of parallax, determination of mean and true position of planets. The
contents of siddhantas -
-calculation of the mean position of the heavenly bodies, true position of a
planet, “three questions” of direction, place and time. Procedure of finding a
latitude, time of sunrise sunset, declination and ascendant discussed, and
spherical trigonometry. Eclipses were discussed as well and given great
deal of importance - theories of the positions of the heavenly bodies were
put into computation on the basis of observing eclipses. Disagreements
between observations and computed position were revised. Aryabhatta and
Varahamihita (Brihat Samhita) explain the phenomenon of eclipses with
great precision.

Galaxies Vast stars, gas, dust, and dark matter held together by gravity. They
come in various shapes and sizes -
Elliptical Galaxies - shaped like ellipsoids (nearly spherical to highly
elongated), composed of older stars, contain little interstellar matter,
resulting in low rates of star formations. Classified according to their
elongation from E0 to E7.
Spiral Galaxies - flat, rotating disk, with spiral arms that contain young ,
dust, stars and gas. Center is known as nucleus containing a bulge of older
stars. Divided into 2 types - Regular Spirals (Sa, Sb, Sc) and Barred Spirals
(SBa, SBb, SBc). This depends upon the presence and structure of a
central bar of stars.
Barred Spiral Galaxies - Central bar shaped structure extending from the
nuclears, with spiral arms that originated from the ends of the bar. Eg- the
Milky Way.
Irregular Galaxies - Irregular, lack shape, do not fit in the above
categories. A high rate of star formation may result from gravitational
interactions of mergers between galaxies.
Lenticular Galaxies - Disk like structure, similar to spiral galaxies but
without the spiral arms. Intermediate between elliptical and spiral galaxies.
 Dwarf galaxies - smaller and fainter, any in shape, found orbiting larger
galaxies as satellite galaxies.
Various terms:
Cosmic Web: galaxies as a cosmic web of filaments, clusters, and void
composed of Galactic Filaments (long thread like structures, connecting
galaxies across light years), Galaxy Cluster (dense regions where
thousands of galaxies are bound by gravity eg - the Virgo Cluster)
Supercluster (collection of galaxy clusters such as the Laniakea
Supercluster containing the Milky Way) Cosmic Void (empty regions with
fewer galaxies). This may be due to the gravitational instability in the early
universe, CMB (cosmic microwave background) led to growth of denser
regions attracting more matter.
Dark Matter: gravitational pull for galaxy formation and structure formation.
Dark energy as the driving force behind the accelerating expansion of the
universe, influencing large scale structures.
Galaxy Redshift Surveys map the large-scale distribution of galaxies.
CMB observations provide insights into the universe’s structures at the
early stages.

COSMIC Faint glow of radiation that fills the universe in all directions. It is the
MICROWAVE oldest light in the universe, dating back to about 380,000 years after
BACKGROUN the Big Bang.
D RADIATION -Predicted by George Gamow, Ralph Alpher, Robert Herman. Accidently
discovered by Arno Penzias, and Robert Wilson in 1964
-When the universe cooled enough, electrons + protons = neutral hydrogen
atoms. Process known as recombination. Photons travelled freely through
space, creating the CMB.
-Uniform, perfect blackbody spectrum, contains temperature
fluctuations/anisotropies believed to be seeds of the large scale structure of
the universe.
-Temperature is around 2.7 Kelvin, coldest radiation in the universe.Cooled
overtime as the universe expanded.
-Provides crucial evidence for the Big Bang Theory. Suggests through
the anisotropic property of the radiation that the universe started from a hot,
dense state, and has been expanding and cooling ever since.
-Studied deeply though the Planck satellite and the Wilkinson Microwave
Anisotropy Probe. These measure CMB’s temperature fluctuations.

Big Bang -Prevailing scientific model for the origin and evolution of the
Cosmology universe. It describes how the universe expanded from a very high-density
and high-temperature state, starting approximately 13.8 billion years ago.
-Universe began in the singularity - a point of infinite density and
temperature, then inflation began (rapid expansion). Led to large scale
uniformity of the universe and solves the horizon problem and the flatness
problem. Elementary particles, as the universe cooled, combined to form
atoms - recombination. Recombination led to the travelling of photons,
creating the CMBR. Over time, gravity caused matter to clump together,
forming galaxies, clusters of galaxies, and larger structures. The distribution
of matter in the universe is not perfectly uniform but shows slight
fluctuations that can be observed in the CMB. Universe continues to
 expand today, driven by dark energy. CMBR is the strongest evidence of
the BBT (remnant of the hot dense state of the early universe).

