CIE 121

Hydraulics

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Syllabus

PEN Code: CIE 121 Credit: 5 units

PEN Subject Title: HYDRAULICS Prerequisite: CIE 113, BES 026

A. Subject Description:
The course emphasizes the continuity equation, energy equation, and momentum equation. Familiarization of the
properties of common liquids in the study of hydraulics. Application of fundamental principles to solve problems
involving liquid pressure and corresponding forces resulting from this pressure. Applications of appropriate
equations in performing calculations involving flow velocity, flow rate and forces exerted by moving liquids in closed
conduits and open channels. Familiarization and applications of flow measuring devices such as orifice, weirs, and
pitot tube.
B. Objectives:
At the end of the course, the students should be able to:

1. Discuss the different liquid properties that are involved in the determination of pressure, forces, and flow.
2. Discuss the Continuity Equation with reference to the conservation of mass, Energy Equation with reference
to the Euler equation, and Momentum Equation with reference to the 2nd Law of Newton on motion.
3. Perform calculations related to (2.a) fluid pressure and forces with the liquid is at rest, (2.b) flow velocity, flow
rate, pressure, and forces when liquid is flowing in pipes and open channels, (2.c) flow velocity and flow rates
in conjunction with different flow measuring devices.
4. Design laboratory experimental procedure, perform the procedure, and interpret the result

C. Subject Outline and Time Allotment:

SESSION NO. MODULE NO. TOPIC WEEK

1 1 Properties of Fluids 1
2 Principles of Hydrostatic Pressure
2 3 Hydrostatic Force on Plane Surfaces 2
4 Fundamentals of Fluid Flow
3 5 Fluid Flow Measurement 3
QUIZ (1.5 hrs) Lessons 1 to 5
4 6 Orifice 4
7 Venturi Meter
5 FIRST PERIODICAL EXAMINATION 5

6 8 Weir 6
9 Fluid Flow in Pipes
7 10 Pipe Connecting Two Reservoir 7
QUIZ (1.5 hrs) Lessons 8 to 10
8 11 Pipes in Series and Parallel 8
12 Reservoir Problems
9 SECOND PERIODICAL EXAMINATION 9

10 13 Open Channel 10
14 Uniform Flow
11 15 Most Efficient Section 11
QUIZ (1.5 hrs) Lessons 13 to 15
12 16 Non-Uniform or Varied Flow 12
17 Hydraulic Jump
13 THIRD PERIODICAL EXAMINATION 13

14 FINAL EXAMINATION 14
 D. References:
a. H.W. King, J.O. Wisler and J.G. Woodburn. 1980. Hydraulics, 5th
b. Munson, Bruce, Donald F. Young and Theodore H. Okiishi.
1990. 3rd ed. John Wiley and Sons, Inc.

E. Course Requirements

Requirements Due Date

Laboratory Activities/Student’s Activity Sheet To be Announced
Each student who misses an exam will be allowed to take a make-up term examination
and that is only to be given within five (5) days after the original date of the term
examination. Those students who are still not able to take the make-up term
examination will get a score of zero (0) for the corresponding term examination.
.

F. Grading System:
The Final Grade is computed as follows:

Final Grade = 0.17P1 + 0.17P2 + 0.16P3 + 0.50FE ≥ 60%

Periodical Grade (P1, P2, or P3) = 60%CS + 40% Periodic Exam

 60%Class Standing (CS) = 30% quiz + 15% Lab Activities + 10% Module Activities + 5% Other
Activities

 Final Exam (FE) covers all topics

 Passing Score = 60%

Remarks:

FOR BOARD PREPARATION SUBJECTS ONLY

Part of passing a board preparation subject is passing its final examination. Thus, a student who gets a passing
final grade based on the formula despite getting a failing grade in the final examination will get a grade of Incomplete
(INC) in the subject. The student may change his INC grade to a passing grade by retaking and passing the final
examination. The passing grade that the student gets in his retake of the final examination will be used to compute his final
grade in the subject. His previous failing grade in the said final examination will be disregarded. If in one academic year
the student fails to change his grade from an INC to a passing grade, he will be given a grade of No Credit (NC).

G. Contact Information
Professor’s Name:
Consultation Hours:
School Email Address:

Engr. John T. Zamora, MSCE,Ed.D Date:

Dean’s signature over printed name
 CIE 121: Hydraulics
Module #1 Student Activity Sheet

Class number:
Name:
Date:
Section: Schedule:

Lesson Title: Properties of Fluids Materials:

Learning Targets: Scientific Calculator, Ballpoint
At the end of the module, you should be able to: References:
1. Define the basic properties of fluids by formula Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulics 4th
2. Solve fluid problems using its basic properties to solve other Edition by DIT Gillesania
properties

A. LESSON PREVIEW/REVIEW

Introduction (3 minutes
Fluid Mechanics is the science that deals with the action of forces on fluids at rest as well as in motion. If
the fluids are in motion, where pressure forces are not considered, the study of them is called fluid statics.
The purpose of this lesson is to define certain fundamental properties of fluids which will be useful to apply
the basic principles of fluid mechanics to the solution of practical problems.

B. MAIN LESSON

Activity: Content Notes (20 minutes)

Fluids – are substances capable of flowing, having particles which may easily move and change
theirrelative position without separation of mass.
1. - the branch of mechanics dealing with the properties of fluids in various states and with their reaction to forces
acting upon them.

Properties of fluids:

a. MASS DENSITY, (𝜌, 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑎𝑠 "𝑟ℎ𝑜")

The density of a fluid is its mass per unit of volume.

𝑀 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑘𝑔
. 𝜌= = [𝑆𝐼 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡: ] .
𝑉 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑚3
𝑘𝑔
Note: 𝜌 = 1000 (𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑡 4℃)
𝑚3

For an ideal gas condition, density of a fluid can be found using the formula for ideal gas law
𝑝
. 𝜌= .
𝑅𝑇

Where: 𝑝 = 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛 (𝑃𝑎) 𝑇 = 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛 (𝐾𝑒𝑙𝑣𝑖𝑛)

𝑅 = 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 ( 𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒⁄𝑘𝑔 ∙ 𝐾𝑒𝑙𝑣𝑖𝑛) 𝐾𝑒𝑙𝑣𝑖𝑛, 𝐾 = ℃ + 273

Note: 𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑖𝑟, 𝑅 = 287 𝐽 ⁄𝑘𝑔 ∙ 𝐾

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b. SPECIFIC VOLUME (v𝑠)

Specific volume is the volume occupied by a unit mass of fluid.

1
. v𝑠 = .
𝜌

c. UNIT WEIGHT OR SPECIFIC WEIGHT ( 𝛾, 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑎𝑠 "𝑔𝑎𝑚𝑚𝑎")

Specific weight is the weight of a unit volume of a fluid.
𝑊 𝑀𝑔 𝑀
. 𝛾= = | 𝛾 = 𝜌𝑔
𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
Note: 𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑔 = 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 u s e 9.81 𝑚⁄𝑠2

d. SPECIFIC GRAVITY (𝑠. 𝑔. )

Specific gravity, s, is a dimensionless ratio of fluid’s density to some standard reference density. For
liquid and solid, the reference density is water at 4℃ (39.2℉).
𝜌𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑
.
𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
e. VISCOSITY
The property of fluid which determines the amount of its resistance to a shearing force/ flow.

 KINEMATIC VISCOSITY (𝜈, 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑎𝑠 "𝑛𝑢")

Kinematic viscosity is the ratio of dynamic viscosity of fluid to its mass density
𝜇
. 𝜈=
𝜌
Where: 𝜇 = 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛 (𝑃𝑎 − 𝑠)
𝑘𝑔
𝜌 = 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛 ( 3)
𝑚

Units and Conversions: 1 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒 = 1 𝑑𝑦𝑛𝑒 ∙ 𝑠 / 𝑐𝑚2 = 0.1 𝑃𝑎 ∙ 𝑠

1 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑘𝑒 = 0.0001 𝑚2/𝑠
1 𝑑𝑦𝑛𝑒 = 10−5𝑁

 ABSOLUTE VISCOSITY (𝜇, 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑎𝑠 "𝑚𝑢")

𝑀 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑘𝑔
𝜌= = [𝑆𝐼 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡: ] .
𝑉 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑚3

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 CIE 121: Hydraulics
Module #1 Student Activity Sheet

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Module #1 Student Activity Sheet

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f. SURFACE TENSION (𝜎, 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑎𝑠 "𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑚𝑎")

Energy required to increase the area, or length, of a liquid surface by a given amount.

Pressure inside a droplet of Liquid:

4𝜎
𝑝=
𝑑
where: 𝜎 = 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 (𝑁/𝑚)
𝐶 = 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑡 (𝑚)
𝑃 = 𝑔𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 (𝑃𝑎)

g. CAPILLARITY
Capillarity (capillary action) is the name given to the behavior of the liquid in a thin-bore tube. The rise
or fall of a fluid in capillary tube is caused by surface tension and depends on the relative magnitudes of
cohesion of the liquid and the adhesion of the liquid to the walls of the containing vessel.

4𝜎 cos 4𝜎 cos 𝜃 𝑝 cos 𝜃

. ℎ= = | ℎ=
𝑑𝛾 𝑑 𝛾 𝛾

where: ℎ = 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑚)

𝑁
𝛾 = 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 ( )
𝑚3
𝑑 = 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒 (𝑚)
𝜎 = 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑃𝑎)

Here are the examples.

Example 1: The viscosity of a certain fluid is 1.18 x 10-3 𝑃𝑎 ∙ 𝑠 . If its specific gravity = 0.989 determine
the kinematic viscosity in stoke.

Solution:
𝜇 𝜌𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑
𝜈= 𝜌𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 = (𝑠. 𝑔.𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 ) 𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝜌 𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

𝑁 𝑚
| 𝑃𝑎 = | 𝑁 = 𝑘𝑔 | 1 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑘𝑒 = 0.0001 𝑚2/𝑠
𝑚2 𝑠2
𝑚
𝑘𝑔
𝑠2 ) ∙ 𝑠
1.18 x 10−3 ( 𝑚2
𝜇 1.18 x 10−3𝑃𝑎 ∙ 𝑠
𝜈=𝜌= 𝑘𝑔 = 𝑘𝑔

(0.989) (1000 ) (0.989) (1000 )

𝑚3 𝑚3

𝑣 = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟗𝟑𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟔𝒎𝟐/𝒔

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𝜈 = 1.193𝑥 10−6𝑚2/𝑠 (
0.0001 𝑚 /𝑠)
2
𝑣 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟏𝟗 𝒔𝒕𝒐𝒌𝒆

Example 2: If 6 m3 of oil weighs 47 kN, calculate its density.

Solution:

𝑾
𝜸=
𝑽
47 𝑘𝑁 𝑘𝑁
𝛾= = 7.833
6 𝑚3 𝑚3

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Familiarize
(

9.
8
32 2 /g2
.
Gor SG

=
on
G
re
 CIE 121: Hydraulics
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Class number:
Name:
Date:
Section: Schedule:

𝜸 = 𝝆𝒈
𝑘𝑁
7.833 = 𝜌 (9.81 𝑚 ⁄ )
𝑚3 𝑠2
𝑚
𝑁 𝑘𝑔
7.833𝑥103 7.833𝑥103 𝑠2
𝜌= 𝑚3 = 𝑚3

9.81 𝑚⁄𝑠2 9.81 𝑚⁄𝑠2

𝒌𝒈

𝝆 = 𝟕𝟗𝟖
𝒎𝟑

Activity: Skill-building Activities (with answer key) (18 mins + 2 mins checking)

Solve the following:

Problem 1: A reservoir of glycerin has a mass of 1,200 kg and a volume of 0.952 cu. m. Find its
(a) weight, W, (b) unit weight, ɤ, (c) mass density, and (d) specific gravity.

Problem 2: Estimate the height to which water will rise in a capillary tube of diameter 3 mm.
Use 𝜎 = 0.0728 / and 𝛾 = 9810 𝑁 for water. (Note: 𝜃 = 90° for water in clean tube.)
𝑚3

Activity: Check for Understanding (5 minutes)

Problem 1: Air is kept at a pressure of 200 kPa absolute and a temperature of 30℃ in a 500-liter
container. What is the mass of air? (Note: 1 𝑚3 = 1000𝐿)

C. LESSON WRAP-UP

Activity: Thinking about Learning (5 minutes)

1. How was your learning experience for this lesson(s)?

2. What portion of the lesson(s) did you find it difficult to understand?

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1)
a wing
a
c) D =kg/m3/
200
, ·
50

d) >
=
NOEL ⑲M
N
Newton or
c 3mm =
0 .
003 m

== 0 .

0728N/m
y
= 9810 N/m3

=3)
h=
ocost

Ud

= 89mm =
 CIE 121: Hydraulics
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Class number:
Name:
Date:
Section: Schedule:

FAQs
1. How will you know if a fluid is heavy?
Answer: By knowing its specific gravity, the bigger the value of the specific gravity the heavier the liquid
is meaning that the densest (or heaviest) fluid will be on the bottom and the least dense (lightest) fluid
will be on top.

2. What is the most important factor that affect in viscosity of a liquid?

Answer: The main factor that affect viscosity is temperature. They are inversely proportional, which
means that as temperature increases, viscosity (of the liquid) decreases and vice versa. In liquids, the
highest the molecular force, the greater the viscosity (resistance to flow).

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 CIE 121: Hydraulics
Module #2 Student Activity Sheet

Class number:
Name:
Date:
Section: Schedule:

Lesson Title: Principles of Hydrostatic Pressure Materials:

Learning Targets: Scientific Calculator, Ballpoint
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to: References:
1. Identify and solve the different types of pressure. Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulics 4th
2. Calculate the total hydrostatic force on submerged Edition by DIT Gillesania
surfaces.

