A Levels

Biology
1 explain what is meant by homeostasis and the importance of
homeostasis in mammals

Homeostasis in mammals

In the body of an animal conditions such

as water concentration, temperature, and
glucose concentration must be kept as
constant as possible. Control systems that
keep such conditions constant are
examples of homeostasis; this is the
maintenance of constant internal
conditions in an organism.

Some of the physiological factors controlled in homeostasis in mammals are:

 core body temperature (normally between 36 – 38ºC)

 metabolic wastes, particularly CO2 and urea
 blood pH (normally between 7.35 – 7.45)
 blood glucose concentration (normally 75 – 95 mg/dL)
 water potential of the blood (varies depending on individual body size)
 the concentrations in the blood of the respiratory gases, O2 and CO2.

The importance of homeostasis

The internal environment of an organism = conditions inside the body in which the
cells function. A cell's immediate environment is the tissue fluid that surrounds it. Many
features of the tissue fluid influence how well the cell functions.

- Temperature:
 low temperatures slow down metabolic reactions;
 at high temperatures proteins, including enzymes, are denatured and cannot
function
- Water potential:
 if the water potential decreases, water may move out of cells by osmosis,
causing metabolic reactions in the cell to slow or stop;
 if the water potential increases, water may enter the cell causing it to swell and
maybe burst
- Concentration of glucose
 glucose is the fuel for respiration, so lack of it causes respiration to slow or stop,
depriving the cell of an energy source;
 too much glucose may cause water to move out of the cell by osmosis, again
disturbing the metabolism of the cell.
In general, homeostatic mechanisms work by controlling the composition of blood,
which therefore controls the composition of tissue fluid.
2 explain the principles of homeostasis in terms of internal and
external stimuli, receptors, coordination systems (nervous
system and endocrine system), effectors (muscles and glands) and negative feedback

Homeostatic control
Homeostatic mechanisms operate via a feedback loop that may involve either the nervous or endocrine systems
(or both)
Nervous system – information is transmitted as electrical impulses that travel along neurones
Endocrine system – information is transmitted as chemical messengers called hormones that travel in the blood

Homeostatic control mechanisms have at least 3 interdependent

components: receptor, control center, and effector.
Physiological processes are commonly moderated via two distinct feedback mechanisms –positive and negative
feedback

Homeostatic processes are controlled by negative feedback and hence these systems occur more commonly
within the body

Negative Feedback

Negative feedback involves a response that is the reverse of the change detected (it functions to reduce the
change)

A change is detected by a receptor and an effector is activated to induce an opposite effect – this promotes
equilibrium
Examples of processes that utilise negative feedback loops include homeostatic systems, such as:
Blood sugar regulation (insulin lowers blood glucose when levels are high ; glucagon raises blood glucose when
Thermoregulation (if body temperature changes, mechanisms are induced to restore normal levels)

levels are low)

Osmoregulation (ADH is secreted to retain water when dehydrated and its release is inhibited when the body is
hydrated)

Positive Feedback

Positive feedback involves a response that reinforces the change detected (it functions to amplify the change)

A change is detected by a receptor and an effector is activated to induce the same effect – this promotes further
change
Positive feedback loops will continue to amplify the initial change until the stimulus is removed

Examples of processes that utilise positive feedback loops include:

Childbirth – stretching of uterine walls cause contractions that further stretch the walls (this continues
until birthing occurs)
Lactation – the child feeding stimulates milk production which causes further feeding (continues until
baby stops feeding)
Ovulation – the dominant follicle releases oestrogen which stimulates LH and FSH release to promote further
follicular growth
Blood clotting – platelets release clotting factors which cause more platelets to aggregate at the site of injury
8 (a) Homeostasis in mammals involves negative feedback mechanisms.

Outline how a negative feedback mechanism works.