Stars THE BIRTH/Stellar Formation, driven by gravity, pressure and nuclear

fission. - MCGC P NF PSF
Step 1: Molecular Cloud and Gravitational Collapse
a dense and cold region in space filled with gas and dust. Disturbances like
shock waves from a supernova, galaxy collisions, or radiation from nearby
stars can cause parts of the cloud to become denser. When a region
reaches a critical mass, gravity overcomes internal pressure, leading to its
collapse.
Step 2: Formation of a Protostar
As it collapses (contracts) it forms a rotating structure called a protostar.
During this phase, gravitational energy is converted into heat, raising the
temperature of the core. The protostar is still surrounded by a dense
envelope of gas and dust, which gradually accretes onto it, fueling its
growth.
Step 3: Ignition of Nuclear Fusion
core temperature of the protostar reaches around 10 million Kelvin, nuclear
fusion begins. Hydrogen atoms fuse into helium, releasing an enormous
amount of energy and generating outward pressure that counteracts
gravitational collapse. This balance between radiation pressure and gravity
marks the formation of a stable main-sequence star, like our Sun.
Step 4: Birth of a Star and Planetary System Formation
The excess gas and dust surrounding the newborn star form a
protoplanetary disk, which can give rise to planets, asteroids, and moons
through accretion. The newborn star shines steadily, officially entering the
main sequence phase, where it will remain for millions to billions of years,
depending on its mass.

Mass of the cloud, metallicity (presence of heavier metals), and external

influences (supernova explosions, stellar winds, magnetic fields etc) can
affect the star formation.

Interior Structure of a Star - CRCPCC

1. Core: The Energy Source: hottest and densest region where nuclear
fusion takes place. Hydrogen nuclei fuse into helium through the
proton-proton chain or the CNO cycle. Emits enormous energy in the form
of gamma rays and neutrinos that sustain brightness and gravitational
collapse.
2. Radiative Zone: Energy Transport by Radiation: Energy transported
outward through radiation. Radiative diffusion - reabsorption and remitting
of photons interacting with plasma. Takes thousands of years for light to
travel from core to the outer layers. Radiative zone is found in massive
stars only.
3. Convective Zone: Energy Transport by Convection: Energy
transported through the bulk movement of plasma. Hot gas rises, cools
down, sinks. Reheats. Thicker in low mass stars. May exist in outer areas in
high mass stars.
4. Photosphere: The Visible Surface: outermost layer that emits visible
light, surface observed. 5,500 Kelvin for the Sun. Responsible for sunspots
(in (cooler, magnetically active regions) and granulation (patterns
created by convection currents below).
5. Chromosphere: The Transition Layer: thin, reddish layer above the
photosphere. Visible during solar eclipses and has a temperature ranging
from 6,000 to 20,000 Kelvin. Contains spicules (jet-like plasma structures)
and contributes to solar activity like prominences and flares.
6. Corona: The Outer Atmosphere: extended outer atmosphere of a star,
visible as a halo during a solar eclipse. Hotter than the photosphere.
Temperatures reach millions of Kelvin, due to magnetic heating
mechanisms. Source of the solar wind, a stream of charged particles that
influences planetary atmospheres and causes phenomena like auroras on
Earth.

Life of a LOW MASS STAR

-mass less than about 8 times the Sun’s mass
1. Main Sequence Phase (Stable Hydrogen Burning): Fusing
hydrogen into helium in its core through nuclear fusion. This phase lasts for
billions of years—for the Sun, it’s about 10 billion years. The outward
radiation pressure from fusion balances the inward pull of gravity, keeping
the star stable. However, as hydrogen in the core depletes, the core starts
to contract due to gravity, while the outer layers expand. This marks the
beginning of the end.
2. Red Giant Phase (Helium Burning): Core contracts, the temperature
increases, helium fusion begins.The star expands into a red giant, growing
up to 100 times its original size. The core undergoes helium fusion,
converting helium into carbon and oxygen. The outer layers, now far from
the core, become cooler and appear reddish. The Sun, for example, will
expand beyond Earth’s orbit, potentially engulfing Mercury and Venus. This
phase lasts a few hundred million years, much shorter than the main
sequence phase.
3. Planetary Nebula Formation (Outer Layers Ejected): Once helium
fusion in the core ends, the core contracts again, but this time, it cannot
start further fusion because the temperature is not high enough to ignite
carbon. The outer layers of the star become unstable and are slowly
pushed away by stellar winds, forming a beautiful glowing shell of gas
known as a planetary nebula. The ejected gas and dust can later contribute
to the formation of new stars and planets. The core remains intact, but
fusion has completely stopped. This planetary nebula phase lasts a few
tens of thousands of years before fading.
4. White Dwarf (Final Remnant): What remains after the planetary nebula
disperses is the hot, dense core—a white dwarf. These stars are held
together by electron degeneracy pressure. White dwarfs are typically
Earth-sized but contain about half to one solar mass of material, a mix of
carbon and oxygen, making them extremely dense. A teaspoon of white
dwarf material would weigh several tons on Earth. They no longer undergo
fusion but shine due to leftover thermal energy. Over billions to trillions of
years, the white dwarf gradually cools and fades, eventually becoming a
black dwarf—a theoretical, completely cold remnant that no longer emits
light. However, since the universe is only 13.8 billion years old, no black
dwarfs exist yet.

