Chapter 3

RESEARCH
METHODOLOGY
 Chapter 3
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
A. Research Design
B. Locale of the Study
C. Participants of the Study
D. Sampling Procedure
E. Data Gathering Instrument
F. Data Gathering Procedure
G. Analysis of Data
H. Ethical Considerations
 I. QUALITATIVE
RESEARCH DESIGN
 Research Design
This is a blueprint. A blueprint is a
guide for making something. It's a
design or pattern that can be
followed like what is the
measurement of height, width,
length, distance to build your
designed building, or a house.
Types of Qualitative
Research Designs
 CASE STUDY
It is a research approach in a qualitative method that is used to
generate or determine an in-depth understanding of an issue in its
real-life context. It can be an investigation of a single person, group,
event or the community (Kothari 2004).

To do a research study based on this research design is to

describe a person, a thing, or any creature on the Earth for explaining
the reasons behind the nature of existence. Your aim is to determine
why such a creature (person, organization, thing, or event) acts or
behaves, occurs, or exist in a particular manner. Your methods of
collecting data for this qualitative research design are interview,
observation, and questionnaire. One advantage of the case study is
the capacity to deal with a lot of factors to determine the unique
characteristics of the entity (Meng 2012; Yin 2012).
 EXAMPLES OF CASE STUDY
It is a research approach in a qualitative method that is used to
generate or determine an in-depth understanding of an issue in its
real-life context. It can be an investigation of a single person, group,
event or the community (Kothari 2004).

To do a research study based on this research design is to

describe a person, a thing, or any creature on the Earth for explaining
the reasons behind the nature of existence. Your aim is to determine
why such a creature (person, organization, thing, or event) acts or
behaves, occurs, or exist in a particular manner. Your methods of
collecting data for this qualitative research design are interview,
observation, and questionnaire. One advantage of the case study is
the capacity to deal with a lot of factors to determine the unique
characteristics of the entity (Meng 2012; Yin 2012).
 PHENOMENOLOGICAL STUDY
This qualitative research approach focuses on the commonality or
similarity of the lived experience of an individual within a particular group.
The main aim of this research design is to come up with a description of the
nature of the specific phenomenon (Creswell 2013). Moreover, it
investigates observed unusual people or even as they appear without
elaborative study or explanation (Heidegger 1985). Thus, this is to describe
and understand the phenomenon of the participants’ lived experience.

There are two (2) main approaches in the phenomenological study.