 3 state that urea is produced in the liver from the deamination of
excess amino acids
Excretion

Urea
Urea is produced in the liver
It is produced from excess amino acids
If more protein is eaten than is required, the excess cannot be stored in the body
However, the amino acids within the protein can still provide useful energy
To make this energy accessible, the amino group is removed from each amino acid
This process is known as deamination:
The amino group (-NH2) of an amino acid is removed, together with an extra hydrogen atom
These combine to form ammonia (NH3)
The remaining keto acid may enter the Krebs cycle to be respired, be converted to glucose, or converted to
glycogen / fat for storage

Ammonia is a very soluble and highly toxic compound that is produced during deamination; it can be very
damaging if allowed to build up in the blood
It dissolves in the blood to form alkaline ammonium hydroxide, disrupting blood pH
It can impact the reactions of cell metabolism such as respiration
It interferes with cell signalling processes
This is avoided by converting ammonia to urea
Urea is less soluble and less toxic than ammonia
Ammonia is combined with carbon dioxide to form urea
 4 describe the structure of the human kidney, limited to:
• fibrous capsule
• cortex
• medulla
• renal pelvis
• ureter
• branches of the renal artery and renal vein

Structure of the Human Kidney

Humans have two kidneys
The kidneys are responsible for carrying out two very important functions:
As an osmoregulatory organ - they regulate the water content of the blood (vital for maintaining blood pressure)
As an excretory organ - they excrete the toxic waste products of metabolism (such as urea) and substances in
excess of requirements (such as salts)

The function of the kidneys & their associated structures

The kidney itself is surrounded by a fairly tough outer layer known as the fibrous capsule
Beneath the fibrous capsule, the kidney has three main areas:
The cortex (contains the glomerulus, as well as the Bowman’s capsule, proximal convoluted tubule, and distal
convoluted tubule of the nephrons)
The medulla (contains the loop of Henle and collecting duct of the nephrons)
The renal pelvis (where the ureter joins the kidney)
5 Identify, in diagrams, photomicrographs and electron
micrographs, the parts of a nephron and its associated blood
vessels and structures, limited to:
• glomerulus
• Bowman’s capsule
• proximal convoluted tubule
• loop of Henle
• distal convoluted tubule
• collecting duct

There is also a network of blood vessels associated with each nephron:

Within the Bowman’s capsule of each nephron is a structure known as the glomerulus
Each glomerulus is supplied with blood by an afferent arteriole (which carries blood from the renal artery)
The capillaries of the glomerulus rejoin to form an efferent arteriole
Blood then flows from the efferent arteriole into a network of capillaries that run closely alongside the rest of the
nephron
Blood from these capillaries eventually flows into the renal vein
Nephron Function

Nephrons filter blood and then reabsorb useful materials from the filtrate before eliminating the remainder as
urine

This process occurs over three key stages:

Ultrafiltration – Blood is filtered out of the glomerulus at the Bowman’s capsule to form filtrate
Selective reabsorption – Usable materials are reabsorbed in convoluted tubules (both proximal and distal)
Osmoregulation – The loop of Henle establishes a salt gradient, which draws water out of the collecting duct

Relationship between Nephron Structure and Function

(b) Fig. 1.1 shows a section through a kidney.

A
B

Fig. 1.1

(i) With reference to Fig. 1.1, name structures A and B .

(ii) On Fig. 1.1, use label lines and letters to label where:

U – ultrafiltration occurs

L – the loop of Henle is found

C – blood urea concentration is low.

 6 describe and explain the formation of urine in the nephron,
limited to:
• the formation of glomerular filtrate by ultrafiltration in the
Bowman’s capsule
• selective reabsorption in the proximal convoluted tubule

