Module on Modern Algebra I 2007EC

Contents
CHAPTER ONE ........................................................................................................................... 4
1.GROUPS ..................................................................................................................................... 4
1.1.Introduction:........................................................................................................................................ 4
1.2. Definition and Examples of a Group ................................................................................................. 6
1.2.1.Binary operations ......................................................................................................................... 6
1.2.Groups .................................................................................................................................... 13
1.3.SUBGROUPS ........................................................................................................................ 28
1.4.CYCLIC GROUPS ............................................................................................................... 37
1.5.COSETS AND LAGRRAGE’S THEOREM. .......................................................................... 41
1.5.1 Cosets ............................................................................................................................................. 41
1.6.Factor Groups and Normal Subgroups .............................................................................. 48
1.6.1.Normal Subgroups ......................................................................................................................... 48
1.6.2.Factor Groups(quotient group)....................................................................................................... 49
1.7.Groups homomorphisms ...................................................................................................... 51
1.8. The Isomorphism Theorems ............................................................................................... 56
1. 8.1 First Isomorphism Theorem .......................................................................................................... 58
1.8.2Second Isomorphism Theorem ....................................................................................................... 59
1. 8.4 Correspondence Theorem ............................................................................................................. 60
1.9. Direct sum of abelian groups and product of groups ....................................................... 62
1.9.1Direct Products................................................................................................................................ 62
1.10. GROUP OF PERMUTATIONS. ................................................................................ 65
1.11. THE CAYLEY’S THEOREM .......................................................................................... 68
1.12. Summery ............................................................................................................................. 69
CHAPTER TWO ........................................................................................................................ 73
2.RINGS ....................................................................................................................................... 73
2.1 Definition and Examples of Rings ....................................................................................... 73
2.2 Subrings ................................................................................................................................ 86
2.3 Ideals and Quotient Ring ..................................................................................................... 87
2.3.1.ALGEBRA OF IDEALS ............................................................................................................... 90

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. ................................................................................................................................. 90
. ............................................................................................................................. 91
2.4 QUOTIENT RING................................................................................................................ 91
2.5 Prime and Maximal Ideals ................................................................................................... 94
2.5.1.Prime ideals.................................................................................................................................... 94
2.5.2. Maximal ideals:- ........................................................................................................................... 95
2.6 Ring Homomorphisms and Ideals ....................................................................................... 96
2.7 Isomorphism Theorems ........................................................................................................ 99
2.8.Polynomial Rings ................................................................................................................ 104
2.9.Roots of polynomials, factorization of polynomials ......................................................... 106
2.9.1.EUCLIDEAN RINGS .................................................................................................................. 106
2.9.2. EUCLIDEAN ALGORITHM ..................................................................................................... 109
2.9.3.UNIQUE FACTORIZATION(UF).............................................................................................. 112
2.10.ED, UFD and PID ............................................................................................................. 114
i.Euclidean domain (ED) ...................................................................................................................... 114
ii.Unique factorization domain (UFD) ................................................................................................... 115
iii. principal ideal domain (PID) ........................................................................................................... 117
IV. FACTORING REAL AND COMPLEX POLYNOMIALS ........................................................... 119
V. FACTORING RATIONAL AND INTEGRAL POLYNOMIALS ................................................ 122
2.11. Summery ........................................................................................................................... 125
CHAPTER 3 .............................................................................................................................. 133
3.FIELD ..................................................................................................................................... 133
3.1.Introduction to Fields ......................................................................................................... 133
3.1.1 SUBFIELD: ................................................................................................................................. 136
3.2.FieldExtensions ................................................................................................................... 137
3.3. Finite and algebraic extensions ......................................................................................... 140
3.4.Algebraic closure ................................................................................................................. 142
3.5.Splitting fields and normal extensions .............................................................................. 146
3.6.Separable and inseparable extensions ............................................................................... 147
3.7 Finite Fields ......................................................................................................................... 149
3.7.1 Structure of finite fields ............................................................................................................... 149