1. Interpretative phenomenological approach gives insight into how a
person makes sense of the phenomenon (Edward 2015). Likewise, it
provides a detailed examination of the personal lived experience of the
participants.
2. Descriptive phenomenological approach explores and described the
lived experience of the participants. It is also known as hermeneutical
phenomenology.
 ETHNOGRAPHY
It is an approach in qualitative research that investigates the in-
depth study of culture or facet of learning (Ruane 2005). It explored
the cultural phenomena from the view and understanding of the
participant/s of the study. Likewise, it searches the relation of people
to their environment. It can also be a detailed description of the culture
of a community. It aims to identify and analyze to uncover the attitudes
and emotions of a specific group of individuals (Ellis and Bochner
1996). This research is done through direct observation of the
participant/s in their natural environment. Further, this gains insights
on how they interact with each other within their natural environment.
FOUR (4) ELEMENTS OF ETHNOGRAPHY
1. Interest in cultures and meaning-making. The researcher is motivated to look into the culture and
makes meaning the observable manifestations.
Examples
a. As a researcher you wanted to explore on practices of marriage ritual of the Aeta in Zambales.
Thus, it is part also of your investigation how these practices became meaningful to these people.
b. You are conducting a research about the Magbukon tribe in Orion, Bataan about their harvest
festivity. Thus, it is part of your research to identify the meaning of such practice to their own lives.
2. Looking at culture from different perspectives. The researcher looks at different angle of the
culture.
Examples
a. You are investigating on the culture of the Kapampangan descendants in Abucay, Bataan. You
need to bring holistic look at the topic in different perspective to determine the answer.
b. You are exploring on the culture of the Ilocanos working at Freeport Area of Bataan. As a
researcher, you need to look at it in economic, social, spiritual, and behavioral perspective to
determine what you wanted to know about them.
FOUR (4) ELEMENTS OF ETHNOGRAPHY
3. Paying attention to the language practices. The researcher is keen on the word usage and its
meaning.
Examples
a. You are conducting a research about the parental care of the chieftain of different indigenous
communities in Bataan. To understand the meaning of their culture, you need to carefully pay attention
on what they are going to say and do. Every words and context of these words to comprehend the idea
they wanted to present.
b. You are conducting a research about the philosophy of the Badjao living in the rural area of Bataan.
As a researcher, you need to learn their language or train yourself to understand the way they talk and
to be keen on the words they are uttering. It is because the words they were saying will be beneficial to
your research.
4. Collecting first-hand experience. The researcher personally experiences the culture of the
participant/s.
Examples
a. You are conducting a research about the Visayan migrants in Mariveles, Bataan who are working as
factory workers. In collecting data needed for your research, it is important to experience their lives to
understand their situation. Important details are noted as observable practices.
b. You are conducting a research about the farmers of Bataan. To get essential data for the study, you
need to live or personally experience their lives as a farmer.
 GROUNDED THEORY
This research design involves the construction of theory through
gathering and analyzing data (Breuer 2009). It uses inductive
reasoning (particular to general) in coming up with emerging theory. It
sets to discover or construct a theory form the data that is
systematically gathered and analyzed using comparative analysis. It
makes use of procedures like theoretical sampling and open coding
(Mey and Mruck 2011). This design identifies the situated nature of
knowledge and the contingent nature of the practice. Thus, it better
determines what happens.
II. SAMPLE
GROUPS IN RESEARCH STUDIES

• POPULATION is the cluster of people, events, things, or other

phenomena that you are most interested in. It is often the “who”
or “what” that you want to be able to draw conclusions about at
the end of your study.

• SAMPLE is a subset of your population. It is the group (be it

people, events, etc.) from which you actually collect data or the
group of individuals who actually participate in your study.
SAMPLING
Sampling refers to the process of selecting a representative
group from the population being studied (Taherdoost, 2018). The
selected individual/s who will serve as main source of the data or
who will take part in the study is called sample (Mujere, 2016).
On the other hand, technique is the manner or way the samples
will be taken. Therefore, sampling technique is the process by
which samples will be selected (Lopez & Whitehead, 2013).
POPULATION VS. SAMPLE
DETERMINING SAMPLE SIZE
The goal of qualitative research is to provide in-depth
understanding and therefore, targets a specific group, type of
individual, event or process. To accomplish this goal, qualitative
research focus will be on criterion-based sampling techniques to
reach their target group.
CONSIDERATIONS IN DETERMINING
SAMPLE SIZE
1. The saturation or redundancy of the sample size must be
considered. Theoretical saturation is the point at which no new
information is emerging in the data. The size and pattern of the
sample need to be considered. Some interviews conducted might
result to no significant concepts.
2. The size of a sample is important to determine the difference within
a target population. Having a large sample size might assess the
quantity of distinction that will eventually denote the population of
interest.
3. Approximation of a sample size grounded on the method of the
study may be used. The rules of thumb of effective sample size for
each research approach and data collection methods.
 The rules of thumb of effective sample size for each research
approach and data collection methods presented below are designed by
Dr. Bonie Nastasi in his presentation “Qualitative Research: Sampling &
Sample Size Considerations”.
SAMPLING PROCEDURE IN
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
1. CONVENIENCE SAMPLING
To perform this sampling, a researcher simply collects data
from those people or other relevant elements to which he or she
has most convenient access.

Example: A fast food chain wants to improve the quality of its

products and services according to the customers’ feedback by
conducting a brief interview on those willing customers currently
dining in.
2. QUOTA SAMPLING
In this sampling procedure, participant quotas are preset prior to
sampling. To perform this sampling, the researcher gathers data from
only those participants who meet certain characteristics that may
include things such as age, place of residence, gender, class,
profession, marital status, etc.