7 relate the detailed structure of the Bowman’s capsule and

proximal convoluted tubule to their functions in the formation
of urine

Ultrafilteration
Arterioles branch off the renal artery and lead to each nephron, where they form a knot of capillaries (the
glomerulus) sitting inside the cup-shaped Bowman’s capsule
The capillaries get narrower as they get further into the glomerulus which increases the pressure on the blood
moving through them (which is already at high pressure because it is coming directly from the renal artery which
is connected to the aorta)
This eventually causes the smaller molecules being carried in the blood to be forced out of the capillaries and
into the Bowman’s capsule, where they form what is known as the filtrate
The blood in the glomerular capillaries is separated from the lumen of the Bowman’s capsule by two cell layers
with a basement membrane in between them:
The first cell layer is the endothelium of the capillary – each capillary endothelial cell is perforated by thousands
of tiny membrane-lined circular holes
The next layer is the basement membrane – this is made up of a network of collagen and glycoproteins
The second cell layer is the epithelium of the Bowman’s capsule – these epithelial cells have many tiny
finger-like projections with gaps in between them and are known as podocytes
As blood passes through the glomerular capillaries, the holes in the capillary endothelial cells and the gaps
between the podocytes allows substances dissolved in the blood plasma to pass into the Bowman’s capsule
The fluid that filters through from the blood into the Bowman’s capsule is known as the glomerular filtrate
The main substances that pass out of the capillaries and form the glomerular filtrate are: amino acids, water,
glucose, urea and inorganic ions (mainly Na+, K+ and Cl-)
Red and white blood cells and platelets remain in the blood as they are too large to pass through the holes in
the capillary endothelial cells
The basement membrane acts as a filter as it stops large protein molecules from getting through
Overall, the effect of the pressure gradient outweighs the effect of solute gradient
Therefore, the water potential of the blood plasma in the glomerulus is higher than the water potential of the
filtrate in the Bowman’s capsule
This means that as blood flows through the glomerulus, there is an overall movement of water down the water
potential gradient from the blood into the Bowman’s capsule
10 (a) Describe how the structure of the nephron and its associated blood vessels are adapted to
the process of ultrafiltration. [8]
Q) Explain the process of re-absorption in the proximal
convoluted tubule
1) Na+/K+ pumps in the basal membranes of cells lining
the proximal convoluted tubule pump out Na+ out of
the cell via active transport into the blood
2) this lowers Na+ concentration inside the cell, so
more Na+ diffuses from the fluid in the lumen of the
tubule via co-transporter molecules in the membrane
3) the passive movement of Na+ provides energy to
move glucose (even against a concentration
gradient), this is an example of indirect/secondary
active transport
4) one glucose is inside the cell, it diffuses via GLUT
proteins in the basal membrane into the blood
5) removal of solutes increases water potential of
filtrate; a water potential gradient is established so
water moves down this gradient

Molecules reabsorbed from the proximal convoluted tubule during selective reabsorption
All glucose in the glomerular filtrate is reabsorbed into the blood
This means no glucose should be present in the urine
Amino acids, vitamins and inorganic ions are reabsorbed
The movement of all these solutes from the proximal convoluted tubule into the capillaries increases the water
potential of the filtrate and decreases the water potential of the blood in the capillaries
This creates a steep water potential gradient and causes water to move into the blood by osmosis
A significant amount of urea is reabsorbed too
The concentration of urea in the filtrate is higher than in the capillaries, causing urea to diffuse from the filtrate
back into the blood
 Reabsorption in the loop of Henle
• there are two types of nephrons in our kidney, about
⅓ of these have long loops of Henle that dip down
into the medulla

• the function of these long loops is to create a very

high concentration gradient of Na+ and Cl- in the
tissue fluid of the medulla
• this will enable a lot of water to be reabsorbed from
the fluid in the collecting duct, as it flows through the
medulla

• this allows for the production of very concentrated

urine, which means water is conserved in the body,
rather than lost in urine, helping to prevent
dehydration

Structure of the loop of Henle

It consists of a descending and ascending limb which
differ in their permeabilities to water.

The ascending limb of the loop of Henle is permeable

to salts but not water
1) the cells that line this region of the loop actively
transport Na+ and Cl- out of the fluid in the loop into
the tissue fluid (of the medulla)
2) this decreases the water potential in the tissue fluid
and increases the water potential of the fluid inside
the ascending limb
• this decrease in water potential in the
surrounding results in water being able to move
passively out of the collecting duct and be
reabsorbed back into the blood, leaving as more
concentrated urine

The descending limb of the loop of Henle is permeable

to water and small*** salts and urea concentration in the tissue fluid, so it’s never too
1) the cells lining the descending limb are permeable to difficult to pump out Na+ and Cl- (what “began” the
water and also to Na+ and Cl- whole process)
2) water leaves passively from the filtrate here because
of the salty environment (produced due to the action
of the cells of the ascending limb)
3) at the same time, Na+ and Cl- diffuse into the loop,
down their concentration gradient
• therefore, the filtrate inside is very concentrated
by the time it reaches the bottom of the loop
• the longer the loop, the more concentrated the
fluid can become
4) this concentrated fluid then flows up the ascending
limb, where Na+ and Cl- leave and pass into the
tissue fluid due to the high concentration of fluid
inside (despite the medulla also having a very high
concentration of salts)
5) all the way up the ascending limb, the concentration
of Na+ and Cl- is never very different from the
Counter-current multiplication
This the process of using energy to generate an osmotic
gradient that enables water to be reabsorbed from the
tubular fluid and produce concentrated urine.
• having the two limbs of the loop of Henle running
side by side by fluid going down in one and up in the
other enables maximum concentration to be built
both inside and outside the tube at the bottom of the
loop
• additionally, the vasa recta blood network that
surrounds the loop of Henle flows in the opposite
direction, further contributing to this mechanism