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3.8.Summery .............................................................................................................................. 154

References .................................................................................................................................. 156

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CHAPTER ONE

1.GROUPS
Chapter contents
Chapter 1: Groups
1.1 Definition and examples of a group
1.2 Subgroups
1.3 Cyclic groups
1.4 Cosets and Lagrange’s theorem
1.5 Normal subgroups and quotient groups
1.6 Groups homomorphism
1.7 Isomorphism theorems
1.8 Direct sum of abelian groups and product of groups
1.9 Group of permutations
1.10 Group actions, conjugacy classes, and Cayley’s theorem

1.1.Introduction:
Groups serve as one of the fundamental building blocks for the subject called today modern
algebra. This chapter gives an introduction to the group theory and closely related topics. The
idea of group theory was used as early as 1770 by J.L. Lagrange (1736–1813). Around 1830, E.
Galois (1811–1832) extended Lagrange’s work in the investigation of solutions of equations and
introduced the term ‘group’. At that time, mathematicians worked with groups of
transformations. These were sets of mappings that, under composition, possessed certain
properties. Originally, group was a set of permutations (i.e., bisections) with the property that the
combination of any two permutations again belongs to the set. Felix Klein (1849–1925) adopted
the idea of groups to unify different areas of geometry. In 1870, L. Kronecker (1823–
1891) gave a set of postulates for a group. Earlier definitions of groups were generalized to the
present concept of an abstract group in the first decade of the twentieth century, which was
defined by a set of axioms. The theory of abstract groups plays an important role in the present
day mathematics and science. Groups arise in a number of apparently unrelated disciplines. They
appear in algebra, geometry, analysis, topology, physics, chemistry, biology, economics,
computer science etc. So the study of groups is essential and very interesting. In this chapter, we

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make an introductory study of groups with geometrical applications along with free Abelian
groups and structure theorem for finitely generated Abelian groups. Moreover, semigroups,
homology groups, cohomology groups, topological groups, Lie groups, Hopf groups, and
fundamental groups are discussed.

Unit Objectives:
After completing this chapter students will be able to:
 Define a group.
 List some examples of a group.
 Define what do we mean by a sub group of a group.
 Define a cyclic group.
 State and proof Lagrang’s theorem.
 Find the cosets of a subgroup.
 Find the normal sub group and quotient group of a group.
 Define Groups homomorphism.
 State and proof different isomorphism theorems.
 Define Direct sum of abelian groups and product of groups
 Define Group of permutations
 Define Group actions, conjugacy classes, and Cayley’s theorem

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1.2. Definition and Examples of a Group

1.2.1.Binary operations

Before directly defining the notion of group let us introduce the concept of binary operation,
since binary operation is basic for the definition of group. To start this consider the set ℤ.
There are three well-known operations on ℤnamely addition, subtraction and multiplication
which, for every order pair ( , ) elements of ℤ × ℤ determines the elements + , −
respectively of ℤ.We can look upon addition, subtraction and multiplication as
three mappings [functions] of ℤ × ℤ ⟶ ℤ.All these mappings are examples of binary
operations which we define formally as under.

Definition 1.1.(binary operation)

Let G be a non-empty set. Any mapping from × ⟶ is called a binary operation

on G.

Let be a binary operation on .By definition is a mapping from × ⟶ .Given

( , )∈ × , ( , ) ∈ .For the sake of convenience, we shall write
∗ ( , )

Example 1:On ℤ , define a binary operation ∗ by ∗ ℎ

ℎ = . Thus 2 ∗ 11 = 2, 5 ∗ 3 = 3, 10 ∗ 10 = 10

3 ∗ 3 = 3.