Example: In a case study that compares the academic performance of

senior high school students in public and private schools, the
researcher divides a sample size of 500 students into grade levels and
tracks taken as follows; 250 students each for grade 11 and grade 12,
300 students taking Academic track, 100 students taking TVL and 100
students taking Sports and Arts.
3. PURPOSIVE SAMPLING
Participants are selected according to pre-selected criteria
based on the particular research question. To perform this
sampling, a researcher begins with specific perspectives in mind
that he or she wishes to examine and then seeks out research
participants who cover that full range of perspectives.

Example: Example: A researcher is conducting a phenomenology

to explore the perspectives and experiences of patients with
hypertension while living with this disease. He selects only
hypertensive patients to participate in his study. Patients without
hypertension were not included in the study.
TYPES OF PURPOSIVE SAMPLING
Criterion Sampling. It is a purposeful sampling that identifies
participants through particular criteria based from the needs of the study
(Suri, 2011). This can be based on profile experience, or the concern of the
research.

Suppose, you are conducting a research about the perception about

the perception of elders of the Magbukon tribe in Duale, Limay on education.
You can use criterion sampling by setting criteria in choosing your
participants. The criteria can be 1) your participants have to be a recognized
elder of the tribe and 2) the participants have to be an elder in Magbukon
community in Duale, Limay. After satisfying those criteria, they can be
chosen as participants of the study. Then you resulted to twenty-five (25).
participants. This number agrees with the suggestion of Creswell (1998) that
in ethnography, it can be twenty (20) to thirty (30) participants.
TYPES OF PURPOSIVE SAMPLING
Critical Sampling. It is a purposive sampling wherein the
researcher deliberately chooses participants based on their capability
in providing the necessary data for the research (Coyne, 1997).

Suppose you are conducting a case study about the emotional

satisfaction of Mobile Legends to online gamers. You can use critical
case sampling by deliberately choosing your two (2) brothers, and
three (3) cousins who you know as professional Mobile Legend gamer.
Thus, you will have five (5) participants. Your deliberate action of
choosing your brothers and cousins, makes sampling technique
critical case sampling.
TYPES OF PURPOSIVE SAMPLING
Snowball Sampling or Chain Sampling. It is a purposive
sampling wherein the research identifies only one (1) or two (2)
participants and the rest are recruited through the referrals of the
previous participants (Patton, 1990).

Suppose you are conducting an ethnographic study on

entrepreneurial philosophy of Moro entrepreneurs in your town. It so
happened that you only know one – the father of your best friend.
Using snowball sampling, you can ask the father of your best friend to
refer you to other Moro entrepreneurs that he knows. Thus, you came
up with ten (10) participants. Now, based from the scenario and the
decision made, let us see how will it be declared.
III. DATA GATHERING
INSTRUMENT
 Frequently Used Data
Gathering Instruments for
Qualitative Researches
A. INTERVIEW
This pertains to soliciting specific information from the participants
through conversing and asking questions. Using this type of data gathering
instrument makes the researcher as an “interviewer” while the participant as
an “interviewee.” Interview schedule should be prepared by the researcher
as a research tool. This will allow him/her to be guided in getting the data
from the participants. In addition, the researcher should also consider
his/her communication skills when conducting an interview, that is, he/she
must know how to build rapport, paraphrase questions, use non-verbal and
body language, and give ample time for the participant-interviewee to
express his/her thoughts and experiences towards a certain topic. Finally,
the use of audiotapes or videotapes for recording purposes is also highly
encouraged in order to ensure that all the data needed can be obtained from
the participants while good rapport and communication does not hamper. It
is important to note that the researcher should seek permission from the
participant whenever the former plans to record the conversations during the
interview session.
TYPES OF INTERVIEW
• Structured. This type of interview requires the researcher to prepare sets of questions which will be
asked to the participants. Here, the interview session will be organized by means of following its
content sequence. Hence, the researcher will only ask questions which appeared from the
questionnaire but will allow himself/herself to ask the interviewee when the clarification of response
is required.