Reabsorption in the distal convoluted tubule (and

collecting duct)
The first part of the distal convoluted tubule functions the
same way as the ascending limb of the loop of Henle.
The second part functions the same way as the collecting
duct.
1) Na+ ions are actively pumped out of fluid in the
distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct into the
tissue fluid, where they pass into blood
2) K+ ions are actively transported into the tubule and
collecting duct
3) the collecting duct passes through the medulla
where a low water potential has been produced by
the loop of Henle
4) water may then move from collecting duct into the
tissues of medulla, further increasing the
concentration of urine inside
5) this urine then flows into the ureter and is
transported to the bladder
7 (a) In mammals, excess amino acids cannot be stored in the body.

Outline the formation of urea from excess amino acids by liver cells.

(b) The mammalian kidney is composed of many nephrons.

Describe the process of ultrafiltration in the nephron.

(c) Fig. 7.1 is a diagram of a nephron.

proximal convoluted distal convoluted

glomerulus tubule (PCT) tubule (DCT)

renal
capsule
afferent
arteriole

efferent
arteriole

collecting
duct

loop of Henle

Fig. 7.1

Complete Table 7.1 by naming a part of the nephron that corresponds to each of the
statements.

statement part of nephron

passes through the medulla

....................................................

glucose is reabsorbed into the blood

....................................................

ADH acts on its walls

....................................................

most of the water is reabsorbed into the blood

....................................................
6 (a) Fig. 6.1 is a diagram of a Bowman’s (renal) capsule of a nephron from a mammalian kidney.

Fig. 6.1

On Fig. 6.1, use label lines and letters to label:

E – the efferent arteriole

G – the glomerulus

P – the region of podocyte cells.

[3]

(b) Describe how the structure of the epithelial cells of the proximal convoluted tubule is adapted
to carry out selective reabsorption.

(b) Fig. 8.1 is a diagram summarising the role of the nervous and endocrine systems in the
control of blood glucose concentration.
With reference to Fig. 8.1, describe the role of the nervous system in the control of blood
hypothalamus glucose concentration.
neurones neurones

β cells α cells adrenal

glands
pancreas

insulin glucagon adrenaline

decrease in increase in
blood glucose concentration blood glucose concentration

Fig. 8.1
10 (a) Describe the process of selective reabsorption and explain how the cells of the proximal
convoluted tubule are adapted to carry out selective reabsorption. [9]
 Osmoregulation

8 describe the roles of the hypothalamus, posterior pituitary

gland, antidiuretic hormone (ADH), aquaporins and collecting 85
ducts in osmoregulation

Osmoregulation is the control of the water content of body fluids. It is part of

homeostasis, the maintenance of a constant internal environment.

It is important that cells are surrounded by tissue fluid of a similar water potential to their
own contents, to avoid too much water loss or gain which could disrupt metabolism. You
have seen that water is lost from the fluid inside a nephron as it flows through the
collecting duct. The permeability of the walls of the distal convoluted tubule and
collecting duct can be varied.

 If they are permeable, then much water can move out of the tubule and the urine
becomes concentrated. The water is taken back into the blood and retained in the body.
 If they are made impermeable, little water can move out of the tubule and the
urine remains dilute. A lot of water is removed from the body.

ADH

ADH is antidiuretic hormone. It is secreted from the anterior pituitary gland into the
blood.
When the water potential of the blood is too low (that is, it has too little water in it), this is
sensed by osmoreceptor cells in the hypothalamus. The osmoreceptor cells are
neurones (nerve cells). They produce ADH, which moves along their axons and into the
anterior pituitary gland from where it is secreted into the blood.

The ADH travels in solution in the blood plasma. When it reaches the walls of the
collecting duct, it makes them permeable to water. Water is therefore reabsorbed from
the fluid in the collecting duct and small volumes of concentrated urine are produced.