Example 2:On ℤ , define a binary operation ∗ by ∗ = Thus 2 ∗ 11 = 2,

5 ∗ 3 = 5, 10 ∗ 10 = 10

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Example 3: On ℤ , define a binary operation △ by △ =( ∗ )+2

ℎ ∗ 1.Thus △ =( ∗ )+ = + =

, △ = ( ∗ )+ = + = .

Example 4:Let S be any non-empty set. Then

i. Show that both union and intersection of two subsets of S define binary operations on
P(S), the power set of S.
ii. Show that the usual composition ‘◦’ of two mappings of M(S), the set of all mappings
Of S into S, is a binary operation on M(S) i.e., (f, g) ⟼f ◦ g, f, g ∈M(S),

Solution:
(i) Given that S ≠ ∅ and P(S) = {A: A ⊆ S}
Now take any two arbitrary members of P(S).i.e
Let A, B ∈ P(S)
Then by definition of P(S) we have that A ⊆ S and B ⊆ S
⟹ A ∪ B ⊆ S and A ∩ B ⊆ S ,by definitions of union and intersection of sets respectively.
⟹ A ∪ B ∈ P(S) and A ∩ B ∈ P(S), by definition of P(S).
Thus both union,∪,and intersection, ∩,are binary operations on P(S).
(ii) Given that S ≠ ∅ and M(S) = {f/ f: S ⟶ S}
Now take any two arbitrary members of M(S).i.e
Let f, g ∈ M(S)
Then by definition of M(S)we havef: S ⟶ S and g: S ⟶ S
Now we want show that ∘ ∶ ⟶ S .For this take an arbitrary member from S. i.e.
∈ Now consider
( ∘ )( ) = ( ) ,by definition of composition.
( ∘ )( ) = ( ) ∈ , ( )∈ , : ⟶ S and also f: S ⟶ S
Thus ( ∘ ) ∈ M(S),because ∘ ∶ ⟶ S.
Therefore the usual composition ‘◦’ of two mappings of M(S) is a binary operation on M(S).

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Example 5:Let (ℝ)be the set of all matrices with real entries. The usual matrix addition + is
not a binary operation on this set since A+B is not defined for an ordered pair (A,B) of matrices
having different order(or size).

Definition 1.2
Let * be a binary operation on S and let H be a subset of S.The subset H is closed under* if
for all , ∈ ℎ ∗ . In this case, the binary operation on H given by
restricting * to H is the induced operation of * on H

 By our very definition of a binary operation * on S, the set S is closed under *,but the
subset may not be closed under *, as the following two examples shows.
Example 6: The usual addition of integers, +, is a binary operation on the set of integers,ℤ, but
the subset the set of odd integers, = {2 − 1: ∈ ℤ} is not closed under addition, for instance
3,5 ∈ , but the sum 3+5 ∉ .

Example 7: Let + and .be the usual binary operations of addition and multiplication on the set of
ℤ, and let ={ : ∈ ℤ }. Determine whether H is closed under:
a) Addition and
b) Multiplication.
Solution :For part (a), we need only observe that 1 = 1 2 = 4 i.e 1,4 ∈ , but
1+4=5 and 5∉ . Thus H is not closed under addition.
For part (b), suppose that x ∈ ∈ . Then by definition of H there exists
n ∈ ℤ and m∈ ℤ such that = = . Now consider:
= =( ) ⟹ ∈ , ∈ ℤ . Thus H is closed under
multiplication.

Definition 1.3
A binary operation ∗ on a set G is called:
i. Commutative if and only if ∗ = ∗ ,∀ , ∈
ii. Associative if and only if ( ∗ ) ∗ = ∗ ( ∗ ), ∀ , , ∈

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Example 8: The binary operation in Example-1 is both commutative and associative.