A. LESSON PREVIEW/REVIEW

Introduction (3 minutes)

This lesson deals with forces applied by fluid at rest. We start this lesson with a detailed discussion of
pressure. This is followed by a discussion of the hydrostatic forces applied on a submerged body with plane
or curved surfaces. This lesson makes extensive use of force balances for bodies in static equilibrium, and it
will be helpful if the relevant topics from statics are first viewed.

B. MAIN LESSON

Activity: Content Notes (20 minutes)

UNIT PRESSURE OR PRESSURE,

Pressure is the force per unit area. Hydrostatic pressure can be calculated with the formula:

PASCAL’S LAW
Pascal’s Law (Blaise Pascal), states that the pressure on a fluid is equal in all directions and in all parts of the
container.

TYPES OF PRESSURE:

1. Gage pressure (Relative pressure)

Gage pressures are pressures above or below the atmosphere and can be measured by
pressure gauges or manometers.
2. Atmospheric Pressure & Vacuum
Atmospheric pressure is the pressure at any one point on the earth surfaces from the weight of the air
above it. A vacuum is a space that has all matter removed from it.
Under normal condition at sea level:
3. Absolute pressure
Absolute pressure is the pressure above absolute zero (vacuum)

𝑝𝑎𝑏𝑠 = 𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑚 + 𝑝𝑔𝑎𝑔𝑒

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Class number:
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Section: Schedule:

Note:
 Absolute zero is attained if all air is removed. It is the lowest possible pressure attainable.
 Absolute pressure can never be negative
 The smallest gage pressure is equal to the negative of the ambient atmospheric pressure.

Let’s visualize here.

58.675 gage
60 gage
Standard
Atmosphere = 101.325 abs

Current atmosphere = 100 abs

-40 gage -41.325 gage
160 abs

60 abs Absolute zero = -101.325

Figure 2.1
Note: All pressure units are in kPa.

VARIATIONS IN PRESSURE

Consider any two points (1) and (2), whose difference in elevation is h, to lie in the ends of an elementary
prism having a cross sectional area and a length of L. Since this prism is at rest, all forces acting upon it
must be in equilibrium.

𝑝1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑝2 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑔𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑠

𝐹1
𝑦 𝑥
(1)
𝑎
2
ℎ = 𝐿𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝜃
𝜃 𝑊

𝐹2 (2)

Figure 2.2
Note: Free liquid surface refers to liquid surface subject to zero gage pressure or with atmospheric pressure only.

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With reference to figure above: CIE 121: Hydraulics
𝑝2 = 𝑝1 + 𝛾ℎ
Module #2 Student Activity Sheet

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Therefore; the difference in pressure between any two points in a homogeneous fluid at rest is equal to
the product of the unit weight of the fluid (𝛾) to the vertical distance (h) between the points.

𝑝2 − 𝑝1 = 𝛾ℎ

Also: 𝑝2 = 𝑝1 + 𝛾ℎ

This means that any change in pressure at point (1) would cause an equal change at point (2). Therefore, a
pressure applied at any point in a liquid at rest is transmitted equally and undiminished to every other point in
the liquid.

Let us assume that point (1) in Figure 2.2 lie on the free liquid surface, then the gage pressure is zero and the
equation
𝑝2 = 𝑝1 + 𝛾ℎ
becomes:
𝑝2 = 0 + 𝛾ℎ

𝒑𝟐 = 𝜸𝒉

This means that the pressure at any point at a depth “h” below a free liquid surface is equal to the
product of the unit weight of the fluid (𝜸 ) and h.

Consider that points (1) and (2) in Figure 2.2 lie on the same elevation, such that ℎ = 0; then Eq. 2-4 becomes:
𝑝2 = 𝑝1 + 𝛾ℎ
becomes:
𝑝2 = 𝑝1 + 𝛾(0) = 𝛾ℎ

𝑝2 = 𝑝1

This means that the pressure along the same horizontal plane in a homogeneous fluid at rest are equal.

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Class number:
Name:
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Pressure below Layers of Different Liquids

Consider the closed tank shown on the right to be filled with

𝑝𝐴 = 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
liquids of different densities and with air at the top under a
gage pressure of 𝑝𝐴. ℎ1
𝐿𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 1
Then, the pressure at the bottom of the tank is:
ℎ2 ℎ1
𝐿𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 2
𝑝𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 = ∑ 𝛾ℎ + 𝑝𝐴 = 𝛾1ℎ1 + 𝛾2ℎ2 + 𝛾3ℎ3
ℎ3 𝐿𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 3 𝑝𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚

PRESSURE HEAD

Pressure head is the height “ℎ” of a column of homogeneous liquid of unit weight that will produce an
intensity of pressure 𝑝.
𝑝
ℎ=
𝛾

PRESSURE HEAD EQUIVALENCE

Consider the two liquids A and B in an open container (no need for the same cross-sectional area or diameter).
Liquids A and B has their respective liquid heights ℎ𝐴 and ℎ𝐵.

To convert pressure head from one liquid to another, say, from liquid A to liquid B, consider that they have the
same pressure at the bottom, that is
𝒑𝑨,𝒃𝒐𝒕𝒕𝒐𝒎 = 𝒑𝑩,𝒃𝒐𝒕𝒕𝒐𝒎
𝛾𝐴ℎ𝐴 = 𝛾𝐵ℎ𝐵
𝛾 𝜌 ∙𝑔 ℎ𝐵 Liquid B
Liquid A (𝑠. 𝑔.𝐵)
ℎ =ℎ 𝐴
=ℎ
𝐴 ℎ𝐴 (𝑠. 𝑔.𝐴)
𝐵 𝐴
𝛾𝐵 𝐴 𝜌𝐵 ∙ 𝑔

ℎ𝐵 = ℎ𝐴

So, the equivalent pressure of liquid A in terms of liquid B is

(𝑠. 𝑔.𝐴 )
ℎ𝐵 = ℎ𝐴 = ℎ𝐴 = ℎ𝐴
𝛾 𝜌 (𝑠. 𝑔. )

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Note: To convert pressure head (height) of any liquid to water, just multiply its height by itsCIE
specific
121: gravity
Hydraulics
Module #2 Student Activity Sheet
𝒉𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 = 𝒉𝒍𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅 𝒔. 𝒈.𝒍𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅

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 CIE 121: Hydraulics
Module #2 Student Activity Sheet

Class number:
Name:
Date:
Section: Schedule:

Let’s have examples here.

&
Example 1: If the atmospheric pressure is 95.7 kPa and gage attached to the tank reads 188 mmHg
vacuum, find the absolute pressure within the tank.

Solution:
𝑝𝑎𝑏𝑠 = 𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑚 + 𝑝𝑔𝑎𝑔𝑒
-
-

𝑝𝑎𝑏𝑠 = 95.7 + (−)(13.6)(9.81)(0.188)[𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 sign 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑣𝑎𝑐𝑢𝑢𝑚]

𝒑𝒂𝒃𝒔 = 𝟕𝟎. 𝟔𝟐 𝒌𝑷𝒂 (𝒂𝒃𝒔)

Example 2:
Piston A has a cross section of 1200 sq.cm while that of piston B is 950 sq.cm. with the latter higher than
piston A by 1.75 m. If the intervening passage are filled with oil whose specific gravity is 0.8, what is the
difference in pressure between A and B?
P =
Wh

1
Solution:

𝑝𝐴 − 𝑝𝐵 = 𝛾𝑜𝑖𝑙ℎ = 𝑠. 𝑔.𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝛾𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟ℎ 1.75 m

PA -

1901) = Pis
𝑘𝑁
𝑝𝐴 − 𝑝𝐵 = 0.8 (9.81 3) (1.75 𝑚) Oil PA PB-
= 1 75 (0 8) (9 81)
.
.
.

𝑚 s.g.=0.8
𝒑𝑨 − 𝒑𝑩 = 𝟏𝟑. 𝟕𝟑 𝒌𝑷𝒂
1200 cm2 950 cm2

Activity: Skill-building Activities (with answer key) (18 mins + 2 mins checking)

Solve the following:

Problem 1: The pressure in the air space above the gasoline surface sp.gr. = 0.60 in a tank is 120 kPa
absolute. The pressure 2.40 m below its surface is:

Problem 2: An open storage vessel has 3 m of oil (sp.gr. = 0.82) and 6 m of water. Find the pressure at the
bottom of the tank.

Activity: Check for Understanding (5 minutes)

Problem: A pressure of 160 kPa will cause mercury to rise inside a tube approximately how many cm?
Use (s.g. = 13.6)

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120kDa

#soI p Sh
=

=
10 + 2 40 (9 81)(0 60)
. . .

40
O
=
134 /3 KPa
.
 Ten
p = Sh
629 81)
3 (0 82) (9 817 +
. .
.

p =
82 99kPa
.
 CIE 121: Hydraulics
Module #2 Student Activity Sheet

Class number:
Name:
Date:
Section: Schedule:

C. LESSON WRAP-UP

Think about your Learning

How was your learning experience for this lesson(s)?

What portion of the lesson(s) did you find it difficult to understand?

FAQs

1. What is the term used to describe if the gage pressure is negative?

Answer: Vacuum pressure is also measured relative to the local atmospheric pressure, but is used when
the gage pressure is negative.

2. What is meant by absolute zero pressure?

Answer: Generally absolute zero pressure is the point where there exists a minimum temperature (i.e.
zero). That can be possible only when molecular momentum of a system becomes zero. There should
not be any motion of particles so there is no collision of particles, kinetic energy nullifies and the
temperature becomes zero.

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 CIE 121: Hydraulics
Module #3 Student Activity Sheet

Class number:
Name:
Date:
Section: Schedule:

Lesson Title: Hydrostatic Force on Plane Surfaces Materials:

Learning Targets: Scientific Calculator, Ballpoint
At the end of the module, you should be able to: References:
1. Determine the total hydrostatic force on inclined plane Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulics 4th
surface Edition by DIT Gillesania
2. Determine the total hydrostatic force on submerged curved
surfaces

A. LESSON PREVIEW/REVIEW

Introduction (3 minutes)
When a surface is submerged in a fluid, forces act on the surface due to the fluid. In this lesson, the discussion
is focused on how to determine hydrostatic forces exerted on a plane surface submerged in a static fluid. The
determination of these forces is important in the design of engineering structures such as storage tanks, ships,
dams, and other hydraulic structures. For fluids at rest, we know that the force must be perpendicular to the
surface since there are no shearing stress.

B. MAIN LESSON

Activity: Content Notes (20 minutes)

If the pressure over a plane area is uniform, as in the case of a horizontal surface submerge in a liquid or a
plane surface inside a gas chamber, the total hydrostatic force is given by:
𝑭 = 𝒑𝑨

Where 𝒑 is the uniform pressure and 𝑨 is the area.

In the case of an inclined or vertical plane submerged

in a liquid, the total hydrostatic force can be found by
the following formula:

𝒅𝑭
𝑭

Fig. 3.1: Forces on an inclined plane

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Name:
Date:
Section: Schedule:

From the figure, 𝒑𝒄𝒈 = 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦

̅

𝑭 = 𝒑𝒄𝒈𝑨
= ℎ

̅𝑨
𝑭 = 𝜸𝒉

 ECCENTRICITY, e:
=

𝑰𝒈 𝑰𝒈
𝒆= =
𝑨̅ 𝑺𝒔

 LOCATION OF F (from the free liquid surface to the center of pressure along the inclination of the
surface)
𝒚𝒑 = 𝒚̅+𝒆

TOTAL HYDROSTATIC FORCE ON CURVED SURFACES

Case I: FLUID IS ABOVE THE CURVED SURFACE

𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒

𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒
𝐹𝑉
𝐹𝑉
𝑐. 𝑔. 𝑜𝑓
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 ℎത 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓
𝐹 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒

𝜃 𝑐. 𝑔.

𝐹𝐻 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 (𝐴)

| 𝑒𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝑒)

̅𝑨
𝑭𝑯 = 𝒑𝒄𝒈 𝑨 = 𝜸𝒉 𝑭𝑽 = 𝜸𝑽
(𝐴 = 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒) (𝑉 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒)

(𝑝𝑐𝑔 = 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑖𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝐴)

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Case II: FLUID IS BELOW THE CURVED SURFACE

𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 (𝑉) 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒

𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒
𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑉
𝑏𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒
𝑐. 𝑔. 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
ℎത 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓
𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒

𝑐. 𝑔.
𝐹𝐻 𝑒
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 (𝐴)
𝜃
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒
𝐹𝑉 𝐹𝑉 𝐹

̅𝑨
𝑭𝑯 = 𝒑𝒄𝒈 𝑨 = 𝜸𝒉 𝑭𝑽 = 𝜸𝑽
(𝐴 = 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒) (𝑉 = 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒)

(𝑝𝑐𝑔 = 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑖𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝐴)

Case III: FLUID IS ABOVE AND BELOW THE CURVED SURFACE

𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑓
𝑐. 𝑔. 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

𝑒
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 (𝐴)
𝐹𝐻

𝐹𝑉
𝐹𝑉
𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒗𝒆𝒅 𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒆 𝑭

𝑭𝑯 = 𝑭𝑯𝟐 − 𝑭𝑯𝟏 𝑭𝑽 = 𝑭𝑽𝟐 − 𝑭𝑽𝟏

(𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠) (𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠)

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Section: Schedule:

Value of 𝑰𝒈 of Common Plane Sections

Rectangle Circle Quarter-circle

𝒓
𝑥′

𝑏ℎ3 𝜋𝑟4 𝜋𝐷4 𝐼𝑔 = 0.055𝑟4

𝐼𝑔 = 𝐼𝑔 = = ; 𝐷 = 2𝑟
12 4 64 4𝑟
𝑦𝑐 =
3𝜋
Triangle Semi-circle
Ellipse

𝑥′
𝒃
𝒓

𝐼𝑔 = 0.11𝑟4 𝒂
𝑏ℎ3 4𝑟
𝐼𝑔 = 𝑦𝑐 = 𝜋𝑎𝑏3 𝜋𝑏𝑎3
36 3𝜋 𝐼𝑔𝑥 = ; 𝐼𝑔𝑦 = 4
ℎ 4
𝑦𝑐 =
3

Let’s learn from the following example.