When the water potential of the blood is too high (that is, it has too much water in it), this
is sensed by the osmoreceptor cells and less ADH is secreted. The collecting duct walls
therefore become less permeable to water and less is reabsorbed into the blood. Large
volumes of dilute urine are produced.

Negative feedback
The mechanism for controlling the water content of the body, using ADH, is an example
of negative feedback.

When the water potential of the blood rises too high or falls too low, this is sensed by
receptor cells. They cause an action to be taken by effectors which cause the water
potential to be moved back towards the correct value.

In this case, the receptors are the osmoreceptor cells in the hypothalamus, and the
effectors are their endings in the anterior pituitary gland that secrete ADH.
The effect of ADH on the kidneys
Water is reabsorbed by osmosis from the filtrate in the nephron
This reabsorption occurs as the filtrate passes through structures known as collecting ducts
ADH causes the luminal membranes (ie. those facing the lumen of the nephron) of the collecting duct cells to
become more permeable to water
ADH does this by causing an increase in the number of aquaporins (water-permeable channels) in the luminal
membranes of the collecting duct cells. This occurs in the following way:
Collecting duct cells contain vesicles, the membranes of which contain many aquaporins
ADH molecules bind to receptor proteins, activating a signalling cascade that leads to the phosphorylation of the
aquaporin molecules
This activates the aquaporins, causing the vesicles to fuse with the luminal membranes of the collecting duct
cells
This increases the permeability of the membrane to water
As the filtrate in the nephron travels along the collecting duct, water molecules move from the collecting duct
(high water potential), through the aquaporins, and into the tissue fluid and blood plasma in the medulla (low
water potential)
As the filtrate in the collecting duct loses water it becomes more concentrated
As a result, a small volume of concentrated urine is produced. This flows from the kidneys, through the ureters
and into the bladder
Diabetes insipidus (DI) is a condition that results in excessive thirst and the excretion of large
amounts of dilute urine. A main cause of DI is a deficiency of ADH.

ADH normally binds to receptor proteins on cell surface membranes of cells in the collecting
ducts of nephrons.

Outline the effect of ADH on the collecting ducts.

Describe the roles of the hypothalamus and the posterior pituitary in osmoregulation.
 (c) Complete the following sentences about osmoregulation.

In mammals, the water potential of the blood is constantly monitored by

...................................................................................... in the hypothalamus of the brain.

When the water potential of the blood decreases, the production of a hormone

called ............................................................................... in the cells of the

hypothalamus increases.

This hormone is released into the blood via the ...........................................................

This causes the kidneys to retain more water until the water potential of the blood

returns to the set point.

This is an example of a ..................................................................... mechanism.

[4]

(b) Diabetes mellitus is a disease where the pancreas is not able to secrete sufficient insulin.

The symptoms of diabetes mellitus include a tendency to drink a lot of water and a loss of
body mass.

Suggest why these symptoms occur.

(b) Describe the role of the hypothalamus and the role of the posterior pituitary in osmoregulation.
[6]
 9 describe the principles of cell signalling using the example of the control of blood glucose concentration by glucagon, limited to:

• binding of hormone to cell surface receptor causing conformational change

• activation of G-protein leading to stimulation of adenylyl cyclase

• formation of the second messenger, cyclic AMP (cAMP)

• activation of protein kinase A by cAMP leading to initiation of an enzyme cascade

• amplification of the signal through the enzyme cascade as a result of activation of more and more enzymes by phosphorylation
• cellular response in which the final enzyme in the pathway is activated, catalysing the breakdown of glycogen

The body needs glucose to make ATP (via cell respiration), however the amount required will fluctuate
according to demand

High levels of glucose in the blood can damage cells (creates hypertonicity) and hence glucose levels must be
regulated

Two antagonistic hormones are responsible for regulating blood glucose concentrations – insulin and glucagon

These hormones are released from pancreatic pits (called the islets of Langerhans) and act principally on the
liver

Blood glucose concentration is controlled by two hormones secreted by endocrine tissue in the pancreas
This tissue is made up of groups of cells known as the islets of Langerhans
The islets of Langerhans contain two cell types:
α cells that secrete the hormone glucagon
β cells that secrete the hormone insulin
These α and β cells act as the receptors and initiate the response for controlling blood glucose concentration

When blood glucose levels are high (e.g. after feeding):