THEOREM 1 .1: (Associativity of Composition)

Let S be a set and let f, g and h be functions from S in to S. Then
i. ∘ ( ∘ ℎ) = ( ∘ ) ∘ ℎ
PROOF: To show the two functions are equal, we must show that they give the same
assignment to each ∈ . Computing we find that

∘ ( ∘ ℎ) ( ) = ( ∘ ℎ)( ) = ℎ( )

and

( ∘ ) ∘ ℎ ( ) = ( ∘ ) ℎ( ) = ℎ( )

Thus ∘ ( ∘ ℎ) = ( ∘ ) ∘ ℎ, since is an arbitrary element of S. ∎

Example 9: The binary operation in Example-2 is not commutative and is not associative.
Example 10: The binary operations in Example-4 Roman number (ii)is not commutative and
but it is associative.

Table of Binary Operation

For a finite set, a binary operation on the set can be defined by means of a table in which the
elements of the set are listed across the top as heads of columns and at the left side as head rows.
We always require that the elements of the set be listed as heads across the top in the same order
as heads down the left side. The next examples illustrate the use of a table to define a binary
operation.

Example 11: Table-1 defines the binary operation * on = { , , } by the following rule:

(ith entry on the left )*(jth entry on the top)

=(entry in the ith row and jth column of the table body).

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Table-1

* a b c
a b c b
b a c b
c c b a

Thus ∗ = ∗ = , ∗ .

Remark:

 We can easily see that a binary operation defined by a table is commutative if and only if
the entire table are symmetric with respect to the diagonal that starts at the upper left
corner of the table and terminates at the lower right corner.
 Remember that in an attempt to define a binary operation * on a set S we must be sure
that:
1) exactly one element is assigned to each possible ordered pair of elements of S.
[ the operation should be well defined]
2) for each ordered pair of elements of S, the element assigned to it is again in S.
[the set, S, should be closed under the operation,*,]

Example 12: Complete Table-2 so that * is a commutative binary operation on the set =
{ , , , }.

Table-2
* a b c d
a b
b d a
c a c b
d d b d c

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Solution: From Table-2 we can observe that ∗ = ⇒ ∗ = , ∗is commutative.

Similarly ∗ = ⇒ ∗ = . In a similar way we can complete the table and we get:

* a b c d
a b d a d
b d a c b
c a c b d
d d b d c

Clearly the table is symmetric with respect to the main diagonal.

Quick Check Class activity 1.1.1

1) Check whether the following operations are binary or not on the given set.

a) ℚ, ∗ =

b) ℚ , ∗ =

c) ℤ , ∗ =

d) Let S be a set consisting of 20 people, no two of whom are of the same height.
Define * by a*b=c, where c is the tallest person among the 20 in S.
e) Let S be a set consisting of 20 people, no two of whom are of the same height.
Define * by a*b=c,where C is the shortest person in S who is taller than both a and
b.

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Exercise-1.1

Determine whether the following binary operation * defined is commutative and whether * is
associative.

1. ∗ ℤ ∗ = − .
2. ∗ ℚ ∗ = + 1.

3. ∗ ℚ ∗ = .

4. ∗ ℤ ∗ =2 .
5. ∗ ℤ ∗ = .
6. Let S be a set having exactly one element. How many binary operations can be defined
on S? Answer the question if S has exactly 2-elements; exactly 3-elements; exactly n-
elements.
7. How many different commutative binary operations can be defined on a set of 2-
elements? On a set of 3-elements? On a set of n-elements?
8. Determine whether the definition of * does give a binary operation on the set.
a) ℤ , ∗ ∗ = − .
b) ℤ , ∗ ∗ = .
c) ℝ ∗ ∗ = − .
d) ℤ , ∗ ∗ = , ℎ ℎ
ℎ ℎ .
e) ℤ , ∗ ∗ = , ℎ 5
ℎ + .
f) ℤ , ∗ ∗ = , ℎ ℎ
ℎ ℎ .
9. Let H be the subset of (ℝ) ℎ
−
, ℝ. Is H closed under :

a) Matrix addition?
b) Matrix multiplication?
10. Mark each of the following statement true or false.
a) If * is a binary operation on any set S, then ∗ = ∈ .