Life of a HIGH MASS STAR

-typically those above 8 times the Sun’s mass.
1. Main Sequence Phase (Hydrogen Burning): Massive stars spend most
of their lives fusing hydrogen into helium in their cores. Due to their large
mass, they burn fuel at a much faster rate than low-mass stars, living only
for millions (instead of billions) of years. Example: A 25-solar-mass star
may only live for a few million years before dying, whereas the Sun will last
~10 billion years. The larger the star, the shorter its lifespan because it
consumes fuel rapidly. Once hydrogen in the core is exhausted, the star
enters the red supergiant phase, marking
the beginning of its end.
2. Red Supergiant; Successive Fusion Stages: When hydrogen is
depleted, the core contracts and heats up, allowing helium fusion to begin,
forming carbon and oxygen. This process continues, with each new
element burning faster than the previous one: Helium (burns for ~1 million
years) Carbon (burns for ~1,000 years) Neon (burns for ~1 year) Oxygen
(burns for ~a few days) Silicon (burns for ~a few hours)
The star layers itself like an onion, with lighter elements fusing in the outer
layers and iron accumulating in the core.
3. Iron Core Collapse and Supernova Explosion: Fusion releases energy
that prevents the star from collapsing under its own gravity. However, iron
cannot undergo fusion to release energy. Once the iron core reaches a
critical mass (about 1.4 solar masses, known as the Chandrasekhar limit),
fusion stops entirely. Without fusion pressure, gravity causes the iron core
to collapse in seconds. Temperatures soar to billions of degrees, and
electrons and protons merge to form neutrons, causing a sudden neutron
degeneracy pressure buildup. This triggers a core bounce, creating an
enormous shockwave that rips through the star, resulting in a Type II
supernova explosion. During this explosion: The star releases more energy
in seconds than the Sun will in its entire 10-billion-year lifetime. Elements
heavier than iron (like gold, uranium, and platinum) are formed in the
explosion. The outer layers are ejected into space, enriching the cosmos
with essential elements for new stars and planets. If the core left behind is
less than ~2.5 solar masses, it becomes a neutron star. If its larger, it
collapses into a black hole.
4. Stellar Remnants After Supernova
The fate of the collapsed core depends on its mass:
A. Neutron Star (For Stars 8–25 Solar Masses)
If the core is between 1.4 and ~2.5 solar masses, gravity squeezes
electrons and protons together to form neutrons, creating a neutron star.
Theses stars are held together by neutron degeneracy pressure.
Size: ~10-20 km across (but more massive than the Sun!).
Density: A sugar-cube-sized piece would weigh billions of tons.
Some neutron stars become pulsars, emitting beams of electromagnetic
radiation. Example: Crab Pulsar (formed from a supernova observed in
1054 AD).
B. Black Hole (For Stars with less than 25 Solar Masses)
If the core is more than ~2.5-3 solar masses, even neutron pressure cannot
 stop the collapse, and the core shrinks into a black hole. Example: Cygnus
X-1, one of the first confirmed stellar black holes.