Insulin is released from beta (β) cells of the pancreas and cause a decrease in blood glucose concentration
This may involve stimulating glycogen synthesis in the liver (glycogenesis), promoting glucose uptake by the
liver and adipose tissue, or increasing the rate of glucose breakdown (by increasing cell respiration rates)

When blood glucose levels are low (e.g. after exercise):

Glucagon is released from alpha (α) cells of the pancreas and cause an increase in blood glucose
concentration
This may involve stimulating glycogen breakdown in the liver (glycogenolysis), promoting glucose release by the
liver and adipose tissue, or decreasing the rate of glucose breakdown (by reducing cell respiration rates)
Q) Describe the role played by insulin the control of blood glucose concentration
1) hypothalamus detects change in blood glucose concentration

2) autonomic nerve impulses cause β-cells in the islets of Langerhans to secrete insulin into the blood
when blood glucose concentration increases

3) insulin has several effects on the body and its cells –

• vesicles with GLUT proteins are moved to the cell surface membrane and fuse with it, this makes the
cell more permeable to glucose
• the respiration rate of glucose is increased
• inhibits the secretion of glucagon (decreases gluconeogenesis)
• Insulin increases the absorption of glucose in the liver by phosphorylating it. This is done by the
enzyme glucokinase. Phosphorylated glucose is trapped inside the cell as it can’t pass through
transporters in the cell surface membrane •causes the conversion of glucose à glycogen by
stimulating the enzymes phosphofructokinase and glycogen synthase which add glucose molecules
to glycogen. This is called glycogenesis

GLUT proteins
These are transport proteins which allow
glucose to pass across the cell surface membranes.
There are several different types of GLUT proteins –
GLUT4 – muscle cells
GLUT 2 – liver cells (always present in cell membrane)
GLUT 1 – brain cells (always present in cell membrane)
Normally, GLUT proteins are kept in the
cytoplasm the same way as aquaporins are kept in collecting
duct cells.

Control of blood glucose concentration by adrenaline and glucagon

There are three main stages of cell signalling in the
control of blood glucose concentration by adrenaline and
glucagon –
• hormone-receptor interaction at the cell surface
• formation of cyclic AMP which binds to kinase proteins
• an enzyme cascade involving activation of

enzymes by phosphorylation to amplify the signal

the hormone adrenaline also increases the blood
glucose concentration by activating the same
enzyme cascade
• it does so by binding to different receptors on the
surface of liver cells that activate the same enzyme
cascade and lead to the same end result
When asked to describe how adrenaline affects blood
glucose concentration, write the above steps but just swap
out ‘glucagon’ for ‘adrenaline’
• muscle cells do not have glucagon receptors and
therefore do not respond to it
• they can, however, respond to adrenaline
• adrenaline stimulates the breakdown of glycogen
stores in muscle during exercise
• the glucose produced remains in the muscle cells
where it is needed for respiration
 (b) Describe the main stages of cell signalling in the control of blood glucose concentration by
adrenaline. [8]

(b) Outline how a high blood glucose concentration returns to normal in a healthy person. [7]
(b) Describe the effects of insulin on its main target tissues and explain how this leads to changes
in blood glucose concentration. [7]

(a) Some people have a condition called diabetes. In type 1 diabetes the pancreas does not
produce enough insulin.

Fig. 7.1 shows the blood glucose concentrations of a type 1 diabetic person and a non-diabetic
person, at regular intervals after drinking a glucose drink.

250

blood 200
diabetic person
glucose
concentration 150
/ mg 100 cm–3 non-diabetic
100
person

0
(i) Describe the results shown in Fig. 7.1.
0 1 2 3
time / h
glucose Fig. 7.1
drink taken

(ii) Name the location of the receptors in a non-diabetic person that detect a change in
blood glucose concentration.

(iii) Name the homeostatic mechanism by which blood glucose concentration is maintained.
(c) Describe the role played by insulin in the control of blood glucose concentration.

5 (a) Fig. 5.1 is a photomicrograph of part of the cortex of a kidney.

Fig. 5.1

(i) On Fig. 5.1, use label lines and letters to label:

G – the glomerulus

L – the lumen of the Bowman’s (renal) capsule.

[2]

(ii) During ultrafiltration, components of blood in the glomerulus with a relative molecular
mass greater than 68 000 are prevented from passing into the Bowman’s capsule.