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b) If * is any commutative binary operation on any set S, then

∗( ∗ ) =( ∗ )∗ , , ∈ .
c) If * is any associative binary operation on any set S, then
∗( ∗ ) =( ∗ )∗ , , ∈ .
d) A binary operation * on a set S is commutative if there exists , ∈ ℎ ℎ ∗
= ∗ .
e) Every binary operation defined on a set Having exactly one element is both
commutative and associative.
f) A binary operation on a set S assigns at least one element of S to each ordered pair of
elements of S.
g) A binary operation on a set S assigns at most one element of S to each ordered pair of
elements of S.
h) A binary operation on a set S assigns exactly one element of S to each ordered pair of
elements of S.
i) A binary operation on a set S may assigns more than one element of S to some
ordered pair of elements of S.

1.2.Groups

Definition . . ( ):
A group ( ,∗) , ∗, ℎ ℎ the following
axioms are satisfied:
:
( ∗ )∗ = ∗ ( ∗ ), ∀ , , ∈

: Existence of identity
There is an element ℎ ℎ ∀ ∈ , ∗ = ∗ = .

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 e is called the identity element of G with respect to *.

:Existence of inverse
Corresponding to each element ∈ , there is an element ℎ ℎ
∗ = ∗ =

 is called the inverse of a and vice versa .It is usually denoted by instead of .
∎

Example-1:Prove that (ℤ, +) is a group

PROOF:

(i) Associativity

∀ , , ∈ ℤ, ( + ) + = + ( + ), .

Hence is satisfied.

(ii) Existence of identity

∈ℤ ∀ ∈ℤ 0+ = +0= .

ℎ =0 ℎ ℤ ℎ .

Hence is satisfied.

(iii) Existence of inverse.

∀ ∈ℤ ∃− ∈ℤ ℎ ℎ + (− ) = − + = 0 = .i.e every element in ℤ has an

inverse in ℤ with respect to +.

Hence is satisfied.

Therefore (ℤ, +) is a group.

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Quick Check Class activity -1.2.1

Prove that:

) (ℚ, +)is a group ) (ℝ, +) is a group.

Remark: The binary operation in a group need not be commutative. Sometimes a commutative
group is called an Abelian group in honour of NielsHenrick Abel (1802–1829); one of the
pioneers in the study of groups.

Definition . . ( ):
( ,∗) ,∗, .

 An abelian group mean a group with commutative property.

Example-2: Prove that (ℝ∗ ,×) is an abelian group. Where ℝ∗ is the set of non-zero real
numbers and × is multiplication of real numbers.

PROOF:

(i) Associativity

∀ , , ∈ ℝ∗ , ( × )× = × ( × ),

− .

Hence is satisfied.

(ii) Existence of identity

∈ ℝ∗ ∀ ∈ ℝ∗ 1 × = ×1= .

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Thus = 1 is the identity element of ℝ∗ with respect to multiplication.

Hence is satisfied.

(iii) Existence of inverse.

∀ ∈ ℝ∗ ∃ ∈ ℝ∗ ℎ ℎ × = × = 1 = .i.e every element in ℝ∗ has an inverse

in ℝ∗ with respect to ×.

Hence is satisfied.

(iv) Commutativty

∀ , ∈ ℝ∗ , ℎ × = × , since multiplication of non-zero real numbers is

commutative.

Thus (ℝ∗ ,×) is an abelian group.

Example-3:Prove that (ℝ ∖ {1}, ∗) .

Where ∗ = + − .

PROOF:

Claim that ℝ ∖ {1} is closed under ∗.

, ∈ ℝ ∖ {1}. ℎ , ∈ℝ ≠1 ≠1

Now consider ∗ ,but ∗ = + − .

