Advantage of Interconnection of Generating Stations

The power system consists two or more generating stations which are connected by tie lines.
Interconnection of generating stations has the following important advantages.

1. It enables the mutual transfer of energy from surplus zone to deficit zone economically.
2. Lesser overall installed capacity to meet the peak demand.

3. Lesser standby reserve generating capacity is required.

4. It permits the generation of energy at the most efficient and cheapest station at every time.

5. It reduces the capital cost, operating cost and cost of energy generated.

6. If there is a major breakdown of a generating system unit in an interconnected system, then

there is no interruption of power supply.

The interconnection provides the best use of power resources and greater security of supply. It
enables overall economic generation by optimum use of the high capacity economical generating
plant. The interconnection between network is done either by HVAC (high voltage alternating
current) links or through HVDC (High Voltage Direct Current) links

Power System
Definition: The power system is a network which consists generation, distribution and
transmission system. It uses the form of energy (like coal and diesel) and converts it into
electrical energy. The power system includes the devices connected to the system like
the synchronous generator, motor, transformer, circuit breaker, conductor, etc.

The power plant, transformer, transmission line, substations, distribution line, and distribution
transformer are the six main components of the power system.The power plant generates the
power which is step-up or step-down through the transformer for transmission.

Structure of Power System

The power system is the complex enterprise that may be subdivided into the following sub-
systems.The subsystems of the power system are explained below in details.

Generating Substation
In generating station the fuel (coal, water, nuclear energy, etc.) is converted into electrical energy.
The electrical power is generated in the range of 11kV to 25kV, which is step-up for long distance
transmission. The power plant of the generating substation is mainly classified into three types, i.e.,
thermal power plant, hydropower plant and nuclear power plant.
 The generator and the transformer are the main components of the generating station. The generator
converts the mechanical energy into electrical energy. The mechanical energy comes from the
burning of coal, gas and nuclear fuel, gas turbines, or occasionally the internal combustion engine.

The transformer transfers the power with very high efficiency from one level to another. The power
transfer from the secondary is approximately equal to the primary except for losses in the
transformer. The step-up transformer will reduce losses in the line which makes the transmission of
power over long distances.

Transmission Substation
The transmission substation carries the overhead lines which transfer the generated electrical energy
from generation to the distribution substations. It only supplies the large bulk of power to bulk power
substations or very big consumers.

The transmission lines mainly perform the two functions

1. It transports the energy from generating stations to bulk receiving stations.

2. It interconnects the two or more generating stations.The neighbouring substations are also
interconnected through the transmission lines.

The transmission voltage is operating at more than 66kv and is standardised at 69kv, 115KV,
138KV, 161KV, 230KV, 345KV, 500KV, and 765KV, line-to-line. The transmission line above
230KV is usually referred to as extra high voltage (EHV).

The high voltage line is terminated in substations which are called high voltage substations, receiving
substations or primary substations. In high voltage substation, the voltage is step-down to a suitable
value for the next part of flow toward the load. The very large industrial consumers may be served
directly to the transmission system.

Sub-transmission Substation
The portion of the transmission system that connects the high voltage substations through the step-
down transformer to the distribution substations is called the sub-transmission system.

The sub-transmission voltage level ranges from 90 to 138KV. The sub-transmission system directly
serves some large industries. The capacitor and reactor are located in the substations for maintaining
the transmission line voltage.

The operation of the sub-transmission system is similar to that of a distribution system. Its differ
from a distribution system in the following manner.

1. A sub-transmission system has a higher voltage level than a distribution system.

2. It supplies only bigger loads.

3. It supplies only a few substations as compared to a distribution system which supplies some
loads.

Distribution Substation
The component of an electrical power system connecting all the consumers in an area to the bulk
power sources is called a distribution system.The bulk power stations are connected to the generating
substations by transmission lines. They feed some substations which are usually situated at
convenient points near the load centres.

The substations distribute the power to the domestic, commercial and relatively small consumers.
The consumers require large blocks of power which are usually supplied at sub-transmission or even
transmission system.

ABCD Parameters of Transmission Line

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Transmission of power from generating unit to distributing units can be done through the
transmission line. During transmission, many losses occur in the transmission line which
decreases the efficiency of a line. For improving the proficiency of the transmission, two port
networks are used.

A network having two input and two output terminals is known as a two port network. The
network shown below has four terminals in which A and B represents the input port where as C
and D represents the output port.

The voltage and current in the output and input terminals of a two-port network are given by the
equations shown below
Vs = sending end voltage
Is = sending end current
Vr = receiving end voltage
Ir = receiving end current

A, B, C and D are the constants also known as the transmission parameters or chain parameters.
These parameters are used for the analysis of an electrical network. It is also used for
determining the performance of input, output voltage and current of the transmission network.