Relativity and Special Relativity (1905)

Black Holes Einstein’s theory of Special Relativity changed how we understand space,
time, and motion. It applies when objects move at constant speeds relative
to each other, without the influence of gravity. The theory is based on two
core principles:
The Principle of Relativity:​
The laws of physics are the same in all inertial frames of reference (frames
that move at a constant velocity relative to one another). No frame is
“special” or absolute.
The Constancy of the Speed of Light:​
The speed of light in a vacuum (~300,000 km/s) remains the same for all
observers, no matter how fast they are moving or how fast the light source
is moving
Key Consequences of Special Relativity
Time Dilation:​
Moving clocks run slower. A fast-moving object experiences time more
slowly compared to a stationary observer. This has been experimentally
verified using atomic clocks on aircraft and fast-moving particles.
Length Contraction:​
Objects moving at high speeds appear shortened along the direction of
motion to a stationary observer. However, this only becomes noticeable at
speeds close to the speed of light.
Relativity of Simultaneity:​
Events that appear to happen at the same time in one frame of reference
may occur at different times in another moving frame. This breaks the
classical idea of universal, absolute time.
Mass-Energy Equivalence (E = mc²):​
This famous equation shows that mass and energy are interchangeable. A
small amount of mass can be converted into a large amount of energy,
which is the basis of nuclear energy and particle physics.

Redshift and Blueshift – The Doppler Effect in Relativity

When a source of light moves relative to an observer, the light’s wavelength
shifts:
Redshift: Light shifts to longer wavelengths (toward the red end of the
spectrum) when the source moves away.
Blueshift: Light shifts to shorter wavelengths (toward the blue end of the
spectrum) when the source moves closer.
This phenomenon is essential in astronomy. Observations of redshift in
distant galaxies provide evidence for the expansion of the universe.

The Twin Paradox – A Thought Experiment

The Twin Paradox demonstrates the effects of time dilation. Imagine two
twins:
One stays on Earth, while the other travels through space at near-light
speeds.
Because of time dilation, the traveling twin ages more slowly.
When they reunite, the twin who traveled is younger than the one who
stayed on Earth.
The paradox arises because both twins could argue the other was moving.
But the resolution lies in the fact that the traveling twin undergoes
acceleration and deceleration, which breaks the symmetry.

Experimental Proof and Real-World Applications

Particle Accelerators: High-speed particles gain more energy instead of
simply moving faster.
GPS Systems: GPS satellites account for time dilation (from both special
and general relativity) to maintain accuracy.
Muon Decay: Muons generated by cosmic rays last longer than expected
due to time dilation.
Cosmological Redshift: Observing redshifted galaxies confirms the
universe’s expansion, supporting the Big Bang Theory.

General Relativity (1915)

In 1915, Einstein extended his theory to include gravity. General Relativity
redefines gravity as the curvature of space-time caused by mass and
energy, replacing the classical idea of gravity as a force.
The Principle of Equivalence
The core idea is that the effects of gravity and acceleration are
indistinguishable. If you’re in a sealed room, you wouldn’t be able to tell
whether you’re being pulled by gravity or accelerating in space. This led
Einstein to conclude that gravity is the result of space-time being warped by
mass and energy.

How Gravity Works: Space-Time Curvature

Imagine space-time as a flexible sheet. When a heavy object (like a planet
or star) sits on it, the sheet bends. Smaller objects follow these curves,
which is why they appear to be “attracted” to the massive object.
This concept is captured in Einstein’s Field Equations, which link the
amount of mass and energy to the curvature of space-time.

Key Predictions of General Relativity

Gravitational Time Dilation:​
Time moves slower in stronger gravitational fields. Atomic clock
experiments confirm this, and GPS systems account for this effect to
ensure accuracy.
Gravitational Lensing:​
Light bends around massive objects due to space-time curvature. This was
first observed during a solar eclipse in 1919 and is now used to study
distant galaxies and detect dark matter.
Perihelion Precession of Mercury:​
Mercury’s orbit shifts slightly due to the Sun’s space-time curvature.
Newton’s laws couldn’t fully explain this, but General Relativity matches the
observations perfectly.
Black Holes and Event Horizons:​
General Relativity predicts the existence of black holes — regions where
 gravity is so intense that not even light can escape. The event horizon
marks the point of no return.
Gravitational Waves:​
Ripples in space-time produced by accelerating massive objects, like
merging black holes or neutron stars. First detected by LIGO in 2015, these
waves opened a new window into the universe.
Experimental Proof and Applications of General Relativity
1919 Solar Eclipse Observations: Confirmed the bending of starlight
around the Sun.
GPS Corrections: Gravitational time dilation is accounted for in GPS
satellites.
Gravitational Wave Detection: LIGO and Virgo detectors have observed
gravitational waves from merging black holes.
Black Hole Imaging: The Event Horizon Telescope captured the first
image of a black hole’s event horizon in 2019.