Example 1: A 3.7 m high by 1.5 m wide rectangular gate 𝐶𝐷 is vertical and is hinged at a point 150 mm below
its center of gravity. The total depth of water is 6.1 m. What horizontal force P must be applied at the bottom of
the gate for equilibrium?
𝑫
Solution: 𝑃

ℎത = 6.1 − 1.85 = 4.25 𝑚 = 𝑦ത 𝑪

1.5 𝑚

ℎത 1.85 𝑚
6.1 𝑚
𝐹 = 𝛾ℎത 𝐴 = 9.81 (4.25)(1.5)(3.7)
𝐹 = 231.39 𝑘𝑁 𝑒
1.85 𝑚
𝐹

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 CIE 121: Hydraulics
Module #3 Student Activity Sheet

3.7 𝑚

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Class number:
Name:
Date:
Section: Schedule:

1.5(3.7)3
𝑏ℎ3 𝐼𝑔 12
1.5 𝑚
𝐼𝑔 = 𝑪
| 𝑒= =
12 𝐴𝑦ത [1.5(3.7)]4.25 ℎ
𝒆 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟔𝟖 𝒎 6.1 𝑚 1.85 𝑚

𝑥 = 0.268 – 0.15 ; 𝒙 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟏𝟖 𝒎 𝑒 0.15 3.7 𝑚

1.85 𝑚
∑ 𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡@ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑒 = 0 (𝑐𝑐𝑤 𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒) 𝒙 𝐹 1.7𝑚

𝐹𝑥 − 𝑃 (1.7) = 0 𝑫 𝑃
231.39(0.118) = 𝑃(1.7)

𝑷 = 𝟏𝟔. 𝟎𝟔 𝒌𝑵

Activity: Skill-building Activities (with answer key) (18 mins + 2 mins checking)

Solve the following:

Problem 1: Determine the magnitude of the force acting on a 2 m diameter gate which is inclined 60° from
the vertical if the height of oil above the bottom of the gate is 3 m (s.g. of oil = 0.87).

Problem 2: How far below the water surface should a vertical square 1.22 m on a side with two sides
horizontal, be immersed so that the center of pressure will be 76 mm below the center of gravity?

Activity: Check for Understanding (5 minutes)

Problem 1: A vertical submerged gate 2.4 m. and 3 m high is hinged at the top and help closed by water 4.5
m. depth. What horizontal force applied at the bottom of gate is required to open it in KN?
Think about your Learning

1. How was your learning experience for this lesson(s)?

This document is the property of PHINMA EDUCATION

 CIE 121: Hydraulics
Module #3 Student Activity Sheet

This document is the property of PHINMA EDUCATION

 CIE 121: Hydraulics
Module #3 Student Activity Sheet

Class number:
Name:
Date:
Section: Schedule:

2. What portion of the lesson(s) did you find it difficult to understand?

FAQs

1. Why is the center of pressure important?

Answer: The center of pressure is the average location of where the pressure force is applied. The center
of pressure is where the forces of lift and drag are exerted. It is important for engineers to know the center
of pressure since it allows them to evenly balance the lift on aircraft.

2. Which principle is used for calculating the Centre of pressure?

Answer: [Principle of Moments] We will use the concept of “principle of moments” to determine the center
of pressure. According to the principle of moments, moment of the resultant force about an axis will be
equal to the sum of the moments of components about the same axis.

This document is the property of PHINMA EDUCATION

 height -merged

i
placed

Weight Buoyant Force

=

W =
BF

rot Yo U= :W 0
=
 unit weightof wood
W = 8V- Total volume of wood
WReqForSet
W+RF BF
=

G
·RF = BF W -

↑
BF =
Unitwe media BF

W = BF W = BE a

W= BF
w
Storwater fonforse a

Riggiren
5
o W= BF

user
a
..

for water
p= Y
y =

W = SV
 C
①E

= 10 3)
. = 0 Ma
.

WE
 (62 . 4 x 0 607 (9/12)"
.
=
15 795
.

BF = 62 .

4 (412) =
26 325lbs
.

F = 23 . 325-15 795 .

-
#53lbs
downwards
 CIE 121: Hydraulics
Module #4 Student Activity Sheet

Name: Class number:

Section: Schedule: Date:

Lesson Title: Fundamentals of Fluid Flow Materials:

Learning Targets: Scientific Calculator, Ballpoint
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to: References:
1. Define flow rate Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulics 4th
2. Calculate volume flow rate, weight flow rate and mass Edition by DIT Gillesania
flowrate.

A. LESSON PREVIEW/REVIEW

Introduction (3 minutes)

The previous lesson deals only with fluids at rest in which the only significant property used is the weight of the
fluid. This lesson will deal with fluids in motion which is based on the principles.

B. MAIN LESSON

Activity: Content Notes (20 minutes)

DISCHARGE OR FLOW RATE, Q

Discharge or flow rate is the amount of fluid passing through a section per unit of time.
 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒, 𝑄 = 𝐴𝑣
 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒, 𝜌𝑄 = 𝜌𝐴𝑣
 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒, 𝛾𝑄 = 𝛾𝐴𝑣
where:
𝑄 = 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑚3/𝑠 𝑜𝑟𝑓𝑡3/𝑠
𝐴 = 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑖𝑛 𝑚2 𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑡2
𝑣 = 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑖𝑛 𝑚/𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑡/𝑠
𝜌 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔𝑠/𝑓𝑡3
𝛾 = 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑁/𝑚3 𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑏/𝑓𝑡3

CONTINUITY EQUATION

For incompressible fluids:

𝑄 = 𝐴1 𝑣1 = 𝐴2 𝑣2 = 𝐴3 𝑣3 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

For compressible fluids:

𝑄 = 𝜌1𝐴1 𝑣1 = 𝜌2𝐴2 𝑣2 = 𝜌3𝐴3 𝑣3 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

𝑄 = 𝛾1𝐴1 𝑣1 = 𝛾2𝐴2 𝑣2 = 𝛾3𝐴3 𝑣3 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

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 CIE 121: Hydraulics
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Section: Schedule: Date:

BERNOULLI’S ENERGY THEOREM

Bernoulli’s Principle, in physics is the concept that as the speed of a moving fluid (liquid or gas) increases, the
pressure within that fluid decreases.

Energy Equation without Head Lost:

𝑣12
2𝑔 𝑣22
2𝑔
𝑝1
𝛾
𝑄
𝑝2
(1) 𝛾

(2)

𝐸1 = 𝐸2
𝑣12 𝑝1 𝑣22 𝑝2

+ + 𝑧1 = + + 𝑧2
2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾

Energy Equation with Head Lost:

Considering head lost, the values that we can attain are called actual values.

𝑣12
𝐻𝐿1−2
2𝑔

𝑝1 𝑣22
𝛾 2𝑔

𝑄
𝑝2
(1) 𝛾

(2) 𝑧2
𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑚
𝑣12 𝑝1 𝑣22 𝑝2

𝐸1 = 𝐸2 + 𝐻𝐿1−2;

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 2𝑔
+ + 𝑧1 =
𝛾 2𝑔
+ + 𝑧2 +
𝛾 CIE 121: Hydraulics
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Energy Equation with Pump:

Pressure is used basically to increase the head. 𝑄

(2)

𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝
(1)

𝐸1 + 𝐻𝐴 = 𝐸2 + 𝐻𝐿1−2
𝑣12 𝑝1 𝑣22 𝑝2
+ + 𝑧1 + 𝐻𝐴 = + + 𝑧2 + 𝐻𝐿1−2
2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾

𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑃𝑢𝑚𝑝 = 𝑄𝛾𝐻𝐴

Energy Equation with Turbine or Motor:

Turbines or motors extract flow energy to do mechanical work which in turn converted into
electrical energy for turbines.
(1)

𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒 (2)

𝐸1 = 𝐸2 + 𝐻𝐸 + 𝐻𝐿1−2
𝑣 12 𝑝1 𝑣22 𝑝2
+ + 𝑧1 = + + 𝑧2 + 𝐻𝐸 + 𝐻𝐿1−2
2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾

𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑇𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒 = 𝑄𝛾𝐻𝐸

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Let us have the over-all visualization on the following figure and analyze the behavior of HGL and EGL with
respect to flow direction along the pipes connected along the with pump, valve, turbine, and nozzle.

Example 1: A pipe carrying oil of specific gravity 0.877 changes in size from 150 mm at section (1) and
450 mm at section (2). Section (1) is 3.6 m below section (2) and the pressures are 90 kPa and 60 kPa
respectively. If the discharge is 150 lit/sec, determine the head lost and the direction of flow.

Solution:
𝑝2 = 60 𝑘𝑃𝑎
450 𝑚𝑚 ∅

(2)
3.6 𝑚

(1)

𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑚
𝑝1 = 90 𝑘𝑃𝑎
150 𝑚𝑚 ∅
𝑄1 = 𝑄2 = 0.15 𝑚3/𝑠

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𝑄1 0.15 𝑚3/𝑠
𝑣1 = =𝜋 2 = 8.49 𝑚/𝑠
𝐴
( )
4 0.15 𝑚
1

𝑄2 0.15 𝑚3/𝑠
𝑣2 = =𝜋 2 = 0.943 𝑚/𝑠
𝐴
( )
4 0.45 𝑚
2

Take Elev. (1) as the datum

𝑣12 𝑝1 (8.49)2 90
𝐸1 = + + 𝑧1 = + + 0; 𝑬𝟏 = 𝟏𝟒. 𝟏𝟒 𝒎
2𝑔 𝛾 2(9.81) 0.877(9.81)
𝑣22 𝑝2 (0.943)2 60

𝐸2 = + + 𝑧2 = 2(9.81) + 0.877(9.81) + 3.6; 𝑬𝟐 = 𝟏𝟎. 𝟔𝟐 𝒎

2𝑔 𝛾

Since 𝐸1 > 𝐸2, the flow is from section (1) to section (2) with a head lost
𝐻𝐿 = 𝐸1 − 𝐸2 = 14.14 − 10.62; 𝑯𝑳 = 𝟑. 𝟓𝟐 𝒎

Activity: Skill-building Activities (with answer key) (18 mins + 2 mins checking)

Solve the following:

Problem 1: Water flows through a 75 mm diameter pipe at a velocity of 3m/sec. Find (a) the volume
flow rate in m3/sec (b) the mass flow rate in kg/sec, and (c) the weight flow rate in N/sec.

Problem 2: A turbine is rated at 600 hp when the flow of water through it is 0.61 m 3/s. Assuming
an efficiency of 87%, what is the head acting on the turbine?

Activity: Check for Understanding (5 minutes)

Problem: What is the significance of the value of flow rate?

C. LESSON WRAP-UP

Activity: Think about your Learning

1. How was your learning experience for this lesson(s)?

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 2. What portion of the lesson(s) did you find it difficult to understand? CIE 121: Hydraulics
Module #4 Student Activity Sheet
.
Name: Class number:
Section: Schedule: Date:

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 CIE 121: Hydraulics
Module #4 Student Activity Sheet

Name: Class number:

Section: Schedule: Date:

FAQs

1. What factors affect the flow rate of a fluid?

Answer: Flow patterns in a fluid depend on three factors: the characteristics of the fluid, the speed of
flow, and the shape of the solid surface. Three characteristics of fluid are of special importance: viscosity,
density, and compressibility.

2. How does pressure affect fluid flow?

Answer: Bernoulli’s Equation states, mathematically that if fluid is flowing through a tube and the tube
diameter decreases, then the velocity of the fluid increases, the pressure decreases, and the mass flow (and
therefore volumetric flow) remains constant so long as air density is constant.

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 CIE 121: Hydraulics
Module #5 Student Activity Sheet

Name: Class number:

Section: Schedule: Date:

Lesson Title: Fluid Flow Measurement Materials:

Learning Targets: Scientific Calculator, Ballpoint
At the end of the module, you should be able to: References:
1. Define device coefficient of an orifice. Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulics 4th
2. Calculate the coefficient of discharge, contraction and Edition by DIT Gillesania
velocity.

A. LESSON PREVIEW/REVIEW

Introduction (3 minutes)
There are numerous numbers of devices used to measure the flow of fluids. In any of these devices, the
Bernoulli’s Energy Theorem is greatly utilized and additional knowledge of characteristic and coefficients of
each device is important. In the absence of reliable values and coefficients, a device should be calibrated
for the expected operating conditions.

B. MAIN LESSON

Activity: Content Notes (15 minutes)

DEVICE COEFFICIENTS

Coefficient of Discharge, 𝑪 𝒐𝒓 𝑪𝒅
The coefficient of discharge is the ratio of the actual discharge through the device to the ideal or theoretical
discharge which would occur without losses. This maybe expressed as:

𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑄
𝐶 𝑜𝑟 𝐶 =
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑄
The actual discharge may be accomplished by series of observation, usually by measuring the total amount
of fluid passing through the device for a known period. The theoretical value can be accomplished using the
Bernoulli’s Theorem neglecting losses.

Coefficient of Velocity, 𝑪𝒗
The coefficient of velocity is the ratio of the actual mean velocity to the ideal or theoretical velocity which would
occur without any losses.
𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑣
𝐶𝑣 = =
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑣

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Coefficient of Contraction, 𝑪𝒄
The coefficient of contraction is the ratio of the actual area of the contracted section of the stream or jet to
the area of the opening through which the fluid flows.
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚 𝑜𝑟 𝑗𝑒𝑡 𝑎
𝐶𝑐 =
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐴

Also, for the respective actual values of rate of flow, cross-sectional area of jet, and velocity,
𝑄 = 𝑎𝑣
And considering the definitions of each coefficient above-mentioned, we have
𝐶𝑄𝑡 = (𝐶𝑐𝐴)(𝐶𝑣𝑣𝑡)
Rearranging the terms with coefficients combined,
𝐶𝑄𝑡 = 𝐶𝑐𝐶𝑣𝐴𝑣𝑡
Hence,
𝑪 = 𝑪𝒄𝑪𝒗

Example: A volumetric tank 1.20 m in diameter and 1.50 m high was filled with oil in 16 minutes and 32.4
seconds. What is the average discharge?