• Unstructured. Unlike the structured type of interview, unstructured type has no prepared sets of
questions for the interviewee. Here, the researcher is required to have enough knowledge of the
topic under investigation so that he/she can get the needed data without planned and guided
questions. The session is done in a natural manner of conversing and exchanging of ideas while the
reliability of obtained data is still ensured.

• Semi-structured. The characteristic of semi-structured interview lies on the concept of combining

the features of both structured and unstructured type. Here, the researcher prepares sets of
questions to be asked to his/her participant while allowing himself/herself to ask probing questions
which are not written from the prepared questionnaire. Such a combination gives an opportunity to
the researcher to obtain additional data. Thus, the depth can be added to make the findings of the
study more significant.
B. OBSERVATION
This allows the researcher to engage actively in the
conduct of the study so as to understand the phenomenon by
observing the behavior and actions of a group of people in an
everyday context. Normally, the researcher prepares an
“observation guide” or “observation checklist” to obtain the data
needed for the study. Further, it is also important to note that
observation method should be done by the researcher in an
inconspicuous manner to ensure that the data and findings of the
study are reliable and trustworthy.
 TYPES OF OBSERVATION
a. Participant and Non-participant
• Participant. This type of observation makes the researcher as a participant observer wherein he/she can
interact with the group of people in a particular setting. Here, the researcher further immerses
himself/herself in the community and feels and lives as if he/she is a part of it.
• Non-participant. This type of observation makes the researcher on the other hand as an observer
participant wherein he/she considers himself/herself as a visitor only. Here, the role of the researcher
clearly lies on mere observation with the behavior and actions of the people in a particular setting without
interaction with them. Therefore, the researcher will simply take down notes of important data reflected
from the observation.

b. Structured and Unstructured

• Structured. This type of observation requires the researcher to have a prepared tool at hand during its
conduct. List of behaviors is already provided in an observation checklist so that the researcher will be
guided on what he/she needs to observe within the group of subjects.
• Unstructured. This type of observation meanwhile does not really require the researcher to have a
prepared tool at hand, but its consideration relies merely on the documentation of data transpired from
the observation. Here, the researcher will list down important data he perceived to be important in
understanding the phenomenon under investigation.

c. Covert and Overt

• Covert. This type of observation implies that the participants of the study do not know that they are being
observed.
• Overt. This type of observation on contrary implies that the participants of the study know that they are
being observed.
C. DOCUMENT/ARY ANALYSIS
This is represented by existing sources either primary or
secondary that are available from the target setting such as
schools, hospitals, city halls, and other similar types of offices.
Here, the researcher will analyze the obtained data from reports,
records, articles, and personal documents so as to understand
the phenomenon under investigation.
Guidelines for Wordings of
Instrument Questions
Guidelines for Wordings of Instrument Questions
1. The instrument questions should be stated in an affirmative manner.
When the researcher plans to construct his/her instrument questions,
he/she must ensure that these are always stated positively. This further
means that “negative words” such as “no,” “not,” “never,” and the like
should be avoided since these might give confusion to the participants
whether they should answer “yes” or “no.”
Guidelines for Wordings of Instrument Questions
2. The instrument questions should avoid ambiguous construction. When
constructing a research question, the researcher is suggested not to
incorporate words such as “many,” “few,” “always,” “usually,” and the like
as possible because these may make the question ambiguously
constructed. This type of question may not solicit accurate responses from
the participants.
Guidelines for Wordings of Instrument Questions
3. The instrument questions should not be stated in a double-barreled
form. It is important for the researcher to state his/her instrument question
by having a single question for each item appearing in the instrument.
Double barreled question means that a single item is composed of two or
more questions which may affect the response of the participants by not
completely answering them. Hence, this should be avoided, and the item
should be constructed with only one question.
IV. DATA GATHERING
PROCEDURE
1. Pre-data Gathering. This phase is also termed as “preliminary data
gathering” wherein the researcher solicits necessary data in order to
determine if the study can really be pursued. Here, the researcher conducts
pre-interview with the possible sources of data and the target participants of
the study. It is to note that before conducting the actual data collection, the
researcher must ensure that participants are available, and the needed data
can be obtained.

