CORE118 – General Mathematics

READING MATERIAL
Topic 2
1st Semester, SY 2024-2025

2.2 | RATIONAL EQUATIONS, INEQUALITIES, FUNCTIONS, & THEIR

APPLICATIONS
LEARNING COMPETENCIES:
The learners are able to:
a. represent rational functions through its table of values, graph, and
equation;
b. determine the intercepts, zeroes, and asymptotes of rational function;
c. find the domain and range of a rational function; and
d. solve problems involving rational functions.

RATIONAL FUNCTIONS
A rational function is a function that is the quotient of polynomial functions where the denominator must not be
equal to zero. In symbols, if
𝑝(𝑥)
𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑞(𝑥)
where 𝑝 and 𝑞 are polynomial functions and 𝑞(𝑥) ≠ 0, then 𝑓 is a rational function.

The domain of any rational function consists of all the real numbers 𝑥 except for which the denominator is 0. While
the range of the rational function is the set of all values that 𝑓(𝑥) will take.

Example 1:
Suppose you need to drive to a certain tourist spot 200 kilometers away. Upon arrival, you are to spend 3 hours
at the site before driving back. Assuming that you are to drive to and from the tourist spot with exactly the same
constant speed. How much time would the entire trip take if you traveled at 1kph? 2kph? 4kph? 10kph? 20kph?
50 kph?

Solution:
Organize the data on the table as follow:
Speed (in kph) 1 4 10 20 50 100
Total time (in hrs.)

We will apply the formula for computing speed,

𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒(𝑑)
𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 (𝑠) =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒(𝑡)
In the given situation, the total time depends on how fast you travel. Therefore, using the equation above, we
need to solve for 𝑡
𝑑
𝑠=
𝑡
𝑑
𝑡=
𝑠
Note that on the situation above 𝑑 is always 200. We also need to consider the number of hours spent at the
tourist spot. Hence, the equation will be:
200
𝑡= +3
𝑠
Finally, since the situation above tells us that the total time spent on the entire trip is a function of the speed, we
rewrite our equation as:
200
𝑓(𝑠) = +3
𝑠

If the speed is 1 kph If the speed is 4 kph If the speed is 10 kph

200 200 200
𝑓(1) = +3 𝑓(4) = +3 𝑓(10) = +3
1 4 10
𝑓(1) = 203 𝑓(4) = 53 𝑓(10) = 23
If the speed is 20 kph If the speed is 50 kph If the speed is 100 kph
200 200 200
𝑓(20) = +3 𝑓(50) = +3 𝑓(100) = +3
20 50 100
𝑓(20) = 13 𝑓(50) = 7 𝑓(100) = 5

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CORE118 – General Mathematics
READING MATERIAL
Topic 2
1st Semester, SY 2024-2025

The table of values will be:

Speed (in kph) 1 4 10 20 50 100
Total time (in hrs) 203 53 23 13 7 5

With the aid of the graphing calculator we can simple graph the function
200
𝑓(𝑠) = +3
𝑠

Example 2:
−2𝑥+5
Represent the rational function given by 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥+6 using a table of values and plot a graph of the function by
connecting points.

Solution:
Let us construct a table of values form some 𝑥-values from −10 to 10:
𝑥 -10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10
𝑔(𝑥)

Evaluate the function using the values on the table above. Some of the computations are as follows:
If 𝑥 = −10 If 𝑥 = −4
−2(−10) + 5 −2(−4) + 5
𝑔(−10) = = −6.25 𝑔(−4) = = 6.5
(−10) + 6 (−4) + 6
If 𝑥 = 0 If 𝑥 = 8
−2(0) + 5 −2(8) + 5
𝑔(0) = = 0.83 𝑔(8) = = −0.79
(0) + 6 (8) + 6

Thus, the completed table of values will be:

𝑥 -10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10
𝑔(𝑥) -6.25 -10.5 undefined 6.5 2.25 0.83 0.125 -0.3 -0.58 -0.79 -0.94

Plotting and connecting the points on the Cartesian plane, we have

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CORE118 – General Mathematics
READING MATERIAL
Topic 2
1st Semester, SY 2024-2025

One possible mistake that you might have made here is connecting the points A (4,6.5) and B (−10, −6.25).
Observe that on the table of values, that function will be undefined at 𝑥 = −6. This means that there cannot be
a line connecting the points A and B. Try to add more 𝑥-values and connect the points such as 𝑥 =
−2𝑥+5
−25, −15, −11, 15,20, and 30. Therefore, the graph of 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥+6 will be:

For each function, 𝑓 and 𝑔, the graph appears to “avoid” a certain vertical and/or horizontal line. Since this was not
immediately evident, let us mark this with a dashed line, but remember that the dashed line is not part of the graph
itself.
200 −2𝑥 + 5
𝑓(𝑠) = +3 𝑔(𝑥) =
𝑠 𝑥+6

The dashed lines, also known as broken lines, are called asymptotes.