Solution:
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑉 60 𝑠𝑒𝑐.
𝑄= = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 (𝑡) = 16 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑠 𝑥 = 960 𝑠𝑒𝑐.
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡 1 𝑚𝑖𝑛.

𝜋
(1.2)2(1.5)
𝑄= 4
960 + 32.4
𝑸 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟕 𝒎𝟑/𝒔

Activity: Skill-building Activities (with answer key) (18 mins + 2 mins checking)

Solve the following:

Problem 1: A 75-mm diameter orifice discharge 23.41 liters per second of liquid under a head of 2.85
m. The diameter of the jet at the vena contracta is found by callipering to be 66.25 mm. Calculate the
coefficient of contraction.

Problem 2: The discharge through a 75-mm diameter orifice at the bottom of a large tank was
measured be 1, 734 liters in 1 minute. If the head over the orifice remain constant at 5.5 m, compute
the coefficient of discharge?

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Activity: Check for Understanding (5 minutes)

Problem: An orifice has a coefficient of discharge of 0.62 and a coefficient of contraction of 0.63.
Determine the coefficient of velocity for the orifice.

C. LESSON WRAP-UP
Activity: Thinking about Learning (5 minutes)

1. How was your learning experience for this lesson(s)?

2. What portion of the lesson(s) did you find it difficult to understand?

FAQs

1. Can the coefficient of discharge be greater than 1?

Answer: Plug in a coefficient for energy losses through turbulence and you have your formula. But you
can see indeed that your coefficient can never be greater than one, because that would mean that you
end up with more energy than you started with.

2. Why is the coefficient of discharge less than 1?

Answer: The reason why Cd values are always less than 1 is because the actual discharge will always
be less than the theoretical discharge idealized by Torricelli. This is so due to the effect of surface tension
and friction from the external fluid.

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 CIE 121: Hydraulics
Module #6 Student Activity Sheet

Class number:
Name:
Date:
Section: Schedule:

Lesson Title: Fluid Flow Through an Orifice Materials:

Learning Targets: Scientific Calculator, Ballpoint
At the end of the module, you should be able to: References:
1. Define the meaning of orifice. Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulics 4th
2. Calculate the discharge of an orifice Edition by DIT Gillesania

A. LESSON PREVIEW/REVIEW

Introduction (3 minutes
The orifice meter is relatively cheap & reliable instrument and its installation requires small
length as compared to the venturi meter because of this where the space is limited, the orifice
meter maybe used for the measurement of discharge through pipes.

B. MAIN LESSON

Activity: Content Notes (20 minutes)

Orifice
An orifice is an opening (usually circular) with a closed perimeter through which fluid flows.

A Free-flow Type (under constant head)

(1)

𝐷 (2) 𝑣2

Considering Bernoulli Energy Equation (No head lost)

𝐸1 = 𝐸2

+ + 𝑧1 = + + 𝑧2
2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾

 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝑣𝑡 = √2𝑔𝐻  𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒, 𝑄𝑡 = 𝐴√2𝑔𝐻

 𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝑣 = 𝐶𝑣√2𝑔𝐻  𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒, 𝑄 = 𝐶𝐴√2𝑔𝐻

𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑯 = 𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒅 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒘 𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒈𝒉 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒐𝒓𝒊𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒆

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Sharp-edged Orifice:

The figure shown represents a cross-section of fluid flow through a vertical sharp-edged orifice from
a reservoir to the atmosphere.

𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑄 = 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝐷/2

𝑄 = 𝑎𝑣
𝑄 = 𝐶𝑐𝐴𝐶𝑣√2𝑔𝐻
𝐴 𝑎
𝑄 = 𝐶𝑐𝐶𝑣𝐴√2𝑔𝐻 𝐷
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝐶 = 𝐶𝑐𝐶𝑣
𝑉𝐸𝑁𝐴 𝐶𝑂𝑁𝑇𝑅𝐴𝐶𝑇𝐴
𝑄 = 𝐶𝐴√2𝑔𝐻 − 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑗𝑒𝑡
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠
𝑎
𝐶𝑐 = (𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛)
𝐴

Head Lost in a Horizontal Orifice:

𝑣2
1 𝐻𝐿
𝐻𝐿 = [ 2 − 1]
2𝑔 𝐶𝑣
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒: 𝐻
𝑣
𝑣 = 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑢 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑒
𝐶𝑣 = 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦

Submerged Orifice:
𝐻
𝑄 = 𝐶𝐴√2𝑔𝐻 ℎ1
ℎ2
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒:
(2)
𝐻 = 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒
𝐻 = ℎ1 − ℎ2

Gates:

𝑣𝑡2 = 𝐶𝑣√2𝑔(ℎ1 − ℎ2) + 𝑣1 2

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Orifice under Falling Heads:

𝑛𝑒𝑤 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒
𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 (𝑡)
𝐴𝑠 = 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑
𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑖𝑠 ℎ

ℎ1
ℎ
𝑛𝑒𝑤 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒
ℎ2
𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 (𝑡)
𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑒

ℎ−0.5𝑑ℎ

for Uniform cross-section:

2𝐴𝑠(√ℎ1 − √ℎ2)
𝑡=
𝐶𝐴√2𝑔

where:
𝐴𝑠 = 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑖𝑠 ℎ
𝐶 = 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒
𝐴 = 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑒

Example 1: On the side of a tank, an opening 28 mm ∅ 1.825 mm above the ground issues a horizontal jet
of water under a constant head of 1.8 m. How far horizontally is it expected to hit the ground?

Solution:
𝒗 = √𝟐𝒈𝒉
1.8 m 𝑣
𝑣 = √2(9.81)(1.8)
𝑣 = 5.9427 1.825 m
𝒈𝒙𝟐
𝒚 = 𝒙𝒕𝒂𝒏𝜽 − 𝟐
𝟐𝒗 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐𝜽 𝑥
(9.81)𝑥2

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 CIE 121: Hydraulics
Module #6 Student Activity Sheet
1.825 = 𝑥𝑡𝑎𝑛 0° −
2(5.9427)2𝑐𝑜𝑠20°
𝒙 = 𝟑. 𝟔𝟐 𝒎

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 CIE 121: Hydraulics
Module #6 Student Activity Sheet

Name: Class number:

Section: Schedule: Date:

Activity: Skill-building Activities (with answer key) (18 mins + 2 mins checking)

Solve the following:

Problem 1: A 38 mm ∅ orifice having 𝐶 = 𝐶 𝑣 = 0.84 on a vertical wall, discharges into the

air. If the jet strikes a point on the ground 12 m. horizontally and the opening is 6m above
the ground, compute the corresponding head in meters.

Problem 2: A sharp edged orifice will be required to produce a discharge of 35 liters/sec of

water under a head of 3 m. Find the required diameter, when 𝐶 = 0.595.

Activity: Check for Understanding (5 minutes)

Problem: Calculate the discharge in liters per second through a 100-mm diameter orifice
under a head of 5.5 m of water. Assume 𝐶𝑐 = 0.61 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶𝑣 = 0.98

C. LESSON WRAP-UP

Activity: Thinking about Learning (5 minutes)

1. How was your learning experience for this lesson(s)?

2. What portion of the lesson(s) did you find it difficult to understand?

FAQs
1. How does an orifice work?
Answer: The small hole on orifice plate restricts flow which causes the pressure to drop. The pressure
can be measured using pressure gauges before and after the orifice plate which allows you to
determine the flow rate using the Bernoulli Equation. An orifice plate is installed between orifice flanges
or a metering unit.

2. Does an orifice reduce flow?

Answer: A reduction in orifice size result in decreased flow as only so much liquid can pass through
the orifice. Since the flow on the liquid is limited by the orifice, it follows that the pressure on the exit
side of the orifice is less than that on the inlet side.

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 CIE 121: Hydraulics
Module #7 Student Activity Sheet

Name: Class number:

Section: Schedule: Date:

Lesson Title: Venturimeter Materials:

Learning Targets: Scientific Calculator, Ballpoint
At the end of the module, you should be able to: References:
1. Define venturi meter Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulics 4th
2. Calculate venturi meter coefficient, discharge and Edition by DIT Gillesania
pressure difference

A. LESSON PREVIEW/REVIEW

Introduction (3 minutes)

In many of today’s industrial processes, it is essential to measure accurately the rate of fluid flow in a system
as a whole or in part. This applies equally to gases and liquids which an integral part of the process, or to
compressed air, water or stream which are fundamental to plant operation. Pipe flow measurement is often
done with a differential pressure flow measurement one is a Venturi meter which is discussed in this lesson.

B. MAIN LESSON

Activity: Content Notes (20 minutes)

VENTURI METER

Venturi meter is an instrument used in measuring the discharge through pipes.it consist of a converging
tube AB (See Figure) which is connected to the main pipe at the inlet at A, and ending in a cylindrical section
BC called the throat, and a diverging section CD which is connected again to the main pipe at the outlet
D. the angle of divergence is kept small to reduce the head lost cause by turbulence as the velocity is
reduced.

outlet

Continuity equation says, 𝐴1 𝑣1 = 𝐴2 𝑣2.

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 CIE 121: Hydraulics
Module #7 Student Activity Sheet

Name: Class number:

Section: Schedule: Date:

Consider two sections in the system, (1) at the base of the inlet and (2) at the throat, and writing the energy
equation between these two sections neglecting head lost:
𝑣12 𝑝1 𝑣22 𝑝2
+ + 𝑧1 = + + 𝑧2
2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾
𝑣 12 𝑣22 𝑝2 𝑝1

− =( + 𝑧2) − ( + 𝑧1)
2𝑔 2𝑔 𝛾 𝛾

If the elevations and the difference in pressure between (1) and (2) are known, the discharge can be solved.

The theoretical or ideal discharge “𝑄𝑡 ” can be found once 𝑣1 or 𝑣2 is known. The actual discharge “𝑄” is
computed by multiplying the theoretical value by the coefficient of discharge or meter coefficient “𝐶”.

𝑄𝑄==𝐶𝑄𝑡
𝐶𝑄𝑡
Example 1: The discharge through a venturimeter is 58 liters/sec. The diameter of the pipe is 75 cm. and
the area ratio is 4 to 1. If the value of C is 0.99, and the pressure head at the entrance is 6m, find the velocity
and the pressure head at the throat.

Solution:

𝑄
75 cm
(2)
(1)
Given that the area ratio is 4 to 1, 𝐴1 = 4𝐴2
Considering the continuity equation
𝐴 1 𝑣1 = 𝐴 2 𝑣 2
4𝐴2 𝑣1 = 𝐴2 𝑣2
4 𝑣 1 = 𝑣2
To solve the velocities,
𝜋 use 𝑄 = 𝐶𝐴1 𝑣1
0.058 = 0.99 (0.75)2 𝑣 ; 𝑣 = 0.133 𝑚/𝑠
1 1
4
Solved 𝑣1 substituted in the above equation, 4 𝑣1 = 𝑣2
𝒗𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟑 𝒎/𝒔 (velocity at the throat section)

Here, consider the Bernoulli Energy Equation (NO head lost means theoretical state)
𝑣12 𝑝1 𝑣22 𝑝2
+ + 𝑧1 = + + 𝑧2
2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾
(0.133)2 (0.53)2 𝑝2
+6+0= + +0
2(9.81) 2(9.81) 𝛾

𝒑𝟐
= 𝟓. 𝟗𝟗 𝒎 (pressure head at the throat)
𝜸

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 CIE 121: Hydraulics
Module #7 Student Activity Sheet

Class number:
Name:
Date:
Section: Schedule:

Activity: Skill-building Activities (with answer key) (18 mins + 2 mins checking)

Solve the following:

Problem: A 150 mm diameter horizontal Venturi meter is installed in a 450-mm diameter water main. The
deflection of mercury in the differential manometer connected from the inlet to the throat is 375 mm. (a)
Determine the discharge neglecting head lost.
(b) Compute the discharge if the head lost from the inlet to the throat is 300 mm of water,
and (c) what is the meter coefficient?

𝑄 (1) (2)

375 𝑚𝑚
𝑀𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑦 (𝑠. 𝑔. = 13.6)

Activity: Check for Understanding (5 minutes)

Problem: A 300 mm x 75 mm venturimeter is inserted in a 300 mm ∅ main pipeline where water flows
at 55 liters/sec. Neglecting friction loss, compute the drop in pressure head from the inlet to the throat.

C. LESSON WRAP-UP

Activity: Thinking about Learning (5 minutes)

1. How was your learning experience for this lesson(s)?

2. What portion of the lesson(s) did you find it difficult to understand?

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 CIE 121: Hydraulics
Module #7 Student Activity Sheet

Class number:
Name:
Date:
Section: Schedule:

FAQs

1. What is the purpose of a Venturi meter?

Answer: Venturi meters are flow measurement instruments which use a converging section of pipe to give
an increase in the flow velocity and a corresponding pressure drop from which the flowrate can be deduced.
They have been in common use for many years, especially in water supply industry.

2. How does venture meter work?

Answer: A venturi is a device that allows flow rates through pipes to be calculate by measuring the
difference in pressure created by a construction in a pipe. Knowing the pipe diameter, this velocity can be
converted into a flow rate venturi meter work based on the principles found in Bernoulli’s equation.

