Bridge Loadings and design

Nominal loads are specified in Part 2 of BS 5400: 1978, together with values of the partial
safety factor γ fL, which are applied to the nominal loads to obtain the design loads. A design
load is obtained from each nominal load by multiplying the later by a partial safety factor.

Q=γ fL Q k

Loads to be considered

The code divides the nominal loads into two groups: namely, permanent, and transient (cl.
4.3).

Permanent loads: these are defined as dead loads, superimposed dead loads, loads due to
filling materials, differential settlement and loads derived from the nature of the structural
material. In the case of concrete bridges, the latter refers to shrinkage and creep of the
concrete.

Transient loads: all loads other than the permanent loads are referred to as transient loads.
These consists of wind loads, temperature loads, exceptional loads, erection loads, the
primary and secondary highway loadings, footway and cycle track loadings and the primary
and secondary railway loadings.

Primary highway and railway loadings are vertical live loads, whereas the secondary loadings
are the live loads due to changes in speed or direction. Hence the secondary highway loadings
include centrifugal, braking, skidding and collision loads; and the secondary railway loadings
include nosing, centrifugal, traction and braking loads.

Load combinations (cl. 4.4)

There are three principal (combinations 1 to 3) and two secondary (combinations 4 and 5)
combinations of load.

Combination 1: the loads to be considered are the permanent loads plus the appropriate
primary live loads for highway and foot way or cycle track bridges; or the permanent loads
plus the appropriate primary and secondary live loads for railway bridges.

Combination 2: the loads to be considered are those of combination 1 plus wind loading plus
erection loads when appropriate.

Combination 3: the loads to be considered are those of combination 1 plus those arising from
restraint of movements due to temperature range and differential temperature distributions
plus erection loads when appropriate.

Combination 4: this combination only applies to highway and footway or cycle tack bridges.
The loads to be considered for footway or cycle track bridges are the permanent loads plus
the secondary live loads of a vehicle colliding with a support.
Combination 5: the loads to be considered are the permanent loads plus the loads due to
friction at the bearings.

The values of the partial safety factor to be applied at the ultimate and serviceability limit
states for the various load combinations are given in Table 1 of the Code.

Application of loads
The general philosophy governing the application of the loads is that the worst effects of the
loads should be sought. In practice, this implies that the arrangement of the loads on the
bridge is dependent upon the load effect being considered. In addition, the code requires that,
when the most severe effect on a structural element can be diminished by the presence of a
load on a certain portion of the structure, then the load is considered to act with its least
possible magnitude. In the case of dead loads this entails applying a γ fL value of 1.0.

Influence lines are frequently used in bridge design and it can be seen that superimposed dead
load, and live load should be applied to the adverse parts of an influence line and not to
relieving parts. It is not intended that parts of parts of influence lines should be loaded.

Highway carriageways and lanes

Carriageway: the carriageway is defined as the traffic lanes plus shoulders plus strips plus
marker strips. If raised kerbs are present, the carriageway width is the distance between the
raised kerbs.

Traffic lane: the lanes marked on the running surface of the bridge are referred to as traffic
lanes. However, the traffic lanes in the Code have no significance in deciding how live load is
applied to the bridge.

Notional lanes: these are notional parts of the carriageway which are used solely for applying
the highway loading. They are equivalent to the traffic lanes, and they are determined in an
analogous manner, although the actual numerical values are a little different for some
carriageway widths.

Permanent loads
Dead loads: the nominal loads will generally be calculated from the usual assumed values for
the specific weights of the materials. When such assumed values are used it is necessary, at
the limit state, to adopt γ fL values of 1.1 for steel and 1.2 for concrete rather than the values of
1.05 and 1.15 respectively given in Clause 5.1.2. It is thus envisaged that in general the larger
γ fL values will be adopted for design purposes.

Superimposed dead loads: the partial safety factor given in the code for superimposed dead
load appears to be rather large. The reason for this is to allow for the fact that bridge decks
are often resurfaced, with the result that the actual superimposed dead load can be much
greater than that assumed at the design stage.

Transient loads
Wind: the clauses on wind loading are based upon model tests carried out at the National
Physical Laboratory and which have been reported. The code suggests that wind loading does
not have to be applied to the superstructure of a beam and slab or slab bridge having a span
less than 20 m and a width greater than 10 m. The maximum wind gust speed and the
minimum wind gust speed are then calculated for the cases of live load both on and off the
bridge.

Temperature: there are two aspects of temperature loading to be considered; namely the
restraint to the overall bridge movement due to temperature range and the effects of
temperature differences through the depth of the bridge.