An asymptote is an imaginary line (or a curve) where the graph of the function approaches but does not touch. In
any rational function, these are the values for which function is undefined. Algebraically, these are the exclusions
from the domain and/or range of the rational function.

There are three types of asymptotes: vertical, horizontal, and slant asymptotes. The graph of rational function can
contain any of the three asymptotes. Always remember that the graph of any rational function 𝑛𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟 intersects or
crosses a vertical asymptote, but it 𝑐𝑎𝑛 intersect a horizontal or a slant asymptote.
The vertical line 𝒙 = 𝒂 is a vertical asymptote of the function 𝑓 if the graph of 𝑓 either increases or decreases
without bound as the x-values approach 𝒂 from the left or right.
✓ To find the vertical asymptote/s, equate the denominator to zero and then solve for the value/s of 𝑥.
Algebraically, the vertical asymptotes are the exclusions from the domain of the function.
The horizontal line 𝒚 = 𝒃 is a horizontal asymptote of the function 𝑓 if 𝑓(𝑥) gets closer to 𝒃 as 𝑥 increases or
decreases without bound.
✓ To find the horizontal asymptote/s, let 𝑛 be the degree (highest exponent of the variable) of the numerator
and 𝑚 be the degree of the denominator
a. If 𝑛 < 𝑚, then the horizontal asymptote is 𝑦 = 0.
𝑎
b. If 𝑛 = 𝑚, then the horizontal asymptote is 𝑦 = 𝑏 𝑛 , where a is the leading coefficient of the numerator
𝑚
and b is the leading coefficient of the denominator.
c. If 𝑛 > 𝑚, there is no horizontal asymptote, BUT there is a slant asymptote. To find the slant asymptote,
divide the numerator by the denominator using either long division or synthetic division. The slant
asymptote is the polynomial part of the quotient.
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CORE118 – General Mathematics
READING MATERIAL
Topic 2
1st Semester, SY 2024-2025

A slant asymptote, also known as an oblique asymptote is an asymptote along a line 𝒚 = 𝒎𝒙 + 𝒃, where 𝑚 ≠ 0.
It occurs when the degree of the denominator of a rational function is one less than the degree of the numerator.

Another important concept that you have to remember in graphing any type of function, which is also applicable in
rational function, are zeros and intercepts.
• The zeros of the function are the values of 𝑥 which makes the function zero. The real-number zeros are
also the 𝒙-intercepts of the graph of the function.
• Intercepts are the points at which a graph crosses the x-axis or y-axis.
➢ y-intercept is the point where the graph crosses the y-axis. To find the y-intercept/s set 𝑥 = 0 and
solve for 𝑦.
➢ x-intercept is the point where the graph crosses the x-axis. To find the x-intercept/s set 𝑦 = 0 and
solve for 𝑥.

Example 3:
3𝑥 2 −2𝑥+4
Find the vertical, horizontal, and oblique asymptotes (if any) for 𝑓(𝑥) = .
𝑥 2 −4𝑥+3

Solution:
• Solving for the vertical asymptotes, we set 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 3 = 0 and solve for 𝑥.
𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 3 = 0
(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 3) = 0
𝑥−1=0 𝑥−3=0
𝑥=1 𝑥=3
Answer:
The equation has two real solutions, 𝑥 = 1 and 𝑥 = 3. Since 𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 3 ≠ 0 at 𝑥 = 1 and 𝑥 = 3,
then the vertical asymptotes of the rational function are 𝑥 = 1 and 𝑥 = 3.

• The degree of the numerator is 2; the degree of the numerator is also 2. Since the degree of the
𝑎 3
numerator and the denominator are equal, then the graph of 𝑓 has the line 𝑦 = 𝑏 𝑛 = 1 = 3 as its horizontal
𝑚
asymptote.
Answer:
The horizontal asymptote is 𝑦 = 3.

• Answer:
Since the degree of the numerator and the denominator are equal, therefore, the rational function does
not contain any oblique asymptote.

Example 4:
Find the domain and range, intercepts, zeroes, asymptotes, and sketch the graph of
𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 3
𝑓(𝑥) = 2
𝑥 − 2𝑥 − 8
Solution:
Step 1: Find the vertical asymptotes. Equate the denominator to zero and solve for the value of 𝑥.
𝑥2 − 2𝑥 − 8 = 0
(𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 − 4) = 0
𝑥 + 2 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 − 4 = 0
𝑥 = −2 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 4

Step 2: Find the horizontal asymptotes. Compare the degree of the numerator and the denominator.
The degree of the numerator is 2; the degree of the denominator is 2. Since the degree of the numerator
and the denominator are equal, we have to get the ratio of the leading coefficients of both numerator and
1
denominator which is 1. Hence, the horizontal asymptote is 𝑦 = 1 or 𝑦 = 1.