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 CIE 121: Hydraulics
Module #8 Student Activity Sheet

Name: Class number:

Section: Schedule: Date:

Lesson Title: Flow over Weirs Materials:

Learning Targets: Scientific Calculator, Ballpoint
At the end of the module, you should be able to: References:
1. Classify the shapes of weir. Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulics 4th
2. Calculate the discharge on the different shapes of weir. Edition by DIT Gillesania

A. LESSON PREVIEW/REVIEW

Introduction (3 minutes)

Weirs are overflow structures which are built across an open channel for the purpose of measuring or
controlling the flow of liquids. Weirs have been commonly used to measure the flow of water, but it is
now being adopted to measure the flow of other liquid. The formulas and principle that will be discussed
on this lesson are general, i.e. applicable to any type of liquid.

B. MAIN LESSON

Activity: Content Notes (20 minutes)

WEIR
The flow over a weir may either be free or submerged. If the water surface downstream from the weir is
lower than the crest, the flow is free, but if the downstream surface is higher than the crest, the flow is
submerged.

Definition of Terms
 Nappe – the overflowing stream in a weir
 Crest of weir – the edge or top surface of a weir with which the flowing liquid comes in contact
 Contracted weir – weirs having sides sharp-edged, so that the nappe is contracted in width or having
end contractions, either one end or two ends
 Suppressed weir – weir having its length L being equal to the width of the channel so that the nappe
suffers no end contractions
Drawdown
E.G.L
Water surface 𝑣𝑎2/2𝑔
Nappe
H

crest
Weir plate

Channel bed 4H
A

Figure 8.1: Path lines of flow over a rectangular sharp-crested weir

 CIE 121: Hydraulics
Module #8 Student Activity Sheet

Class number:
Name:
Date:
Section: Schedule:

RECTANGULAR WEIR

L h H
dh
d
P

Where: 𝐿 = 𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ; 𝐻 = ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑟

General Formula
𝟐
𝑸 = 𝑪√𝟐𝒈 𝑳𝑯𝟑/𝟐
𝟑

Francis Formula
a) Neglecting velocity of approach
𝑸 = 𝟏. 𝟖𝟒𝑳𝑯𝟑/𝟐
= . /

b) Considering velocity of approach, 𝑣𝑎

𝑣𝑎 2
𝑸 = 𝟏. 𝟖𝟒𝑳[(𝑯 + 𝒉𝒗)𝟑/𝟐 − 𝒉𝒗𝟑/𝟐] 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑐ℎ, ℎ𝑣 =
2𝑔

Contracted Weir

𝑳’
𝑳’
𝐿
𝐿
Two-End Contraction One-End Contraction

𝑸 = 𝟏. 𝟖𝟒𝑳′ 𝑯𝟑/𝟐 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑳′ = 𝑳 − 𝟎. 𝟏𝑯

Where: 𝐿 = 𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ; 𝐻 = ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑟

Triangular Weir
At very low heads, the nappe of a rectangular weir has a tendency to adhere to its
downstream face.
𝟖
𝑸= 𝑪 𝟐𝒈 𝒕𝒂𝒏 (𝜃/2)𝑯𝟓/𝟐
𝟏𝟓 √ 𝜃/2

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 𝑸 = 𝟏. 𝟒𝑯𝟓/𝟐 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝜃 = 90° CIE 121: Hydraulics
Module #8 Student Activity Sheet

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 CIE 121: Hydraulics
Module #8 Student Activity Sheet

Class number:
Name:
Date:
Section: Schedule:

Trapezoidal Weir
The discharge from a trapezoidal weir is assumed the same as that from a rectangular weir and a
triangular weir in combination.
𝐿

𝜃/2 𝜃/2
𝐻

𝟐 𝟖
𝑸= 𝑪√𝟐𝒈 𝑳𝑯𝟑/𝟐 + 𝑪√𝟐𝒈 𝒕𝒂𝒏 (𝜃/2)𝑯𝟓/𝟐
𝟑 𝟏𝟓
Cipolleti Weir (𝜃/2) = 90°

𝑸 = 𝟏. 𝟖𝟓𝟗 𝑳𝑯𝟑/𝟐

Unsteady Flow Weir (Variable Head)

General Formula
𝑯𝟏 𝑨 𝒅𝑯
𝒔
𝒕=∫
𝑯𝟐 𝑸

If the flow is through a suppressed rectangular weir:

𝟐𝑨𝒔 𝟏 𝟏
𝒕= [ − ]
𝑪𝒘𝑳 √𝑯𝟐 √𝑯𝟏

Where: 𝑪𝒘 = 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑟 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟

𝑳 = 𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝑨𝒔 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑟 𝑜𝑟 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘
𝑯𝟏 = 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑
𝑯𝟐 = 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑

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Module #8 Student Activity Sheet

Class number:
Name:
Date:
Section: Schedule:

Example 1: A sharp-crested weir 0.90 m high extends across a rectangular channel 6 m wide where the
depth of water upstream from the weir is 1.2 m deep. Find the discharged through the weir considering the
velocity of approach.

Solution:

Given:
L=6m P = 0.90 m d = 1.2 m
(height of the weir)
H = d – P = 0.20 m
Formula:
𝑸 = 𝟏. 𝟖𝟒𝑳𝑯𝟑/𝟐
𝑄 = 1.84(6)(0.20)3/2
𝑄 = 0.987 𝑚3 /𝑠

From the rectangular weir considering velocity of approach formula,

𝑸 0.987 𝑚
𝒗𝒂 = = ; 𝒗𝒂 = 0.137
𝑨 6(1.2) 𝑠
𝒗𝒂𝟐 (0.137)2
𝒉𝒗 = = ; 𝒉𝒗 = 0.00096 𝑚
𝟐𝒈 2(9.81)

𝟑 𝟑
𝑸 = 𝟏. 𝟖𝟒𝑳 [(𝑯 + 𝒉𝒗)𝟐 − 𝒉𝒗𝟐]
3 3
𝑄 = 1.84(6) [(0.2 + 0.00096)2 − (0.00096)2]
𝑸 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟗𝟒 𝑚3 /𝑠

Example 2: Find the discharge of a Cipolleti weir if it has a head equal to 0.60 m if the length of weir is 3
times its head.

Solution:

Given:
𝐻 = 0.60 𝑚

𝐿 = 3𝐻
𝑄 = 1.856𝐿𝑯𝟑/𝟐
𝑄 = 1.86(3)(.6)(. 6)3/2
𝑄 = 𝟏. 𝟓𝟔 𝑚3 /𝑠

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 CIE 121: Hydraulics
Module #8 Student Activity Sheet

Class number:
Name:
Date:
Section: Schedule:

Activity: Skill-building Activities (with answer key) (18 mins + 2 mins checking)

Solve the following:

Problem 1: A rectangular channel 6 m wide has 1.50 m depth of water flowing with a mean velocity of
0.75 m/s. a standard sharp-crested weir increases the depth in the channel approach to 2.50 m. when
the flow in the channel is 6.75 m3/s and considering the velocity of approach, find the height of the weir.

Problem 2: The head of water flowing in a V-notch weir is 0.20. Using = 90°, find the discharge.

Activity: Check for Understanding (5 minutes)

Problem. A Cipolleti weir is constructed across a trapezoidal channel. The discharge is estimated to
be 3.50 m3/s with a head not exceeding 0.50 m. Find the crest length.

C. LESSON WRAP-UP

Activity: Thinking about Learning (5 minutes)

1. How was your learning experience for this lesson(s)?

2. What portion of the lesson(s) did you find it difficult to understand?

FAQs

1. Where are weirs used?

Answer: Weirs have traditionally been used to create mill ponds. They are also used to prevent flooding,
measure discharge, and help render a river navigable. The crest of an overflow spillway on a large dam
is often called a weir.

2. What is the purpose of weirs?

Answer: Weirs create a barrier across the river that can adversely affect wildlife and recreation.
Appropriate design can ensure that the adverse impacts are minimized or eliminated, or even turned into
a benefit.

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 CIE 121: Hydraulics
Module #9 Student Activity Sheet

Class number:
Name:
Date:
Section: Schedule:

Lesson Title: Fluid Flow in Pipes Materials:

Learning Targets: Scientific Calculator, Ballpoint
At the end of the module, you should be able to: References:
1. Define laminar and turbulent flow Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulics 4th
2. Calculate the discharge and velocity of fluids in pipes. Edition by DIT Gillesania

A. LESSON PREVIEW/REVIEW

Introduction (3 minutes)
Pipes are closed conduits through which fluids or gases flow. Conduits may flow full or partially full. Pipes are
referred to as conduits which flow full. Conduits flowing partially full are called open channels, which will be
discussed in this lesson.

B. MAIN LESSON

Activity: Content Notes (20 minutes)

Fluid flow in pipes may be steady or unsteady. In steady flow, there are two types of flow that exist; they are
called laminar flow and turbulent flow.
Laminar Flow: 𝑹𝒆 < 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎
The flow is said to be laminar when the path of individual fluid particles does not cross or intersect.

Turbulent Flow: 𝑹𝒆 > 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎

>

The flow is said to be turbulent when the path of individual particles is irregular and continuously cross
each other.

Reynolds Number
Reynolds number, which is dimensionless, is the ratio of the inertia force to viscous force.

 For pipes flowing full

𝐯𝑫
𝑹𝒆 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝝁 = 𝒗𝝆
𝒗

Where:
v = 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑚/𝑠
𝐷 = 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑣 = 𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑚2/𝑠
𝜇 = 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑦𝑛𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑃𝑎 ∙ 𝑠

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Class number:
Name:
Date:
Section: Schedule:

For non-circular pipes, use 𝐷 = 4𝑅, then the formula becomes

𝟒𝐯𝑹 𝟒𝐯𝝆𝑹
𝑹𝒆 = =
𝒗 𝝁

𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒 𝐴

𝐻𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑖𝑐 𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠, 𝑅 = =
𝑊𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑃𝑖𝑝𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑃

HEAD LOSS IN PIPE FLOW

MAJOR HEAD LOSS, 𝒉𝒇

A. Darcy- Weisbach Formula
𝐟𝐋𝐯𝟐𝐟𝐋 𝐯𝟐
𝒉𝒇 = = ∙
𝟐𝒈𝑫 𝑫 𝟐𝒈

For circular pipes, the head lost maybe expressed as:

𝟎. 𝟎𝟖𝟐𝟔 𝐟𝐋𝑸𝟐
𝒉𝒇 =
𝑫𝟓
Where: 𝑄 = 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒
𝑓 = 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝐿 = 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒
𝐷 = 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒
v = 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦

𝟔𝟒
𝒇= (𝒊𝒏 𝒍𝒂𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒓 𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒘)
𝑹𝒆

B. Manning Formula

The manning is one of the best-known open channel formulas and is commonly used in pipes.
𝟏 𝟐 𝟏
𝒗 = 𝑹𝟑 𝑺𝟐
𝒏
Where:
𝑛 = 𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑅 = ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑖𝑐 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠
𝑆 = 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 ; 𝑺 = 𝒉𝒇/𝑳

For circular pipes,

𝟏𝟎. 𝟐𝟗 𝒏𝟐𝐋𝑸𝟐
𝒉𝒇 = 𝟏𝟔⁄

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C. Hazen Williams Formula

The Hazen Williams formula is widely used in waterworks industry. This formula is applicable only to
the flow of water in pipes larger than 50 mm and velocities less than 3 m/s. this formula was designed
for flow in both pipes and open channels but is more commonly used in pipes.

𝒗 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟒𝟗 𝑪𝑹𝟎.𝟔𝟑 𝑺𝟎.𝟓𝟒

For circular pipes flowing full, this formula becomes:

𝑸 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟕𝟖𝟓𝑪𝑹𝟎.𝟔𝟑 𝑺𝟎.𝟓𝟒

𝟏𝟎. 𝟔𝟕𝑳𝑸𝟏.𝟖𝟓
𝒉𝒇 =
𝑸𝟏.𝟖𝟓𝑸𝟏.𝟖𝟓
Where:
𝐶 = 𝐻𝑎𝑧𝑒𝑛 𝑊𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝐷 = 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑅 = ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑖𝑐 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠

𝑆 = 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 ; 𝑺 = 𝒉𝒇/𝑳

Example:
Oil of absolute viscosity (𝜇 = 0.135 𝑃𝑎. 𝑠) and s.g. = 0.82 flows in a 30 cm ∅ pipe which has a length
of 3.50 km at the rate of 50 liters/s. Determine the loss of head due to friction.
Solution:

liters 𝟏 𝒎𝟑 𝑚3
𝐐 = 50 𝒙 ; 𝑄 = 0.05
𝑠 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑳 𝑠
𝑚3

𝐯 =𝐐= 0.05 ; v = 0.707 𝑚/𝑠

𝑠
𝑨 𝜋
(0.30 𝑚)2
4
𝑘𝑔
0.707 [(0.82)(1000 )] 0.30 𝑚
𝐯𝝆𝑫 𝑚3
𝑹𝒆 = = 𝑁 ; 𝑹𝒆 = 𝟏𝟐𝟖𝟖
𝝁 (0.135 . 𝑠)
𝑚 2

𝟔𝟒 64
𝒇= = ; 𝒇 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟒𝟗𝟕
𝑹𝒆 𝑅𝑒

𝟎. 𝟎𝟖𝟐𝟔 𝐟𝐋𝑸𝟐
𝒉𝒇 = 𝒉𝒇 =

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0.0826(0.049
7)(3500
m)(0.05)2
(0.30)5 𝒉𝒇 = 𝟏𝟒. 𝟕𝟖 𝒎

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Activity: Skill-building Activities (with answer key) (18 mins + 2 mins checking)

Solve the following:

Problem 1: A fluid having 𝑣 = 4 𝑥 10−5 𝑚2/𝑠 flows in a 750 m long pipe having a diameter of 20
mm. Determine the head lost required to maintain a velocity of 3 m/s.

Problem 2: Fluid flows through a 20-mm diameter pipe, 150 m long at a Reynolds number of
1,750. Calculate the discharge if the head lost is 175 m.

Activity: Check for Understanding (5 minutes)

Problem : Water having kinematic viscosity 𝑣 = 1.3 𝑥 10−5 𝑚2/𝑠 flows in a 100-mm diameter pipe
at a velocity of 4.5 m/s. Is the flow laminar or turbulent?