BLACK HOLE Black holes are among the most extreme and mysterious objects in the
universe. They are regions of space where gravity is so intense that
nothing, not even light, can escape. Black holes are formed from the
collapse of massive stars and are described by Einstein’s General
Theory of Relativity, which predicts their extreme effects on spacetime.
Despite being invisible, black holes are detected through their influence on
surrounding matter and gravitational waves.
Formation of Black Holes
Black holes typically form when a massive star (more than ~25 times the
Sun’s mass) exhausts its nuclear fuel and undergoes a supernova
explosion. The outer layers are expelled, while the core collapses under its
own gravity. If the remaining mass exceeds the Tolman-
Oppenheimer-Volkoff limit (~2.5–3 solar masses), even neutron degeneracy
pressure cannot resist gravitational collapse. The core shrinks to an
infinitely small, dense point called a singularity, surrounded by the event
horizon—the boundary beyond which nothing can return.
Event Horizon: The Point of No Return
The event horizon is the spherical boundary of a black hole beyond which
the outer edge of a black hole, beyond which nothing, including light, can
escape. Anything that falls through the event horizon effectively disappears
from the universe. The radius of the event horizon is given by the
Schwarzschild radius (R = 2GM/c²), which depends on the black hole’s
mass. For example, a black hole with the Sun’s mass would have a
Schwarzschild radius of about 3 km. The event horizon is not a physical
surface but a boundary in spacetime, beyond which all paths curve inward.
General Relativity and Black Holes
Einstein’s General Theory of Relativity (1915) describes gravity as the
warping of spacetime by massive objects. A black hole represents an
extreme case where spacetime bends so sharply that all possible paths
lead inward. Solutions to Einstein’s equations describe different types of
black holes. Even though the idea of a “Dark Star” from which light cannot
escape had been proposed in 1783, it was thought to be impossible,
General Relativity explained how such an object be formed.
Interior of a Black Hole
Inside the event horizon, the known laws of physics break down. Matter
collapses toward the singularity, where density and gravitational forces
approach infinity. In classical physics, this is an unresolved problem, but
quantum gravity theories (yet to be confirmed) suggest singularities might
not be infinitely dense. The inner structure of a black hole remains one of
the biggest mysteries in modern physics.
Spaghettification
Due to the intense gravitational gradient near a black hole, an object falling
in experiences tidal forces that stretch it into a thin, elongated shape—an
effect known as spaghettification. This occurs because gravity at the feet of
an object falling into a black hole is much stronger than at the head,
causing extreme stretching and the extreme curvature of space near black
hole pushes the sides of the person toward each other. This fate awaits
anything crossing the event horizon of a stellar-mass black hole, but for
supermassive black holes, the tidal forces at the event horizon are weaker,
allowing objects to cross without immediate spaghettification.
Time Dilation Near a Black Hole
General relativity predicts that time slows down near a strong gravitational
field, an effect called gravitational time dilation. As an object approaches
the event horizon, an observer far away would see it moving increasingly
slowly, appearing to freeze at the event horizon due to the extreme warping
of spacetime. However, from the falling object’s perspective, it would
cross the event horizon normally. This phenomenon has been confirmed
experimentally near strong gravitational fields, such as around neutron
stars and black holes.
Astrophysical Black Holes
Black holes in nature exist in different mass ranges:
Stellar-Mass Black Holes (3–100 solar masses): Formed from collapsing
massive stars, often found in binary systems.
Intermediate-Mass Black Holes (100–100,000 solar masses): Rare and
possibly formed from mergers of smaller black holes or dense star clusters.
Supermassive Black Holes (Millions to Billions of Solar Masses): Located at
the centers of galaxies, such as Sagittarius A* at the center of the Milky
Way. These black holes likely formed through accretion of matter, mergers,
and collapse of massive gas clouds.
Detection of Black Holes
Since black holes do not emit light, they are detected through indirect
methods:
1. Gravitational Influence on Nearby Objects – Stars orbiting an unseen
massive object indicate the presence of a black hole. The motion of stars
around Sagittarius A* provided evidence for a supermassive black hole at
the Milky Way’s center..
2. Gravitational Waves from Mergers – When black holes collide, they
release ripples in spacetime called gravitational waves. The first detection
in 2015 by LIGO confirmed black hole mergers.
3. Event Horizon Imaging – The Event Horizon Telescope (EHT) captured
the first direct image of a black hole’s shadow in 2019, showing the
supermassive black hole in the M87 galaxy.