The above equations can also be written in a matrix form for easy calculations shown below

The matrix is called the transfer or transmission

matrix of the network.

ABCD parameters for open circuit

In the open circuit, the output terminals are open, and the voltage measure across them is V r.
Since the circuit is open at the receiving end, the current Ir remains zero.
 From above equations, we get the value of A parameter which is
the ratio of sending end voltage to the receiving end voltage. It is a dimensionless constant
because their ratio has the same dimension.

Similarly, if Ir =0 is substituted in current equation,

we get the value of c parameter which is the ratio of the sending end
voltage to the current. Its unit is Siemens.

ABCD parameters for short circuit

For the short circuit, the voltage

remains zero at the receiving end.
 If we put Vr = 0 in the equation, we get the value of B which is the
ratio of sending end voltage to the receiving end currents. Its unit is ohms.

Similarly, if we put Vr= 0 in current equations,

we get the value of D, which is the ratio of the sending current to

the receiving current. It is the dimensionless constant.

Relation between ABCD parameters

For determining the relation between various types of network, like passive or bilateral network
reciprocity theorem is applied. The voltage V is applied to the sending end, and the receiving end
is kept short circuit, so the voltage becomes zero.

Since, under short

circuit the receiving end voltage is zero, the voltage and current equations become
 Similarly, the voltage is applied at the receiving end, and the input voltage
remains zero. Thus, the direction of the current in the network changes, which is shown in the
diagram below

The sending end

voltage becomes zero. The current flows through the receiving end is given by the equation

and

Consider, the network is passive, i.e. it contains only passive

components in the circuit like inductance, resistance, etc. So the current remains same I s = Ir.

Combining the above equations give,

dividing the above equation from -V/B we get,

 This relation helps in determining the fourth parameters if we know any
three parameters.

For a symmetrical network, the input and output terminal may be interchanged without affecting
the network behaviour.

If the network is supplied from input terminals and an output terminal is

short circuit, then the impedance becomes

and if the supply is from the output terminal and an input terminal is a short circuit then the
impedance becomes

in the symmetrical network, the impedance remains the same

The ABCD parameters of transmission line can be tabulated as:-
Parameter Specification Unit

A = V S / VR Voltage ratio Unit less

B = VS / IR Short circuit resistance Ω

C = IS / V R Open circuit conductance mho

D = IS / IR Current ratio Unit less

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Sample per unit problem solved: https://peguru.com/2011/06/per-unit-system-

practice-problem-solved-for-easy-understanding/
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Symmetrical fault Analysis

Symmetrical (L-L-L) fault occurs infrequently, as for example, when a line, which has been
made safe for maintenance and/or repairs by clamping all the three phases to earth, is
accidently made alive or when, due to slow fault clearance, an earth fault spreads across to
the other two phases or when a mechanical excavator cuts quickly through a whole cable. It
is an important type of fault in that it results in an easy calculation and generally, a
pessimistic answer.

The analysis of symmetrical (L-L-L) faults includes the determination of the voltage at any
point (or bus) in the power system network, the current in any branch and value of
reactance necessary to limit the fault current to any desired value. Such calculations
provide the necessary data for selection of circuit breakers and design of protective
scheme.
The circuit breaker MVA breaking capacity is based on 3-phase fault MVA. Since the circuit
breakers are manufactured in preferred standard sizes, e.g., 250, 500, 750 MVA, high
precision is not required in calculations of 3-phase fault level at a point in a power system.
Moreover, the system impedances are also never known accurately.

It is customary to perform the short circuit analysis under the following simplifying
assumptions:
1. Load currents are considered negligible as compared to fault currents.

2. Shunt elements in the transformer model that account for magnetizing current and core
loss are neglected. The transformer is represented by a reactance in series, as transformer
resistance is quite low in comparison with its reactance.

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3. Shunt capacitances of the transmission lines are neglected.

4. System resistance is neglected and only inductive reactance of the system is taken into
account. This assumption cannot be applied in case overhead lines or underground cables
of considerable length are included in the network. A transmission line is represented by
series reactance (and resistance).

5. The emfs of all the generators are assumed to be equal to 1 ∠0° per unit. This means
that the system voltage is at its nominal value and the system is operating on no load at the
time of occurrence of fault. The selection of zero phase for one source is arbitrary and
convenient. Assuming that all sources are in phase and of the same magnitude is
equivalent to neglecting pre-fault load current. When desirable, the load current can be
taken into account, at a later stage by superposition.