Step 3: Find the intercepts.

𝑦 −intercept 𝑥 −intercept
Let 𝑥 = 0 Let 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = 0
(0)2 − 2(0) − 3 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 3
𝑓(0) = 0=
(0)2 − 2(0) − 8 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 8
−3 𝑥2 − 2𝑥 − 3
𝑓(0) = (𝑥2 − 2𝑥 − 8)(0) = ( 2 ) (𝑥2 − 2𝑥 − 8)
−8 𝑥 − 2𝑥 − 8
3
𝑓(0) = 0 = 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 3
8 0 = (𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 + 1)
3
The 𝑦 −intercept is (0, 8). 𝑥 − 3 = 0 and 𝑥 + 1 = 0
𝑥 = 3 and 𝑥 = −1
The 𝑥 −intercept are (3,0) and (−1,0).
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CORE118 – General Mathematics
READING MATERIAL
Topic 2
1st Semester, SY 2024-2025

Step 4: Plot the points.

Since we only have three points on the graph, we need to consider some points, such as 𝑥 −values less than 2
and 𝑥 −values greater than 4. We need to construct a table of values.

𝑥 −8 −6 −4 −3 −2.5 4.5 5 6 8
𝑓(𝑥) 1.07 1.13 1.3 1.7 2.54 2.54 1.7 1.3 1.13

Step 5: Sketch the graph. The graph of the function will be:

Step 6: Identify the domain and range.

a. Domain: The function is undefined when 𝑥 = −2 and 𝑥 = 4. Thus,
𝐷 = {𝑥|𝑥 ∈ ℝ, 𝑥 ≠ −2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ≠ 4} or (−∞, −2) ∪ (−2,4) ∪ (4, ∞)
b. Range: Since no input value will result to 𝑓(𝑥) = 1, then,
𝑅 = {𝑦|𝑦 ∈ ℝ, 𝑦 ≠ 1} or (−∞, 1) ∪ (1, ∞)

Example 5:
Find the domain and range, intercepts, zeroes, asymptotes, and sketch the graph of
𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 2
𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥−1

Solution:
Step 1: Find the vertical asymptotes. Equate the denominator to zero and solve for the value of 𝑥.
𝑥−1=0
𝑥=1

Step 2: Find the horizontal asymptotes. Compare the degree of the numerator and the denominator.
The degree of the numerator is 2; the degree of the denominator is 1. Since the degree of the numerator
is 1 greater than the degree of the denominator, thus, there will be a slant asymptote. Let us perform synthetic
division.

The slant asymptote is 𝑦 = 𝑥 − 1.

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CORE118 – General Mathematics
READING MATERIAL
Topic 2
1st Semester, SY 2024-2025

Step 3: Find the intercepts.

𝑦 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 𝑥 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡
Let 𝑥 = 0 Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 0
(0)2 − 2(0) + 2 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 2
𝑓(0) = 0=
(0) − 1 𝑥−1
2 𝑥2 − 2𝑥 + 2
𝑓(0) = (𝑥 − 1)(0) = ( ) (𝑥 − 1)
−1 𝑥−1
𝑓(0) = −2
0 = 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 2
The 𝑦 −intercept is (0, −2)
To find the roots, use Quadratic Formula
−𝑏 ± √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐
𝑥=
2𝑎
𝑎 = 1, 𝑏 = −2 and 𝑐 = 2
−(−2) ± √(−2)2 − 4(1)(2)
𝑥=
2(1)
2 ± √−4
𝑥=
2
Since the radicand is a negative number (-4), there will
be no 𝑥 −intercept.

Step 4: Plot the points. Initially we have vertical asymptote at 𝑥 = 1, slant asymptote with an equation 𝑦 = 𝑥 − 1
and 𝑦 −intercept (0, −2).

Considering the graph above, we have to check for some more values on the graph such as 𝑥 =
−6, −4, −2, 0.5, 2,4, 8, and 20. The table of values will be:
𝑥 −6 −4 −2 0.5 2 4 8 20
𝑓(𝑥) −7.1 −5.2 −3.33 −2.5 2 3.33 7.1 19.1

Step 5: Sketch the graph.