Temperature range – the temperature range for a particular bridge is obtained by first
determining the maximum and minimum shade air temperature, for the location of the bridge,
from isotherms plotted on maps. The minimum and maximum effective bridge temperatures
can be obtained from tables which relate shade air temperature to effective bridge
temperature. The effective bridge temperatures are dependent upon the depth of surfacing and
a correction has to be made if this differs from the 100 mm assumed for concrete bridges
(Table 12, BS 5400: 2).

When designing expansion joints, the movement to be accommodated is calculated in terms

of the expansion from a datum effective bridge temperature, at the time the joint is installed,
up to the maximum effective bridge temperature. The resulting movements are taken as the
nominal values, which have to be multiplied by the γ fL values. The coefficient of thermal
expansion for concrete is given as 12 x 10 -6/°C, except for limestone aggregate concrete when
it is 7 x 10-6/°C.

Temperature differences: due to diurnal variations in solar radiation and the relatively small
thermal conductivity of concrete, severe non-linear vertical temperature differences occur
through the depth of a bridge. Two distributions of such differences are given in BS 5400: 2
Figure 9. The temperature differences depend on the depth of concrete in the bridge. One of
the contributions is for positive temperature differences and is appropriate when there is a
heat gain through the top surface; and the other is for negative temperature differences and is
appropriate when there is a heat loss from the top surface.

Primary highway loading

The primary effects of highway loading are the vertical loads due to the mass of the traffic
and are considered as static loads. The standard highway loading consists of normal (HA)
loading and abnormal (HB) loading. Both of these loadings are deemed to include an
allowance for impact.

HA loading (cl. 6.2)

HA loading is a formula loading which is intended to represent normal actual vehicle loading.
The HA loading consists of either, a uniformly distributed load plus a knife edge load or a
single wheel load.

Uniformly distributed load: the uniformly distributed component of HA loading is 30 kN per

linear meter of traffic lane for loaded length (L) up to 30 m and is given as
 ()
0.475
1
W =151 but not less than 9
L

Where W is the load per meter of lane (in kN). Values of this load per linear meter of notional
lane are given in Table 13 and the loading curve in Figure 10.

Loaded length: the loaded length is the length of the base of the positive or negative portion
of the influence line for a particular effect at the design point under consideration. Thus, for a
single span member, the loaded length for the span moment is the span.

Knife edge load (Cl. 6.2.2): it is emphasized that the knife edge part of HA loading is not
intended to represent a heavy axle, but is merely a device to enable the same uniformly
distributed loading to be used to simulate the shearing and bending effects of actual vehicle
loading. The code value is 120 kN per notional lane. The load per meter is always obtained
by dividing by notional lane width and is thus in the range 31.6 to 52.2 kN/m.

HB loading (cl. 6.3)

HB loading is intended to represent an abnormally heavy vehicle. The nominal loading

consists of a single vehicle with 16 wheels arranged on four axles. The nominal HB loading
is specified in terms of units of loading, with one unit equivalent to a total vehicle weight of
40 kN. The number of units for all roads can vary from 25 to 45.

Example

Design a simply supported reinforced concrete bridge deck slab using a unit strip method.
The deck carries a 100 mm depth of surfacing together with a normal HA live load uniformly
distributed load of 17.5 kN/m2 and knife edge load of 33 kN/m. The deck should also be
designed to carry 30 units of HB load. The span of the deck is 12.0 m center to center of
bearings.

−3
γ conc =25 kN m

use C 3 2/40 concrete∧high yield strength steel

REF: BS 8500-1
CL. A.2.1 Table Exposure class XD1 used for bridge deck soffits
A.1
Cl/.A.3 Fixing tolerance for reinforcement ∆ c =15 mm for in-situ concrete
Table A.5 Nominal cover for C30/40 concrete ¿ 45+ ∆ c=60 mm with maximum w/c
ratio = 0.55 and minimum cement content of 320 kg/m3
Loading Per meter width of the deck (unit strip)
Nominal dead loads
−1
deck slab=25∗0.65∗1.0=16.3 kN m
−1
surfacing=24∗0.1∗1.0=2.4 kN m
BS 5400:2-1978 Nominal live load
−1
Cl. 6.3.1 HA=17.5∗1.0+33.0=17.5 kN m
30∗10
30 units HB= per wheel=75 kN per wheel
4
Load factors for sls and uls from BS 5400:2 Table 1
SLS ULS
Comb 1 Comb 3 Comb 1 Comb 3
Dead load γ fl concrete 1.0 1.0 1.15 1.15
Superimpose γ fl surfacing 1.2 1.2 1.75 1.75
d dead load
Live load γ fl HA 1.2 1.0 1.5 1.25
γ fl HB 1.1 1.0 1.3 1.1
Temp diff. γ fl - 0.8 - 1.0