6. The effect of dc component is accounted for by using correction factors. The correction or
multiplying factor for determination of breaking capacity of a circuit breaker depends on the
speed of the circuit breaker. For example, a two-cycle circuit breaker might require a factor
1.4 whereas with an eight-cycle breaker a factor 1.0 would be sufficient.

Generator reactances are normally taken as their subtransient values in order to depict the
most pessimistic condition. However, if transient current is to be determined, then transient
reactances should be used.
For simple systems, calculations can be made by network reduction technique, which will
be discussed here. However, for modern complex systems, ac network analyzers or digital
computers are used for fault calculations.

Network Reduction Technique:

Because of the balanced nature of fault and the system, any condition which applies to one
phase applies equally to the remaining two phases. Thus the problem is reduced itself to a
single phase problem involving a single supply source acting through the equivalent
network impedance up to the fault. The equivalent network impedance up to the fault can be
obtained by network reduction that involves series- parallel combinations and star/delta or
delta/star conversion of reactances.

Various steps involved in the short circuit calculations are given below:
ADVERTISEMENTS:

1. Make out a single line diagram of the complete network indicating on each component, its
rating, voltage, resistance and reactance.

2. Choose a common base kVA (or MVA) and convert all the resistances and reactances in
per unit values as referred to common base kVA (or MVA).

3. From the single line diagram draw a single line reactance (or impedance) diagram
showing one phase and neutral. In this diagram write down the reactances (or impedances)
of the elements in per unit values, determined under step 2.

4. Reduce the reactance (or impedance) diagram, by network reduction technique keeping
the identity of the fault point intact. Find the reactance of the system as seen from the fault
point (Thevenin reactance).

Determine the fault current and fault MVA in per unit. Convert these per unit values to
actual values.

6. Retrace the steps of calculations to work out the current and voltage distribution
throughout the network.

Fault MVA and Fault Current (Steady-State):

Per unit fault (or short circuit current),
ISC pu = PU voltage at fault point/PU Xequivalent …(4.16)
Per unit fault level (MVA) = √3 per unit fault current x per unit source voltage

or Fault MVA = BAse MVA/PU Xequivalent MVA (lagging) …(4.17)

Fault current ISC = Base MVA x 103/√3 x base kV amperes …(4.18)
Example:
A 3-phase, 10,000 kVA, 11 kV alternator has a sub-transient reactance of 8%. A 3-phase
short circuit occurs at its terminals. Determine the fault current and fault MVA.

Solution:
Alternator percentage reactance is based on its own voltage and kVA ratings. Let us choose
10,000 kVA as base kVA and 11 kV as base kV

The selection of the circuit breaker does not depend only on the current carrying capacity
under normal conditions; but also depends upon the momentary maximum current it may
have to carry under abnormal or short circuit conditions. Thus it becomes necessary to
determine the initial maximum value of current at the time of short circuit. To approach the
problem of determining the initial value when a short circuit occurs, there is a need of
studying the transient in R-L series circuit which is the most fundamental type of ac circuit.
Consider an R-L series circuit, which is connected, at the instant t = 0, to a source of
alternating voltage v = Vmax sin (ωt/ + α) where α is the phase displacement between the
voltage v and the reference wave which passes through zero at the time t = 0.

The equation relating the applied voltage and the current in the given circuit is given as –

v = iR + L di/dt

or L di/dt + i R = Vmax sin (ωt + α) …(4.1)

The complete solution of the above equation consists of two parts which are called the
particular integral and complementary function. The particular integral is the solution
corresponding to the steady-state conditions, namely –

Where = Z, the circuit impedance, ɸ is the phase angle between the current
and voltage determined by ɸ = Tan-1 ωL/R.
The above solution is obtained without any constant of integration and cannot, therefore,
represent initial conditions. Complementary function is, therefore, necessary to represent
the initial conditions.

This is the solution of the equation with zero substituted for Vmax sin (ω t + α), namely the
solution of [L (di/dt) + Ri] = 0 which is i = A e [(–R/L) t] and complete solution of Eq. (4.1) is
given as –
Now when t = 0; i = 0 hence substituting these values in above Eq. (4.2) we get –

Hence Eq. (4.2) may be written as –

The first term in the above Eq. (4.3) for i is current corresponding to the steady-state
condition and the second term is a transient which vanishes theoretically after infinite time.
But practically, it vanishes very quickly after two or three cycles.