C. LESSON WRAP-UP

Activity: Thinking about Learning (5 minutes)

1. How was your learning experience for this lesson(s)?

2. What portion of the lesson(s) did you find it difficult to understand?

FAQs

1. What are the major losses in pipe flow?

Answer: The friction loss in a uniform, straight sections of pipe, known as “major loss”, is caused by
the effect of viscosity, the movement of fluid molecules against each other or against the (possibly
rough) wall of the pipe. Here it is greatly affected by whether flow is laminar or turbulent.

2. What is the function of Reynolds Number?

Answer: The Reynolds number is a dimensionless value that is used to determine whether the fluid
is exhibiting laminar flow or turbulent flow. Laminar flow is when a fluid moves smoothly and is
predictable.

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Lesson Title: Pipes Connecting Two Reservoirs Materials:

Learning Targets: Scientific Calculator, Ballpoint
At the end of the module, you should be able to: References:
1. Formulate the appropriate Bernoulli Energy Equation for a fluid Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulics 4th
flow in pipes (which may include pumps or turbines as well as Edition by DIT Gillesania
minor headlossess) connecting two reservoirs. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topi
cs/engineering/pump-efficiency
2. Solve fluid problems flowing in pipes connecting two reservoirs.
https://www.turbinesinfo.com/stea
m-turbine-efficiency/

A. LESSON PREVIEW/REVIEW

Introduction (3 minutes)
Any water conveying system may include the following elements:
• pipes (in series, pipes in parallel)
• elbows
• valves
• other devices.
If all elements are connected in series, the arrangement is known as a pipeline. Otherwise, it is known as a
pipe network.

B. MAIN LESSON

Simple Pipe Flow

It is a flow takes place in one pipe, having a constant diameter and with no branches. This system may include
bends, valves, pumps and so on.

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To solve such system, apply Bernoulli’s equation

𝑣12 𝑝1 𝑣22 𝑝2
+ + 𝑧1 + 𝐻𝐴 = + + 𝑧2 + 𝐻𝐿
2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾
Where:
𝐻𝐴 = ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝
𝐻𝐿 = ℎ𝑓 + ℎ𝑚

𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ ℎ𝑓 = ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ℎ𝑚 = 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑟 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠

If a system includes head loss and a motor/turbine,

𝑣12 𝑝1 𝑣22 𝑝2
+ + 𝑧1 = + + 𝑧2 + +𝐻𝐸 + 𝐻𝐿
2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾
Where:

𝐻𝐸 = ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑟 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒

Example 1: Determine the difference in the elevations between the water surfaces in the two tanks which are
connected by a horizontal pipe of diameter 30 cm and length 400 m. The rate of flow of water through the pipe
is 300 liters/sec. Take the value of 𝑓 = 0.032.

Solution:
𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑣. 𝐴

𝐿 = 400 𝑚
𝑧𝐴
𝐷 = 0.30 𝑚 𝑧𝐵

By Bernoulli Energy Equation considering major headloss,

𝑣𝐴2 𝑝𝐴 + 𝑧 = 𝑣𝐵2 𝑝𝐵 + 𝑧 + 𝐻𝐿
+ 𝐴
+ 𝐵
2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾

Note: at the reservoir, consider the velocity or velocity head and pressure to be zero
0 + 0 + 𝑧𝐴 = 0 + 0 + 𝑧𝐵 + 𝐻𝐿
𝑧𝐴 − 𝑧𝐵 = 𝐻𝐿 = ℎ𝑓
But 𝐻𝐿 using Darcy Weishbach with of 𝑓 = 0.032, we have
𝟎. 𝟎𝟖𝟐𝟔 𝐟𝐋𝑸𝟐
𝒉𝒇 =
𝑫𝟓
0.0826 (0.032)(400)(0.3)2
ℎ𝑓 =

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 (0.
3)5
; 𝒉𝒇 = 𝟑𝟗. 𝟏𝟔 𝒎 CIE 121: Hydraulics
Module #10 Student Activity Sheet
Hence, the difference in elevation in the water surfaces is 𝒛𝑨 − 𝒛𝑩 = 𝟑𝟗. 𝟏𝟔 𝒎

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Example 2: Two reservoirs A and B have elevations of 250 m and 100 m, respectively. It is connected by a
pipe having a diameter of 250 mm and a length of 100 m. A turbine is installed at point in between reservoirs
A and B. If C = 120, compute the following if the discharge flowing in the pipeline is 150 liters per second:
a. Head lost in pipe due to friction
b. Head extracted by the turbine
c. Power generated by the turbine

Solution:

a. Head lost in pipe using Hazen Williams T

10.64𝐿𝑄1.85 10.64(400)(0.15)1.85
ℎ𝑓 = =
𝐶1.85𝐷4.87 1201.85(0.25)4.87

𝒉𝒇 = 𝟑. 𝟖𝟕 𝒎 = 𝑯𝑳

b. By Bernoulli Energy Equation considering major headloss,

𝑣𝐴2 𝑝𝐴 + 𝑧 = 𝑣𝐵2 𝑝𝐵 + 𝑧 + +𝐻𝐸 + 𝐻𝐿
+ 𝐴
+ 𝐵
2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾

Note: at the reservoir, consider the velocity or velocity head and pressure to be zero
0 + 0 + 250 = 0 + 0 + 100 + +𝐻𝐸 + 3.87
𝑯𝑬 = 𝟏𝟒𝟔. 𝟏𝟑 𝒎

c. 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒, 𝑷 = 𝑸𝜸𝑬; 𝑬 = 𝑯𝑬

𝑃 = (0.15 𝑚3 /𝑠)(9.81 𝑘𝑁 /𝑚3)(146.13 𝑚)

𝑷 = 𝟐𝟏𝟓. 𝟎𝟑 𝒌𝑾

Activity: Skill-building Activity (with answer key) (18 mins + 2 mins checking)

Solve the following:

Problem: Reservoir A has an elevation of 105 m. A pipe is connected from reservoir A to reservoir B.
It has a length of 1200 m and a diameter of 600 mm. A pump is installed near reservoir A and has a
rating of 500 horsepower (hp). If C=120 and flow rate is 510 liters per second, compute the following:
a. Head lost along the pipe
b. Head supplied by the pump if it is 100% efficient
c. Maximum elevation of reservoir B that the pump could supply

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𝐵
𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑣. 𝐵

600 𝑚𝑚 ∅

𝐴
𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑣. 100

Activity: Check for Understanding (20 minutes)

Problem: A pump draws water through a 300-mm diameter cast iron pipe, 15 m long from a reservoir
in which the water surface is 4.5 m higher than the pump and discharges through a 250-mm diameter
cast iron, 75 m long, to an elevated tank in which the water surface is 60 m higher than the pump.
Considering 𝑓 = 0.02 and the coefficients for minor head losses (𝑘𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 0.5,
𝑘𝑏𝑒𝑛𝑑 = 0.35, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑘𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑡 = 0.5), compute the following:
a. Pressure head at the suction side of the pump
b. Pressure head at the discharge side of the pump
c. Horsepower output of the pump
𝑣2 𝑣2
Note: generally, total minor head losses =∑ ℎ ;ℎ =𝑘 ;ℎ =𝑘 ;ℎ =𝑘 𝑣2

𝑚𝑖 𝑚1 𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 2𝑔 𝑚2 𝑏𝑒𝑛𝑑 2𝑔 𝑚3 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑡 2𝑔

𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑣. 𝐵

𝑘𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑡
60 𝑚
250 𝑚𝑚 ∅
300 𝑚𝑚 ∅
𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑣. 𝐴

P 𝑘𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

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C. LESSON WRAP-UP

Activity: Thinking about Learning (5 minutes)

1. How was your learning experience for this lesson(s)?

2. What portion of the lesson(s) did you find it difficult to understand?

FAQs

1. What is power efficiency?

Answer:. Power efficiency is defined as the ratio of the output power divided by the input power.

A pump's efficiency is determined by how effectively the pump can convert one form of energy to another,
based on the difference between the horsepower going into and out of a pump. Ideally, the horsepower
entering the pump would equal the horsepower exiting the pump; making the pumping system 100%
efficient. There are numerous inefficiencies inherent in converting energy to usable fluid power, some of
which are entirely pump design issues. Other efficiency-related items include the flow rate and pressure
range a pump is run in and the physical properties of the fluid the pump is being used to energize.

Turbine efficiency is the ratio of actual work output of the turbine to the net input energy supplied in the
form of fuel. An ideal turbine with 100% efficiency is the one which converts all its input energy into output
work without dissipating energy in the form of heat or any other form. But in the real world, it is not possible
to build a turbine with 100% efficiency because of friction in the parts of turbines, heat loss, and other such
losses. In the case of steam turbines following factors decides the overall efficiency of the turbine.
 Velocity of input steam (which in turn depends on the temperature and pressure of steam)
 Angle of guiding vanes
 Blade angle on the rotor
 Radius of rotor

2. How to compute power efficiency of pumps and of motors?

Answer:.
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝, 𝑃 = 𝑄𝛾𝐸; 𝐸 = 𝐻𝐴 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒, 𝑃 = 𝑄𝛾𝐸; 𝐸 = 𝐻𝐸
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
𝑃𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 𝑥 100% 𝑇𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 𝑥 100%
𝑃𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡

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Class number:
Name:
Date:
Section: Schedule:

Lesson Title: Pipes in Series and Parallel Materials:

Learning Targets: Scientific Calculator, Ballpoint
At the end of the module, you should be able to: References:
1. Define pipes in series and parallel flow. Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulics 4th
2. Calculate the discharge and head loss of a given pipe Edition by DIT Gillesania
system.

A. LESSON PREVIEW/REVIEW

Introduction (3 minutes)
In many pipe systems there is more than one pipe involved which we discussed in this lesson the Parallel
and series pipes. Pipes in series are pipes with different diameter and lengths connected together forming
a pipe line. Pipes in parallel are pipes with different diameters and same length, where each pipe is
connected separately to increase the discharge.

B. MAIN LESSON
Activity: Content Notes (20 minutes)

PIPES CONNECTED IN SERIES

For pipes of different diameter connected in series as shown in the figure below, the discharge in all
pipes are all equal and the total head lost is equal to the sum of the individual head losses.

𝒉𝑪

𝒉𝒆

𝑄1 = 𝑄2 = 𝑄3 = 𝑄
𝐻𝐿 = ℎ𝑓1 + ℎ𝑓2 + ℎ𝑓3 + ℎ𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑟
If the pipe length in any problem is about 500 diameters, the error resulting from neglecting minor losses
will ordinarily not exceed 5%, and if the pipe length is 1000 diameters or more, the effect of minor losses
can usually be considered negligible. Neglecting minor losses, the head lost becomes:

𝐻𝐿 = ℎ𝑓1 + ℎ𝑓2 + ℎ𝑓3

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If, however, it is desired to include minor losses, a solution may be made first by neglecting them and then
correcting the results to include them.

PIPES CONNECTED IN PARALLEL

𝟏

𝟐
𝑸 𝑸
𝑨 𝑩
𝟑

𝑄 = 𝑄1 + 𝑄2 + 𝑄3
𝐻𝐿 = ℎ𝑓1 = ℎ𝑓2 = ℎ𝑓3
In the pipe system shown, pipe 1 draws water from reservoir A and leads to junction C which divides the flow
to pipe 2 and 3, which join again in junction D and flows through pipe 4. The sum of the flow in pipe 2 and 3
equals the flow in pipe 1 and 4. Since the drop I the energy grade line between C and D is equal to the
difference in the levels of piezometers a and b, then the head lost in pipe 2 is therefore equal to the head lost
in pipe 3.

(1)
𝐻𝐿𝐴𝐵
(3)
𝑪

(2) (4)
𝑫
𝑄

The necessary equations for the system are:

𝑄1 = 𝑄4
𝑄1 = 𝑄2 + 𝑄3
ℎ 𝑓2 = ℎ 𝑓 3
𝐻𝐿𝐴𝐵 = ℎ𝑓1 + ℎ𝑓2 + ℎ𝑓4
Note: The number of equations needed to solve the problem must be equal to the number of pipes.

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Example 1: Two parallel pipes are joined at A and B and has diameter and lengths equal to 450-mm
∅, 300-mm ∅ and 1800 m, 600 m, respectively. If the head loss from A to B is 3.60 m., determine the total
flow from A to B. (𝑈𝑠𝑒 𝑓 = 0.020)

Solution:
𝟎. 𝟎𝟖𝟐𝟔 𝐟𝐋𝑸𝟐
𝒉𝒇 =
𝑫𝟓
0.0826 fL(𝑄1)2
ℎ𝑓1 =
𝐷5
0.0826 (0.020)(1800)(𝑄1)2
3.6 =
(0.45)5
𝑄1 = 0.150 𝑚3 /𝑠

𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒 1 𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 𝑡𝑜 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒 2, ℎ𝑓1 = ℎ𝑓2

0.0826 fL(𝑄2)2
ℎ𝑓2 =
𝐷5
2 = 0.0 9 4 m3 / s
=1 +2

= .