Cl. 5.4 Temperature difference effects

Coefficient of thermal expansion = 12 x 10-6 per °C
2 −2
BS 5400:4 Table Ec =31k N /m m for f cu=40 N mm
3 Hence restrained temperature stresses per °C
3 −6 −2
¿ 31∗1 0 ∗12∗1 0 =0.372 N mm
Table 9 Section properties
6 2
Area=1000∗650=0.65∗1 0 mm
3
1000∗650 9 4
I= =22.9∗1 0 m m
12

(a) Positive temperature difference

Force, F to restrain temperature strain
0.372∗10 ∗[ 150∗( 3.0+5.05 ) + ( 195∗1.5 ) + ( 195∗1.05 ) ]∗1 0
3 −3

¿ 634.2 kN
Taking moments about centroid of section to determine required moment
M to restrain curvature due to temperature strain
0.372∗10 ∗[ 150∗( 3.0∗250+5.05∗275 )+ 175∗( 0.3∗87.5+ 1.35∗116.7 )− (20∗0.15∗6.7 )−
3

¿ 111.5 kNm
 (b) Reverse temperature difference
Force, F to restrain temperature strain
−0.372∗1 0 ∗[ 130∗( 1.8+2.5+1.5+1.9 )+ 163∗( 0.9+ 0.75 ) ]∗1 0
3 −3

¿−472.4 kN

Taking moments about centroid of section to determine required moment

M to restrain curvature due to temperature strain
−0.372∗1 0 ∗[ 130∗( 1.8∗260+2.5∗282−1.5∗260−1.9∗282 ) +163∗( 0.9∗141−0.75∗141
3

¿−13.3 kNm

Dead + superimposed dead loading per meter width of deck

Cl. 4.2.3 design sls moment =∑ ( γ fl∗M )
γ f 3 additional [ ( 1.0∗16.3 )+ (1.2∗2.4 ) ]∗122
factor ¿ =345 kNm
8
design uls moment=γ f 3 ∑ ( γ fl∗M )

¿ 1.1∗[ { (1.15∗16.3 ) + ( 1.75∗2.4 ) }∗122

8 ]
= 454 kNm
Live loading per meter width of deck
 2
17.5∗12 33∗12
Nominal HA mid span moment= + =414 kNm
8 4
Taking max moment for HB vehicle occurs at point x in the diagram below
with the vehicle positioned as shown

Rb∗12=75∗11.3+75∗5.3+75∗3.5
Rb =125.625 kN
Nominal HB as X ¿ 99.4∗5.3−75∗1.8=392 kNm
Combination Design HA SLS moment=γ fl∗M =1.2∗414=497 kNm
1 loading Design HB SLS moment=γ fl∗M =1.1∗392=431 kNm
Therefore, HA loading critical
Total design SLS moment (Dead + live) = 345 + 497 = 842 kNm
Design HA ULS moment=γ f 3 + γ fl ∗M =1.1∗1.5∗414=683 kNm
Design HB ULS moment=γ f 3 +γ fl∗M =1.1∗1.3∗392=561 kNm
Therefore, HA loading critical
Total design ULS moment (Dead + live) = 454 + 683 = 1137 kNm
Combination Design HA SLS moment=γ fl∗M =1.0∗414=414 kNm
3 loading Design HB SLS moment=γ fl∗M =1.0∗392=392 kNm
Therefore, HA loading critical
Total design SLS moment (Dead + live) = 345 + 414 = 759 kNm
Design HA ULS moment=γ f 3 + γ fl ∗M =1.1∗1.25∗414=569 kNm
Design HB ULS moment=γ f 3 +γ fl∗M =1.1∗1.1∗392=474 kNm
Therefore, HA loading critical
Total design ULS moment (Dead + live) = 454 + 569 = 1023 kNm
Ultimate Ultimate design moment=1137 kNm
capacity of
slab deck

BS 5400:4, cl It is usual to design reinforced concrete for the ULS and check for
5.1.2.1 serviceability conditions
Cl 5.4.2 Use clause 5.3.2 for the resistance moments in slabs
Cl 5.3.2.3 Try 32 mm dia. reinforcement at 125 mm centers
Nominal cover to reinforcement is deck soffit = 60 mm
d=650−60−32/2=574 mm
2 2 −1
A s=π 1 6 ∗1000/125=6434 m m m
−2
f y =500 Nm m
−2
f cu=40 Nm m