Name the structure that acts as this filtration barrier.

(b) The glomerular filtration rate (GFR) is the rate of flow of filtered fluid through the kidneys per
unit time.

The afferent arterioles supply blood to the glomerulus of each nephron within the kidney
and the efferent arterioles take blood away from each glomerulus. The lumen diameters
of the afferent and efferent arterioles have a large effect on the GFR. Normally the lumen
diameters of the afferent and efferent arterioles are different, but they can change to increase
or decrease the normal GFR in response to changing conditions.

Complete Table 5.1 to indicate whether the GFR is normal, increased, or decreased for each
combination of arteriole diameters shown.

The first row has been completed for you.

Table 5.1

afferent arteriole lumen efferent arteriole lumen

GFR
diameter diameter

normal normal normal

decreased normal ...........................................

normal increased ...........................................

[2]

(c) After leaving the Bowman’s capsule, the glomerular filtrate passes through the proximal
convoluted tubule, where selective reabsorption occurs.

Describe and explain how all of the glucose in the glomerular filtrate is reabsorbed back into
the blood.

(d) State and explain three features of a proximal convoluted tubule cell that adapt it to its
function.
1 (a) ADH is a hormone that is released into the blood of a mammal when changes occur in the
internal environment.

(i) State one change in the internal environment of a mammal that leads to the release
of ADH.
(ii) Name the part of the body that releases ADH into the blood.

(b) Fig. 1.1 shows a cell of one of the collecting ducts of the kidney.

ADH
from blood
capillary

lumen active
of phosphorylase
collecting
duct

not to scale B

Fig. 1.1

Name membrane protein A and cell structure B.

(c) The phosphorylase enzyme stimulates structure B.

Describe the response of structure B to this stimulation and describe the consequences of
this response.
 Urine analysis, dipsticks and biosensors
11. explain the principles of operation of test strips and biosensors
for measuring the concentration of glucose in blood and urine,
with reference to glucose oxidase and peroxidase enzymes
The presence of glucose and ketones in
urine indicates that a person may
have diabetes. If the concentration for these
rises above the renal threshold, then not all
glucose has been absorbed from the filtrate in
the proximal convoluted tubule --> so will be
present in the urine.

A large quantity or long-term presence of protein in the urine indicates

 disease affecting glomeruli

 kidney infection
 high blood pressure (can lead to heart disease)

1. Dip sticks: test for glucose, pH, ketones, proteins

- urine analysis
- involves 2 immobilized enzymes: glucose oxidase and peroxidase
- shows the sugar level in urine from bladder NOT the current blood sugar level
2. Biosensor: allows people with diabetes to check their blood to see how well they are
controlling their glucose concentration

- blood analysis: quantitative data

- a pad impregnated with glucose oxidase catalyses reaction to form gluconolactone
--> generates tiny electric current that is detected by electrode and is read by a meter

Exam question: question 9, specimen paper 2016

http://papers.gceguide.com/A%20Levels/Biology%20(9700)/9700_y16_sp_4.pdf
http://papers.gceguide.com/A%20Levels/Biology%20(9700)/9700_y16_sm_4.pdf
 Dipsticks
Dipsticks can be used to test urine for a range of different
factors including pH, glucose, ketones and protein.
Dipsticks for detecting glucose have the following
features:
1) the end the stick has a pad containing the
immobilised enzymes glucose oxidase and
peroxidase
2) the pad is dipped in urine
3) glucose reacts to produce hydrogen peroxide
(catalysed by glucose oxidase)
4) hydrogen peroxide reacts with a colourless
substance (chromagen) present on the stick to give
a coloured substance
5) this is compared with a colour chart
6) more glucose gives a darker colour

Biosensors
Biosensors allow people with diabetes to check their
blood to see how well they’re controlling their glucose
concentration.
1) pad contains glucose oxidase
2) glucose oxidase reacts with glucose in the blood
3) oxygen is detected
4) electric current is generated which is detected by an
electrode
5) this gives a numerical value of the blood glucose
concentration
6) more glucose present à larger current à larger
reading
(b) The urine of a non-diabetic person does not contain glucose. A person with type 1 diabetes
will excrete glucose in urine.

A reading of the concentration of glucose in the urine can be estimated using a dipstick.