0.0826 (0.020)(600)(𝑄2)2
/

3.6 =
(0.30)5
𝑄2 = 0.094 𝑚3 /𝑠
𝑄 = 𝑄1 + 𝑄2
𝑸 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟒𝟒 𝒎𝟑 /𝒔

Example 2: Two pipes, each 300 m long are connected in series. The flow of water through the pipes is 150
lit/sec with a total frictional loss of 15 m. If one pipe has a diameter of 300 mm, what is a diameter of the other
pipe? Neglect minor losses and assume 𝑓 = 0.02 for both pipes.
𝑃𝑖𝑝𝑒 1 𝑃𝑖𝑝𝑒 2
300 𝑚𝑚∅, 300 𝑚 𝐷 =? , 300 𝑚

Solution:
𝑄1 = 𝑄2 = 0.15 𝑚3 /𝑠
𝐻𝐿 = ℎ𝑓1 + ℎ𝑓2
0.0826 (0.02)(300)(0.15)2 0.0826 (0.02)(300)(0.15)2
𝟏𝟓 𝒎 = +
(0.30)5 (𝐷)5

𝑫 = 𝟐𝟓𝟓 𝒎𝒎

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 CIE 121: Hydraulics
Module #11 Student Activity Sheet

Class number:
Name:
Date:
Section: Schedule:

Activity: Skill-building Activities (with answer key) (18 mins + 2 mins checking)

Solve the following:

Problem 1: Two pipes 1 and 2 having the same length and diameter are in parallel. If the flow in pipe
1 is 750 lit/sec, what is the flow in pipe 2 if the friction factor f of the second pipe is twice that of the
first pipe?

Problem 2: A 225 m long, 300 mm diameter concrete pipe and a 400 m long 500 mm diameter
concrete pipe are connected in series. Find the total head loss of the concrete pipe.

Activity: Check for Understanding (5 minutes)

Problem: Three pipes of different length and diameters connected in series as shown discharges
160 liters per second. If the roughness coefficient 𝑛 = 0.012 and disregarding minor losses.
Determine the head loss in pipe 2.

(1) 𝐵 (2) 𝐶
𝐴 (3) 𝐷

C. LESSON WRAP-UP
Activity: Thinking about Learning (5 minutes)
1. How was your learning experience for this lesson(s)?

2. What portion of the lesson(s) did you find it difficult to understand?

FAQs

1. Why head loss is same in parallel pipes?

Answer: The head loss is the requiring pressure to create a given flow. The head loss will be the same for
the tree pipes since it is set by pressure difference between tank A and B. but flows through the tree pipe
will be different.

2. Why are pipes connected in parallel?

Answer: Pipes in parallel are pipes with different diameters and same lengths, where each pipe is
connected separately to increase the discharge.

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 CIE 121: Hydraulics
Module #12 Student Activity Sheet

Name: Class number:

Section: Schedule: Date:

Lesson Title: Three-Reservoir Problems Materials:

Learning Targets: Scientific Calculator, Ballpoint
At the end of the module, you should be able to: References:
1. Determine the case of a given three- reservoir problem. Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulics 4th
2. Calculate the discharge of any of the connecting pipes of a Edition by DIT Gillesania
given three-reservoir problem.
3. Compute the missing elevation in a given three-reservoir
problem.

A. LESSON PREVIEW/REVIEW

Introduction (3 minutes)
Reservoirs at different elevations are connected through a piping network at a single point, with an outflow
from the common junction. This application will calculate the flowrates, flow directions and head at the
common junction. In this lesson it discusses further the reservoir problems.

B. MAIN LESSON
Activity: Content Notes (20 minutes)

THREE-RESERVOIR PROBLEMS

In this lesson, there are two possible cases for three-reservoir problems which is depended on the position or
status of the middle reservoir, that is, it is either one of the receivers from the highest reservoir or another
supplier to the lowest reservoir.
Now let us consider the figures shown below. The three pipes 1, 2, and 3 connects the three reservoirs A, B,
and C respectively and with all pipes meeting at a common junction D.
𝑪𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝟏: 𝑸𝟏 = 𝑸𝟐 + 𝑸𝟑; [𝑀𝑖𝑑𝑑𝑙𝑒 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑟 − 𝑎 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟]

𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑣. 𝐴
𝑝′

𝑝′ 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑣. 𝐵
𝛾

𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑣. 𝐶

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𝑪𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝟐: 𝑸𝟏 = 𝑸𝟐 + 𝑸𝟑; [𝑀𝑖𝑑𝑑𝑙𝑒 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑟 − 𝑎 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑟]

𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑣. 𝐴

𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑣. 𝐵
𝑝′

𝑝′Τ𝛾

𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑣. 𝐶

Types of Three-Reservoir Problems

Type 1: Given the discharge in one of the pipes, or given the pressure at the junction P, and the required is
the elevation one of the reservoirs or the diameter or length of the one of the pipes, and

Type 2: Given all pipe properties and elevation of all reservoirs, find the flow in each pipe, which can be solved
by trial and error.

In any of these types, the main objective is to locate the position (elevation) of the energy at the junction P.
This position represents the water surface of an imaginary reservoir at P. The difference in elevation between
this surface and the surface of another reservoir is the head lost in the pipe leading to that reservoir (See figure
above).

Example 1: A 1,200 mm diameter concrete pipe 1,800 m long carries 1.35 m3/s from reservoir A, whose water
surface is at elevation 50 m, and discharges into two concrete pipes, each 1,350 m long and 750 mm in
diameter. One of the 750-mm diameter pipe discharges into reservoir B in which the water surface is at
elevation 44 m. Determine the elevation of the water surface of reservoir C into which the other 750 mm
diameter pipe is flowing. Assume f = 0.02 for all pipes.

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 CIE 121: Hydraulics
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Class number:
Name:
Date:
Section: Schedule:

Solution:
Since there is no given figure for the problem, let us construct a working drawing to be able to analyze and
solve the problem. You can also draw a working figure base on the conditions stated in the given problem.
[I encourage that you verify the sample drawing based on the given conditions.]

𝒑′

𝟎. 𝟎𝟖𝟐𝟔 𝐟𝐋𝑸𝟐
𝒉𝒇 = ; 𝐟 = 𝐟 𝟏 = 𝐟 𝟐 = 𝐟𝟑
𝑫𝟓
0.0826 fL1𝑄12
ℎ𝑓1 =
𝐷15

0.0826 (0.02)(1800)(1.35)2
ℎ𝑓1 = ; 𝒉𝒇𝟏 = 𝟐. 𝟏𝟖 𝒎
(1.2)5

𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑣. 𝑝′ = 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑣. 𝐴 − ℎ𝑓 1 = 50 − 2.18; 𝑬𝒍𝒆𝒗. 𝒑′ = 𝟒𝟕. 𝟖𝟐 𝒎

ℎ𝑓2 = 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑣. 𝑝′ − 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑣. 𝐵 = 47.82 − 44; 𝒉𝒇 = 𝟑. 𝟖𝟐 𝒎

𝟐
0.0826 fL2𝑄22
Also, ℎ𝑓2 =
𝐷25

0.0826 (0.02)(1350)(𝑄2)2
3.82 = ; 𝑸𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟑𝟕𝟓 𝒎𝟑 /𝒔
(0.75)5

Since the problem stated that “One of the 750-mm diameter pipe discharges into reservoir B…” means that

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this is under Case 𝑸𝟏 = 𝑸𝟐 + 𝑸𝟑; [𝑀𝑖𝑑𝑑𝑙𝑒 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑟 − 𝑎 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟]. CIE 121: Hydraulics
Module #12 Student Activity Sheet
This means the equation [Inflow =Outflow] is the equation 𝑸𝟏 = 𝑸𝟐 + 𝑸𝟑.

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Name:
Date:
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So, 1.35 = 0.6375 + 𝑸𝟑; 𝑸𝟑 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟏𝟐𝟓 𝒎𝟑 /𝒔.

0.0826 fL3𝑄32
And that ℎ𝑓3 = 𝐷35

0.0826 (0.02)(1350)(0.7125)2
ℎ𝑓3 = ; 𝒉𝒇𝟑 = 𝟒. 𝟕𝟕 𝒎
(0.75)5

Therefore, 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑣. 𝐶 = 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑣. 𝑝′ − ℎ𝑓3 = 47.82 − 4.77; 𝑬𝒍𝒆𝒗. 𝑪 = 𝟒𝟑. 𝟎𝟓 𝒎

Activity: Skill-building Activity (with answer key) (18 mins + 2 mins checking)

Solve the following:

Problem: Three reservoir A, B and C have elevations of 30 m., 24 m. and 15 m. respectively. Point
D is the junction of the three pipelines coming from A, B and C respectively. Pipe 1 from A to D is
1200 m. long, with diameter of 300 mm. Pipeline 2 is 900 m. from B to D and has a diameter of 200
mm and pipeline 3 is 1500 m. from C to D with a diameter of 150 mm. water to reservoirs b and c at
the rate of 44 liters/sec. How much water is distributed to reservoir B if n = 0.011 for all pipes.

Activity: Check for Understanding (5 minutes)

Problem: From the above problem in Skill-Building Activity, determine the discharge to reservoir 𝐶 if
𝑛 = 0.011 for all pipes.

C. LESSON WRAP-UP

Activity: Thinking about Learning (5 minutes)

1. How was your learning experience for this lesson(s)?

2. What portion of the lesson(s) did you find it difficult to understand?

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 CIE 121: Hydraulics
Module #12 Student Activity Sheet

Class number:
Name:
Date:
Section: Schedule:

FAQs

1. What are the advantages of reservoirs?

Answer: Reservoirs provide flood prevention, inexpensive and no-emissions hydroelectric power, a water
supply for drinking and irrigation and new recreational opportunities. However, reservoirs and the structures
that create them also cause damage to ecosystems and human livelihood.

2. Why are hydraulic reservoirs pressurized?

Answer: One reason for using a pressurized reservoir is to provide the positive inlet pressure required by
some pumps – usually in line piston types. Another reason is to force fluid into a cylinder through an
undersized prefill valve.

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 CIE 121: Hydraulics
Module #13 Student Activity Sheet

Class number:
Name:
Date:
Section: Schedule:

Lesson Title: Open Channel Materials:

Learning Targets: Scientific Calculator, Ballpoint
At the end of the module, you should be able to: References:
1. Define open channel and its uses. Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulics 4th
2. Calculate the specific energy, slope and discharge of a Edition by DIT Gillesania
channel.

A. LESSON PREVIEW/REVIEW

Introduction (2 minutes)
Two types of conduits are used to convey water, the open channel and pressure conduit(pipe). An open
channel is one in which the stream is completely enclosed by solid boundaries and therefore has a free surface
subjected only to atmospheric pressure.

B. MAIN LESSON
Activity: Content Notes (20 minutes)

In an open channel flow, the hydraulic grade line is coincident with stream surface since the pressure
at the surface is atmospheric. The flow in open channels may either be uniform or non-uniform.

𝐻𝐿 = 𝑆𝐿
2𝑔

2𝑔

𝑆𝐿

SPECIFIC ENERGY
The specific energy (H) is defined as the energy per unit weight relative to the bottom of the channel. It is
given by:
𝑣2
𝐻= +𝑑
2𝑔
CHEZY FORMULA

In the figure above, the head lost between any two points in the channel is:

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 𝐻𝐿 = 𝑆𝐿 CIE 121: Hydraulics
Module #13 Student Activity Sheet

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 CIE 121: Hydraulics
Module #13 Student Activity Sheet

Class number:
Name:
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Section: Schedule:

Where: 𝑆 - the slope of the energy grade line

𝐿 - the length or run.

The head loss balances the loss in height of the channel.

Considering still the flow rate formula 𝑸 = 𝑨𝒗

Chezy Formula:
𝟖𝒈
𝒗 = 𝑪√𝑹𝑺 ; 𝑪 = √ ; 𝑹 = 𝑨/𝑷
𝒇
where: 𝑣 − velocity of water (uniform flow)
𝐴 - cross-section area of channel
𝐶 - Chezy’s coefficient
𝑅 - hydraulic radius
𝑃 - wetted perimeter of channel
𝑆 - slope of energy gradient
𝑓 – coefficient of friction

Bazin’s Coefficient:
𝟖𝟕
𝑪= 𝒎 [𝑀𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑆𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚]
𝟏+
√𝑹

Kutter and Ganguillet Formula

𝟏 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟓𝟓
𝟐𝟑 + 𝒏 + 𝑺
𝑪= [𝑀𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑆𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚]
𝒏 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟓𝟓
𝟏+ (𝟐𝟑 + )
√𝑹 𝑺
Manning’s Formula
𝟏 𝟏⁄ 𝟏 𝟐⁄ 𝟏⁄

𝑪= 𝑹 𝟔 [𝑀𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑆𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚] ; 𝒗= 𝑹 𝟑 𝑺 𝟐
𝒏 𝒏
where: 𝑣 − velocity of water (uniform flow)
𝐶 - Manning’s coefficient

Example 1: Water flows uniformly in a rectangular, concrete, open channel that is 10 m wide at a depth of
3m. the channel slope is 0.0025. Using n = 0.013, find the velocity and the flow rate.

Solution:

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 CIE 121: Hydraulics
𝑨 = 𝒃𝒅 = 10(3) = 𝟑𝟎 𝒔𝒒. 𝒎 Module #13 Student Activity Sheet

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Wetted perimeter 𝑷 = 𝒃 + 𝟐𝒅 = 10 + 2(3) = 𝟏𝟔 𝒎

𝑨 30
Hydraulic radius 𝑹 = = ; 𝑹 = 𝟏. 𝟖𝟕𝟓 𝒎
𝑷 16
𝟏 𝟐⁄ 𝟏⁄
1 2⁄ 1⁄

𝒗= 𝑹 𝟑 𝑺 𝟐 = 0.013 (1.875) 3 (. 0025) 2 ; 𝒗 = 𝟓. 𝟖𝟒𝟖 𝒎 / 𝒔

𝒏

Flow rate 𝑸 = 𝑨𝒗 = 30(5.848); 𝑸 = 𝟏𝟕𝟓. 𝟒𝟓 𝒎𝟑 /𝒔

Example 2: A smooth cement plastered surface forms an open channel 1.2 m wide carrying a flow of
0.54 cu.m./s at a depth of 0.4 m. (use 𝑓 = 0.018)
a. Determine Chezy’s coefficient in 𝑚1/2𝑠−1
b. Slope of channel

Solution:

a. Chezy’s coefficient in 𝑚1/2𝑠−1 with 𝑓 = 0.018

𝑚
𝟖𝒈 8 (9.81 )

𝑪=√ =√ 𝑠2
; 𝑪 = 𝟔𝟔 𝒎𝟏/𝟐𝒔−𝟏
𝒇 0.018

b. Slope of channel

𝑸 = 𝑨𝒗; 𝒗 = 𝑪√𝑹𝑺
𝑨 = 𝒃𝒅 = 1.2. 𝑚(0.4 𝑚); 𝑨 = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟖 𝒔𝒒. 𝒎.
𝑷 = 𝒃 + 𝟐𝒅 = 1.2 + 2(0.4); 𝑷 = 𝟐 𝒎
𝑨 0.48
𝑹= = ; 𝑹 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟒 𝒎
𝑷 2

𝑸 = 𝑨𝑪√𝑹𝑺

0.54 = 0.48(66)√(0.24)𝑆; 𝑺 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟐

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 CIE 121: Hydraulics
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Class number:
Name:
Date:
Section: Schedule:

Activity: Skill-building Activities (with answer key) (18 mins + 2 mins checking)

Solve the following:

Problem: A trapezoidal channel has a bottom width of 6 m and side slopes of 2 horizontal to 1
vertical. If the depth of flow is 1.2 m and the flow is 20.40 m3/sec,
(a) Compute the specific energy
(b) Calculate the slope of the channel if n= 0.014.