2. Data Gathering. This phase pertains to the actual procedure of data

collection. Here, the researcher has already known his/her participants.
Hence, securing their participation through a consent form has already been
made. Similarly, administering the instrument is done in the most
convenient time and most comfortable place for the participants to provide
the data needed for the study.

3. Post-data Gathering. This phase is conducted after the data have been
already collected and transcribed. Here, the researcher will present the
transcribed data to the participants in order to check the accuracy of the
collected and transcribed data. In addition, the researcher may also perform
some follow-up activities such as informal interviews to clarify some unclear
information as well as to ensure the rigor of the possible results of the study.
V. ANALYSIS OF DATA
1. Transcribing. The first step the researcher should do once he/she has obtained
data is to transcribe them. Data transcription aims to create an organized
textbased version of data gathered from interview, observation, and other types of
qualitative research tools (e.g., the researcher creates a text version of an audio
recording of the interview conducted). Moreover, data transcription enables the
researcher to immerse into the data he/she collected. This further helps him/her to
sort and organize data for easy understanding and analysis.

2. Coding. The next step the researcher should perform after transcribing the data is
to code them. Coding aims to categorize the data by creating smaller groupings
for easy analysis of the transcribed data. The formulated codes can be a word or
phrase that are used by the researcher to describe the meaning and context of the
data. These can be further created using either the prior knowledge of the
researcher as a result of reviewed literature or the observed apparent codes of the
researcher as he/she reviews the actual data. In addition, the researcher may
employ either manual or automated coding.

3. Drawing themes. The final step of data analysis deals with drawing of themes
based on the transcribed and coded data. Here, the researcher may utilize
different qualitative analyses such as the commonly used content and thematic
analysis.
 V. ETHICAL
CONSIDERATIONS
1. Informed consent. Providing a consent letter informing the target participants
is necessary to be done by the researcher. The said letter or form should
primarily state the objective of the study justifying their need for participation.
Their roles, responsibilities, and rights should also be clearly discussed (e.g.,
the involvement of the participants is solely voluntary, and they have the right to
withdraw from the activity without coercion).

2. Beneficence – do not harm. The data collection procedure should not bring
any harm with the participants. The researcher should avoid decisions and
actions that may cause harms such as physical, emotional, and the like to the
participants (e.g., the researcher should be sensitive enough with the place,
time, and even the manner the data will be collected to the participants). In
addition, it is also to note that the researcher should inform the participants of
the possible risk and harm prior to the process of data collection.

3. Respect for anonymity and confidentiality. Securing the safety of the

obtained information, data, and even the identity of the participants should
always be considered by the researcher. Here, the participants should be
informed that all the data they will provide are secured and safe and will only be
used for the study purposes. Securing the anonymity of the participants is done
by not collectingpersonal and identifying information to the participants.
4. Respect for privacy. One of the prerogatives of the participants is to have
freedom of what information they want to provide to the researcher. Hence, it is
important to consider that the researcher should not coerce the participants to
provide his desired responses or data. In addition, the researcher should also
be considerate in collecting the data to the participants. Here, the data should
be collected in the most convenient time and most comfortable place for the
participants. Finally, the collected data should be secured and be kept in a
locked location where other people have no access to it.

5. Vulnerable group of people. Some researches require other groups of people

who are considered vulnerable as the provider of data. However, these groups
which may pertain to children, minor students, aged people, people with
disabilities and the like cannot protect themselves and are also at risk of being
deceived and forced to participate in the study. Therefore, the researcher
should seek permission to the parent or guardian of the target participant (e.g.,
parent consent form is sent to inform and seek permission to let the
student/child be a participant of the study).