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The total current (i) curve is shown in Fig. 4.1 (b). As obvious from the figure with
decreasing transient current it, the total current i tend towards the forced current value.
However, in the time interval between T/4 and 3 T/4 after switching, depending upon the
phase angle α, the current value may exceed the peak value of the forced current.
The total (or resultant) current can take the maximum possible value when at the closure of
the switch the forced current is at its peak and the time constant is large (i.e., when R is
approximately zero, the time constant tends to infinity, and the phase angle ɸ is about 90°),
or when the transient decay very slowly.
Under such conditions α is about equal to 180°, and the applied voltage should pass
through zero at switch closure. The current waveform for α – ɸ = 90° and for sufficiently
large value of time constant is shown in Fig.. 4.1 (c). In about half a cycle after switch
closure, the resultant current is twice the peak value of forced current. This is known as
doubling effect.

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Thus when a sinusoidal voltage is applied to an R-L network, the resultant current cannot
exceed twice the peak value of the forced current under any circumstances.

The initial value of the free current is equal and opposite to that of the forced current.
Therefore, if at the closure of the switch the forced current passes through zero, the initial
value of free component is also zero. Thus there will be no transient current flowing and the
circuit will attain a forced state at once.

According to Eq. (4.3) this occurs at –

α – ɸ = 0 or α – ɸ = π.

Thus if the switch happens to be closed when v is maximum, a current wave which is
symmetrical and has a maximum instantaneous value equal to Imax results. It may also be
noted that closing of switch at other instants will give asymmetrical current waves with small
transients.
If some simplifying assumptions are made, then a transmission line can be represented by
the circuit model shown in Fig. 4.2 (a), which is equivalent to an R-L series circuit shown in
Fig. 4.1 (a).
Simplifying assumptions made are:
1. The line is supplied from a constant voltage source.

2. Short circuit takes place when the line is unloaded.

3. Line capacitance is negligible and the total resistance and inductance of the line are
assumed to be lumped at one place.

Short-circuit current is given by Eq. (4.3):

In power system terminology, the first term of the above equation, steady-state current is
called the symmetrical short circuit current and the second term, unidirectional transient
component is called the dc offset-current, which causes the total short circuit to be
unsymmetrical till the transient decays.
The maximum momentary short circuit current Imm corresponds to the first peak, as obvious
from Fig. 4.2 (b).
Neglecting the decay of transient current in this short period we have –

Imm = Imax +Imax sin (ɸ – α)

Since transmission line resistance is small as compared to its reactance, ɸ ≃ 90

... Imm = Imax + Imax cos α

This has the maximum possible value for α = 0 i.e. short circuit occurring when the voltage
wave is going through zero.

Thus,

Imm (maximum possible) = 2 Imax

For a selection of circuit breakers momentary short circuit current is taken corresponding to
its maximum possible value (a safe choice).

Example:
A transmission line of inductance 0.1 H and resistance 5 Ω is suddenly short circuited at the
far end, as shown in the figure. Write the expression for the short circuit current I(t). Find
approximately the value of the maximum momentary short circuit current.

Solution:
Applied voltage,

v = 100 sin (100t + 15°).

So Vmax = Coefficient of the sine of the time angle = 100 V

ω = Coefficient to time, t = 100
Z = √R2 + (ωL)2 = √52 + (100 x 0.1)2 = 31.81 Ω
ɸ = Tan-1 ωL/R = Tan-1 10/5 = Tan-1 2 = 80.96°
Imax = Vmax/Z = 100/31.81 = 3.1435 A
Expression for short circuit current is given as –

i = Imax sin (ωt + α – ɸ) + Imax sin (ɸ – α) e-t/λ

= 3.1435 sin (100 t + 15° – 80.96°) + 3.1435 sin (80.96° – 15°) e-5/t/0.1
= 3.1435 sin (100 t – 65.96°) + 2.871 e-50 t Ans.
Assuming that the first current maximum occurs at the same time as the first current
maximum of the symmetrical short circuit current,

Imm = 3.1435 + 2.871 = 6 A Ans.

Expression for Current flowing in Series RL

Circuit
Consider a circuit in which resistance is connected in series with
inductor and voltage source of V volts, is applied across it. Initially
the switch is open. Let us say at time ‘t’ we close the switch and the
current ‘i’ starts flowing in the circuit but it does not attains its
maximum value rapidly due to the presence of inductor in the
circuit as we know inductor has a property to oppose the change in
the current flowing through it.

Apply Kirchhoff’s voltage law in the above series RL circuit,

Rearranging the above equation,

Integrating both sides, we get,

Now integrate right hand side by using substitution method,

Substituting the values we get,

We know that integration of,

So we get,

By applying limits we get,

Simplifying again,

Taking antilog on both sides,

We know that e ln x = x, so we get,

Moving the term containing ‘i’ on one side we get,

The term L/R in the equation is called the Time Constant, (τ) of the
RL series circuit, and it is defined as time taken by the current to
reach its maximum steady state value and the term V/R represents
the final steady state value of current in the circuit.