[
z= 1−
]
1.1 f y A s
f cu bd
d
 [
z= 1−
1.1∗500∗6434
40∗1000∗574 ] d=0.85 d < 0.95 d
∴ z=0.85∗574=488 mm
M usteel =0.87 f y A s z
−6 −1
¿ 0.87∗500∗6434∗488∗1 0 =1366 kNm m
2
M uconc=0.15 f cu b d
2 −6 −1
¿ 0.15∗40∗1000∗57 4 ∗1 0 =1977 kNm m >1366
∴ M uconc 1366 >1137, OK
Check Combination 1 SLS Design moment = 842 (345DL + 497LL)
serviceability Determine depth X to neutral axis of cracked section:
limit state
Cl 4.3.2.1 Young’s modulus for concrete for short term loading = Ec =31kNm m−2
Table 3
Cl 4.3.2.2 Young’s modulus for steel reinforcement = E s=200 kNm m−2
Case 1 When the bridge has just opened (when only a small amount of creep has
occurred)
modular ratio=E s /E c =200/31=6.45
Taking first moment of area about the neutral axis
2
1000∗x
=6.45∗6434∗( 574−x )
2
2 6
500 x + 41510 x−23.83∗10 =0
x=177 mm
Second moment of area of cracked section
3
1000∗177 2 9 4
I xx = + 6.45∗6434∗( 574−177 ) =8.39∗1 0 mm
3
6
Cl 4.1.1.3 0 ∗172 −2
Table 2 Max compressive stress in concrete ¿ 842∗1 9
=17.8 N mm
8.39∗10
Allowable compressive stress = 0.5 f cu=20 N mm−2> 17.8∴ OK
Therefore Y32 bars at 125 centers are adequate for the mid span
Shear design
Cl 5.4.4 Shear is designed for ultimate limit state
V =shear force due ¿ultimate loads
γ ∗12∗(1.15∗16.3+1.75∗2.4 )
max dead load V = f 3
2
max dead load V =1.1∗137.7 kN =151 kN
Try 32 mm dia. bars at 125 c/c: d = 574mm
Max HA V =γ f 3∗1.5∗( 12∗17.5/2+33∗11.426 /12−17.5∗0.574 )
Max HA V =1.1∗190=209 kN
Max HB V =γ f 3∗1.3∗75∗( 11.426+ 9.626+3.626+ 1.826 ) /12
Max HB V =1.1∗215=237 kN > 209∴ HB loading critical
maximum V =151+ 237=388 kN
3
V 388∗10 −2
shear stress= = =0.68 Nm m
bd 1000∗574
Design for no shear reinforcement condition then ε s v c >0.68 Nm m−2

( ) ( )
1 1
Table 9 500 4 500 4
ε s= = =0.97
d 574
 ( )
1
Table 8 0.27 100 A s 3 1/ 3
vc=
γm bd
( f cu )

( )
1/ 3
0.27 100∗6434 ( )1 /3 −2
vc= 40 =0.77 Nm m
1.25 1000∗574
−2
ε s v c =0.97∗0.77=0.75 Nm m >0.68 ∴ OK
Cl 5.3.3.1 Check that the minimum allowable shear stress is not exceeded:
Max allowable shear stress ¿ 0.75 √ f cu∨4.75 Nm m−2
0.75 √ f cu=0.75 √ 40=4.74 >0.68 ∴ OK
Therefore Y32 bars are adequate for shear at the ends of the deck
Cl 5.8.4.1 Min area of reinforcement
0.15 %bd
2 −1
¿ 0.15 %∗1000∗574=861 mm m
Therefore use Y12 @ 125 c/c for distribution bars ( A s=905 m m2 m−1
1.2 Retaining Walls
A retaining wall is a structure built for the purpose of holding back, or retaining or providing
one-sided lateral confinement of soil or other loose material. The loose material being
retained pushes against the wall, tending to overturn and slide it. Retaining walls are used in
many design situations where there are abrupt changes in the ground slope. The three forces
involved in all retaining walls that must be considered in equilibrium are (1) the gravity loads
of the concrete wall and any soil on top of the footing (2) the lateral pressure from the soil
and (3) the bearing resistance of the soil.

Types of retaining walls

Retaining walls are generally classified as being gravity or cantilever types, with several
variations possible.

The gravity retaining wall: is used for walls of up to about 3 m height. It is usually
constructed with plain concrete and depends completely on its weight for stability against
sliding and overturning.