Activity: Check for Understanding (5 minutes)

Problem: An open channel has a value of roughness coefficient 𝑛 = 0.02, 𝑆 = 0.00075 and a
hydraulic radius of 0.9 𝑚. Find the value of 𝐶 using Kutters Formula:

C. LESSON WRAP-UP
Activity: Thinking about Learning (5 minutes)

1. How was your learning experience for this lesson(s)?

2. What portion of the lesson(s) did you find it difficult to understand?

FAQs

1. Why is open channel flow important?

Answer: In an open channel flow, the free surface allows surface waves to move along the water surface.
These waves have an associated velocity field and so may induce velocity fluctuations at the channel bottom,
which in turn may influence the bottom stress.

2. What is difference between open channel flow and pipe flow?

Answer: Open channel has a free surface, whereas pipe flow does not.

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 CIE 121: Hydraulics
Module #14 Student Activity Sheet

Class number:
Name:
Date:
Section: Schedule:

Lesson Title: Uniform Flow Materials:

Learning Targets: Scientific Calculator, Ballpoint
At the end of the module, you should be able to: References:
1. Define uniform flow. Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulics 4th
2. Calculate normal depth and discharge of uniform flow. Edition by DIT Gillesania

A. LESSON PREVIEW/REVIEW

Introduction (3 minutes)
Uniform flow flowing into different parts of the fracture surface with equal flow velocity per unit area. In free –
surface flow, the component of the weight of water in the downstream direction causes acceleration of flow,
whereas the shear stress at the channel bottom and sides offers resistance to flow. Uniform flow is discussed
in this lesson.

B. MAIN LESSON
Activity: Content Notes (15 minutes)

The simplest of all open channel problem is the uniform flow condition. For the flow to be uniform, the velocity,
depth of flow, and cross-sectional area of flow at any point of the stream must be constant. For this condition,
the stream surface is parallel to the channel bed and the energy grade line is parallel to the stream surface,
and therefore the slope of the energy grade line S is equal to the slope of the channel bed.

𝐻𝐿 = 𝑆𝐿
2𝑔

2𝑔

𝑆𝐿

BOUNDARY SHEAR STRESS (𝑟𝒐)

The average boundary shear stress, 𝑟𝑜, acting over the wetted surface of the channel is given by :
𝑟𝒐 = 𝜸𝑹𝑺
where is the unit weight, 𝜸, of the liquid, R is the hydraulic radius, and S is the slope of the EGL, and for
uniform flow or for 𝑆 < 1/10, 𝑆 = 𝑆𝑜.

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 CIE 121: Hydraulics
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Class number:
Name:
Date:
Section: Schedule:

NORMAL DEPTH
The normal depth 𝑑𝑛 is the depth at which uniform flow will occur in an open channel. Normal depth may be
determined from Chezy formula with 𝑆 = 𝑆𝑜. The resulting equation usually requires a trial-and-error solution.

Activity: Skill-building Activities (with answer key) (18 mins + 2 mins checking)
Hint: Use the formula from module 13.

Solve the following:

Problem 1: Determine the uniform flow through a trapezoidal concrete lined canal having side slope of
3H to 4V and bottom width of 2m if the depth of flow is 2m. The channel is laid on a slope of 3 m per 2
kilometer. Use n = 0.013.

Problem 2: A trapezoidal channel has a bottom width of 6 m and side slopes of 2 horizontal to 1 vertical.
If the depth of flow is 1.2 m and the flow is 20.40 m3/s, Compute the average stress at the boundary.

Activity: Check for Understanding (5 minutes)

Problem 1: A trapezoidal flume with side slope of 1:1 carries 225 ft3/s of water at mean velocity of 3 ft/s.
The canal is laid on a slope of 0.0002 with n = 0.015. Determine the normal depth of the canal in feet.

C. LESSON WRAP-UP
Activity: Thinking about Learning (5 minutes)

1. How was your learning experience for this lesson(s)?

2. What portion of the lesson(s) did you find it difficult to understand?

FAQs

1. What are the conditions for critical flow?

Answer: Critical flow occurs when the flow velocity in a channel equals the wave velocity generated by a
disturbance or obstruction. In this condition the Froude number is equal to 1.

2. What is the difference between normal and critical depth?

Answer: Normal depth is the depth of flow that would occur if the flow was uniform and steady, and is
usually predicted using the Manning’s Equation. Critical depth is defined as the depth of flow where is at a
minimum for a particular discharge.

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 CIE 121: Hydraulics
Module #15 Student Activity Sheet

Class number:
Name:
Date:
Section: Schedule:

Lesson Title: Most Efficient Cross Section (MES) Materials:

Learning Targets: Scientific Calculator, Ballpoint
At the end of the module, you should be able to: References:
1. Calculate the most efficient section of a given shape of a Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulics 4th
channel. Edition by DIT Gillesania
2. Convert an open channel of given shape to a section that is
most efficient

A. LESSON PREVIEW/REVIEW

Introduction (3 minutes)

A section of a channel is said to be most economical when the cost of construction of the channel is minimum.
But the cost of the construction of the channel depends on excavation and the lining. To keep the cost down
or minimum, the wetted perimeter, for a given discharge, should be minimum. This lesson is utilized for
determining the economical sections of different forms of channel.

B. MAIN LESSON
Activity: Content Notes (20 minutes)

Also known as the most economical sections, these are sections which, for a given slope S, channel cross-
sectional area A, and roughness coefficient n, the rate of discharge is maximum. From Manning’s Formula,
𝟏 𝟐⁄ 𝟏 ⁄
𝑸=𝑨 𝑹 𝟑𝑺 𝟐
𝒏

It can be seen that with A, n, and S constant, Q is maximum when the hydraulic radius R is maximum, and
since R= A/P, then R is maximum if P is minimum. Therefore, the most efficient section is the one that have
the least wetted perimeter and therefore requires the least cost of grading and lining, which makes it most
economical.

PROPORTIONS FOR MOST EFFICIENT SECTIONS

To derive the proportions for most efficient sections, minimize the perimeter with the cross-sectional area
constant.

1. Rectangular Cross-section

𝒃 = 𝟐𝒅

𝑨 = 𝒃𝒅 = 2𝑑 ∙ 𝑑 = 𝟐𝒅𝟐
𝑷 = 𝒃 + 𝟐𝒅 = 2𝑑 + 2𝑑 = 𝟒𝒅

𝑨 𝟐𝒅𝟐 𝒅
𝑹= = =
𝑷 𝟒𝒅 𝟐

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2. Traingular Cross-section

𝜽 = 𝟗𝟎°
1 1
𝑨 = 𝑏𝑑 = (2𝑑 tan(𝜃/2))𝑑 = 𝒅𝟐
2 2 𝑑 𝑠𝑒𝑐 (𝜃⁄2)
𝑑 𝑠𝑒𝑐 (𝜃⁄2)
𝑷 = 2𝑑 𝑠𝑒𝑐 (𝜃⁄2) = 2𝑑√2

𝐴 𝑑2 𝒅
𝑹= = =
𝑃 2𝑑√2 𝟐√𝟐

3. Trapezoidal Cross-section

𝜽 = 𝟑𝟎°
2√3
𝒃 = 𝒚 = 𝑑 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝜃 = 𝑑
3
𝒙 = 𝑏 + 2𝑑 tan 𝜃 = 2𝑏
1 1
𝑨= [𝑏 + 𝑥]𝑑 = [3𝑏]𝑑
2 2
3 2√3
𝑨= ∙ 𝑑∙𝑑
2 3
𝑨 = √3𝑑2

𝑷 = 2𝑦 + 𝑏 = 3𝑏
2√3
𝑷=3 𝑑 = 2√3𝑑3

𝐴 √3𝑑2 𝒅
𝑹= = =
𝑃 2√3𝑑 𝟐

4. Semi-circular Cross-section
𝝅 𝒓 𝒓
𝑨 = 𝒓𝟐
𝟐
𝑷 = 𝝅𝒓 𝒓

𝜋 2
𝐴 𝑟
𝑹= = 2
𝑃 𝜋𝑟
𝑟
𝑹=
2

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 CIE 121: Hydraulics
Module #15 Student Activity Sheet

Maximum flow of water in circular channel occurs when the channel is filled up to a height of 0.938 D.

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 CIE 121: Hydraulics
Module #15 Student Activity Sheet

Class number:
Name:
Date:
Section: Schedule:

Example: A rectangular channel 5.4 m wide by 1.2 m deep is lined with a smooth stone, well laid, and has a
hydraulic slope of 0.001. Using n = 0.013, determine the following:
a. Capacity of the channel in cubic meters per second
b. Savings in earth excavation that can be offered by using a more favorable proportions but adhering
to the same delivery and slope
c. Savings in lining per meter length applying the conditions in item (b)

Solution:
a. Capacity of the channel in cubic meters per second
𝑨 = 𝒃𝒅 = (5.4)(1.2) = 𝟔. 𝟒𝟖 𝒔𝒒. 𝒎.
𝑷 = 𝒃 + 𝟐𝒅 = 5.4 + 2(1.2) = 𝟕. 𝟖 𝒎
𝑨 6.48
𝑹= = = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟑𝟏
𝑷 7.8
𝟏 𝟐 ⁄ 𝟏⁄ 1 2⁄ 1⁄

𝑸=𝑨 𝑹 𝟑 𝑺 𝟐 = 6.48 ( )(0.831) 3 (0.001) 2 ; 𝑸 = 𝟏𝟑. 𝟗𝟑 𝒎 / 𝒔

𝒏 0.013

b. Savings in earth excavation that can be offered by using a more favorable proportions but adhering
to the same delivery and slope.
Hint: Use MES for rectangular section
𝒅
So highlight the use of 𝒃 = 𝟐𝒅, 𝑨 = 𝟐𝒅𝟐 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑹 =
𝟐
𝟏 𝟐⁄ 𝟏 ⁄
𝑸=𝑨 𝑹 𝟑𝑺 𝟐
𝒏 2
1 𝒅 ⁄3
13.93 = 2𝒅2 ( ) ( ) (0.001)1⁄2 ; 𝒅 = 𝟏. 𝟕𝟔𝟒 𝒎
0.013 2

In 𝒃 = 𝟐𝒅, 𝑏 = 2(1.764) = 𝟑. 𝟓𝟐𝟗 𝒎

Savings in excavation = 𝑨𝟏 − 𝑨𝟐 = 𝒃𝟏𝒅𝟏 − 𝒃𝟐𝒅𝟐

= (5.4)(1.2) − 3.529(1.764 ) = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟓𝟓𝟒 𝒔𝒒. 𝒎

c. Savings in lining per meter length applying the conditions in item (b)
 Lining of old channel= [𝒃𝟏 + 𝟐𝒅𝟏](1𝑚 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ)
= [5.4 + 2(1.2)](1𝑚 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ) = 7.8 𝑠𝑞. 𝑚.
 Lining of new channel= [𝒃𝟐 + 𝟐𝒅𝟐](1𝑚 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ)
= [3.529 + 2(1.764](1𝑚 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ) = 7.057 𝑠𝑞. 𝑚.

Savings in lining= Lining of old channel- Lining of new channel

Savings in lining=𝟎. 𝟕𝟒𝟑 𝒔𝒒. 𝒎.

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 CIE 121: Hydraulics
Module #15 Student Activity Sheet

Class number:
Name:
Date:
Section: Schedule:

Activity: Skill-building Activities (with answer key) (18 mins + 2 mins checking)

Solve the following:

Problem 1: An open channel is to be designed to carry 1.5 m3/s at a slope of 0.007. The channel material
has an n value of 0.012. Find the most efficient cross section for semicircular section.

Problem 2: Find the most efficient cross section for Problem 1 for rectangular section.

Activity: Check for Understanding (5 minutes)

Problem: A triangular channel with most efficient proportion discharges water at the rate of 1 m3/s.
Assuming n = 0.018 and S = 0.0021 calculate the normal depth of flow in meters.

C. LESSON WRAP-UP

Activity: Thinking about Learning (5 minutes)

1. How was your learning experience for this lesson(s)?

2. What portion of the lesson(s) did you find it difficult to understand?

FAQs

1. What is the best hydraulic section?

Answer: A channel section with a minimum wetted perimeter for a given flow area is termed the best
hydraulic section. The best hydraulic section has the shape of a half-square for rectangular channels and
a half hexagon for trapezoidal channels.

2. Why are trapezoidal section selected for earthen channels?

Answer: Earthen trapezoidal open channels are widely used for various essential purposes. Easy and
accurate design is necessary to obtain the dimensions that assure non-silting non-scouring water velocity
to maintain these channels.

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