Step 6: Identify the domain and range.

a. The domain of the function is the set of all real number except 𝑥 = 1 (the vertical asymptote)
(−∞, 1) ∪ (1, ∞)
b. Since the highest point of the graph below the x-axis is (0, −2) and the lowest point of the graph above
the x-axis is (2,2). Therefore the range of the function is:
(−∞, −2) ∪ (2, ∞)
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CORE118 – General Mathematics
READING MATERIAL
Topic 2
1st Semester, SY 2024-2025

Example 6:
A utility company burns coal to generate electricity. The cost 𝐶 of removing 𝑝% of the smokestack pollutants is
900,000𝑝
given by 𝐶 = 100−𝑝 for 0 ≤ 𝑝 < 100. You are a member of the legislature considering a law that would require
utility companies to remove 90% of the pollutants from their smokestack emissions. The current law requires
85% removal. How much additional cost would the utility company incur as a result of the new law?

Solution:
The current law requires 85% removal, the current cost of the utility company is given by
900,000(85)
𝐶= = 5,100,000
100 − 85

If the new law increases the percent removal to 90%, the cost will be
900,000(90)
𝐶= = 8,100,000
100 − 90

We now subtract 85% removal cost from 90% removal cost.

8,100,000 − 5,100,000 = 3,000,000

Answer:
Therefore, the new law would require the utility company to spend an additional ₱3,000,000.

Activity 2.2.1
Sketch the graph the following rational functions and find the following:
(a) vertical asymptote/s, (b) horizontal asymptote/s, (c) oblique
asymptote, (d) x-intercept/s, (e) y-intercept/s, (f) domain, and (g) range.
𝑥 2 −2𝑥−3 2
1. 𝑓(𝑥) = 2. 𝑚(𝑥) = (𝑥−2)2
𝑥−1
2𝑥−1 𝑥−7
3. 𝑔(𝑥) = 4. 𝑙(𝑥) =
𝑥+3 2𝑥
𝑥
5. ℎ(𝑥) = 𝑥2 −𝑥−6

Reference:
• Gabuyo, Y., (2019) General Mathematics. Quezon City, Philippines: The Inteligente Publishing Inc.
• Oronce, O., (2016) General Mathematics, REX Book Store
• Sirug, W. (2016). Pre-Calculus for Senior High School – STEM Specialized Subject. Manila, Philippines:
Mindshapers Co., Inc.

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CORE118 – General Mathematics
READING MATERIAL
Topic 2
1st Semester, SY 2024-2025

Answer to Activity 2.2.1

𝑥 2 −2𝑥−3 2
1. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥−1 2. 𝑚(𝑥) = (𝑥−2)2
a. 𝑥=1 a. 𝑥=2
b. 𝑛𝑜𝑛𝑒 b. 𝑦=0
c. 𝑦 =𝑥−1 c. 𝑛𝑜𝑛𝑒
d. (3,0) & (−1,0) d. 𝑛𝑜𝑛𝑒
e. (0,3) 1
e. (0, 2 )
f. 𝐷 = {𝑥|𝑥 ∈ ℝ, 𝑥 ≠ 1}
f. 𝐷 = {𝑥|𝑥 ∈ ℝ, 𝑥 ≠ 2}
g. 𝑅 = {𝑦|𝑦 ∈ ℝ}
g. 𝑅 = {𝑦|𝑦 > 0}
2𝑥−1 𝑥−7
3. 𝑔(𝑥) = 4. 𝑙(𝑥) = 2𝑥
𝑥+3
a. 𝑥 = −3 a. 𝑥=0
1
b. 𝑦=2 b. 𝑦=2
c. 𝑛𝑜𝑛𝑒
1
c. 𝑛𝑜𝑛𝑒
d. (2 , 0) d. (7,0)
e.
1
(0, − 3) e. 𝑛𝑜𝑛𝑒
f. {𝑥|𝑥 ∈ ℝ, 𝑥 ≠ 0}
f. 𝐷 = {𝑥|𝑥 ∈ ℝ, 𝑥 ≠ −3} 1
g. 𝑅 = {𝑦|𝑦 ∈ ℝ, 𝑦 ≠ 2} g. {𝑦|𝑦 ∈ ℝ, 𝑦 ≠ }
2
𝑥
5. ℎ(𝑥) = 𝑥2 −𝑥−6 For the accurate graph of each functions,
a. 𝑥 = 3, 𝑥 = −2 refer to the link below:
b. 𝑦=0 https://www.desmos.com/calculator/x1iuyyl3j5
c. 𝑛𝑜𝑛𝑒
d. (0,0)
e. (0,0)
f. {𝑥|𝑥 ∈ ℝ, 𝑥 ≠ −2,3}
g. {𝑦|𝑦 ∈ ℝ}

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