Fig. 7.2 outlines how a dipstick works.

enzyme A
glucose gluconic + hydrogen
in acid peroxide
urine

enzyme B
hydrogen + colourless water + coloured
peroxide chromogen chromogen
Fig. 7.2

The higher the concentration of glucose in the urine, the darker the colour on the dipstick.

(i) Name enzymes A and B.

(ii) An electronic biosensor can be used to measure the glucose concentration in a drop of
blood.

Suggest one advantage of using a biosensor and one advantage of using a dipstick to
measure glucose concentration.
7 (a) An important function of control systems in mammals is homeostasis.

Explain what is meant by the term homeostasis.

(b) Insulin plays a part in homeostasis. It affects muscle and liver cells to bring about a decrease
in blood glucose concentration, particularly after a meal.
Insulin is composed of two polypeptides which are made in β cells in the pancreas.

State precisely where in β cells polypeptide molecules are synthesised.

Name the process by which insulin is secreted from β cells.
Describe the effects of insulin on muscle cells.
(c) During periods of stress or extreme exercise more glucose needs to be released into the
blood. The hormone adrenaline is released and binds to receptors on the cell surface
membranes of liver cells.

Describe how the effect of adrenaline on liver cells results in an increase in blood glucose
concentration.
9 (a) Explain how dip sticks function to test for glucose in a sample of urine. [8]

(c) A person with diabetes mellitus can use a biosensor to measure the concentration of glucose
in their blood.

(i) Outline how a glucose biosensor works.

(ii) Suggest one advantage of using a biosensor rather than a dip stick.
 1 explain that stomata respond to changes in environmental
conditions by opening and closing and that regulation of
stomatal aperture balances the need for carbon dioxide
uptake by diffusion with the need to minimise water loss by
transpiration
2 explain that stomata have daily rhythms of opening and closing
3 describe the structure and function of guard cells and explain
the mechanism by which they open and close stomata
4 describe the role of abscisic acid in the closure of stomata
during times of water stress, including the role of calcium ions
as a second messenger

a) The opening and closing of stomata

Stomatal aperture is regulated in response to the
requirements for the uptake of carbon dioxide for
photosynthesis and conserving water.

Structure and function of guard cells

1) guard cells have unevenly thickened cell walls

• wall adjacent to the pore is very thick
• wall furthest from the pore is thin
2) bundles of cellulose microfibrils are arranged as
hoops around cells so that as the cell becomes turgid,
the cell mostly increases in length and not diameter
3) thin outer wall bends more readily than the thick inner
one, causing the guard cell to become curved
• this opens the pore between 2 cells
 Homeostasis in plants

Stomata have daily rhythms of opening and closing and also respond
to changes in environmental conditions to
- allow diffusion of CO2
- regulate water loss by transpiration

Opening and closing of stomata

1. ATP powers proton pumps to actively transport H+ out of cell

2. There is a low concentration of H+ and negative charge inside the cell -->
K channels open --> K+diffuse in
+

3. High concentration of K+ inside the cell decreases water potential

4. Water moves in via osmosis
5. Water entry increases the volume of the guard cell, causing it to expand --
> open
Structure of stomata

Each stomatal pore is surrounded by 2 guard cells. Guard cells:

 open when turgid (gain water)
 close when flaccid (lose water)

Abscisic acid and stomatal closure

Abscisic acid (ABA) is a stress hormone that is secreted in response to difficult

environmental conditions such as very high temperatures or much reduced water
supplies. ABA triggers the closure of stomata to reduce transpiration and prevent
water loss.

ABA binds to cell surface receptors

 inhibits proton pumps: stop H+ pumped out
 stimulates movement of Ca2+ through the cell surface membrane and tonoplast

Ca2+ acts as a 2nd messenger to activate channel proteins to open that allow
negatively charged ions to leave the guard cell. This in turn
 opens channel proteins that allow K+ to leave the cell
 closes channel proteins that allow K+ to enter the cell
 --> net movement: K+ leaves cell
Loss of ions = higher water potential inside cell = water passes out by osmosis = guard
cells become flaccid --> stomata close
9 (a) Explain the mechanism by which guard cells open stomata. [9]
 10 (b) Describe the role of abscisic acid in the closure of stomata. [8]

9 (a) Using examples, outline the importance of homeostasis in a mammal. [7]