Suppose that ∗ = 1 ∉ ℝ ∖ {1}

⇔ + − = 1, ∗

⇔ −1+ − =0

⇔ ( − 1) − ( − 1) = 0

⇔ ( − 1)(1 − ) = 0 ⇔ − 1 = 0 1− = 0=0⇔ =1 = 1 , but this

contradict the fact that both a and b are different from 1.

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Thus our supposition is wrong. That is ∗ ≠ 1. Hence ℝ ∖ {1} is closed under ∗.

Next prove that * is

(i) Associative

∀ , , ∈ ℝ ∖ {1},

1) Consider ( ∗ )∗ =( + − )∗ , ∗

= + − + −( + − ) , ∗

= + − + − − +

= + + − − − +

2) Consider ∗( ∗ )= ∗ ( + − ), ∗
= + + − − ( + − ), ∗
= + + − − − +

( ∗ )∗ = ∗ ( ∗ ).Thus * is associative.

Therefore is satisfied.

(ii) Existence of identity

Let e be an identity element of ℝ ∖ {1} with respect to∗

Let a be an arbitrary element of ℝ ∖ {1}. Then by definition of identity element we

have the following: ∗ = = ∗ .

∗ =

⇔ + − = ⇔ − = 0 ⇔ (1 − ) = 0

⇔ = 0, ≠1 [ =0 ℎ ℝ ∖ {1} ∗]

and also consider ∗ =

⇔ + − = , ∗⇔ − = 0 ⇔ (1 − ) = 0

⇔ = 0, ≠ 1[ = 0 is the right identity ℝ ∖ {1} ∗]

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ℎ =0 ℎ ℝ ∖ {1} ∗.

Hence is satisfied.

(ii) Existence of inverse.

ℝ ∖ {1}. ℎ ∗.
ℎ ∗ ℎ ∗ = = ∗ .
∗ =
⇔ + − = = 0, ∗
−
⇔ = ⇔ = , ≠1 [ ℎ ℎ ]
1− −1
Now also consider ∗ =
⇔ + − = =0
−
⇔ = ⇔ = , ≠1 [ ℎ ]
1− −1
Thus every ℝ ∖ {1} ℎ = ∗

Hence is satisfied.

(iv) Commutativty

∀ , ∈ ℝ ∖ {1}, Consider ∗ , ℎ ∗ ℎ :

∗ = + − = + − = ∗ . ∗ .

Thus (ℝ ∖ { },∗) is an abelian group.

Example-3:
ℎ ℤ . ℎ
+ ℤ .

Example-4:

The se of all non-negative integers including zero under addition is still not a group.There is an
identity element 0,but no inverse for 2.

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Quick Check Class activity -1.2.2

Prove that (ℝ∗ , ∆) . ℎ ∆ = ,∀ , ∈ ℝ∗

ℝ∗ ℎ − .

Definition . . ( ):
i. ( ,∗) ℎ
.
ii. ( ,∗) , ℎ ℎ ,
( ) | |.

Example-5:Show that ( ,×) is a finite abelian group. Where = {1, −1. , − } , ×

multiplication of complex numbers and = −1.

Solution: Since S is finite use table

× 1 -1 i -i
1 1 -1 i -i
-1 -1 1 -i i
i i -i -1 1
-i -i i 1 -1

From the above table we can observe that

i. S is closed under ×.
ii. 1 is the identity element of S wrt×.[axiom ]
iii. Every element in has an inverse. That is [axiom ]

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 The inverse of 1 is 1 itself.

 The inverse of -1 is -1 itself.
 The inverse of i is -i and vice versa .
iv. ×is commutative, since the main diagonal is a symmetric axis to the table .
[abelian ]
 Since × is multiplication of complex numbers, and hence it is associative. [axiom ]

Therefore ( ,×) is a finite abelian group with | | = 4.

Example-6:Show that ( , ∘) is a finite abelian group. Where = { , , , }

( )= , ( )=− , ( )= ( )= . And” ∘ " composition of functions.

Solution:-Since S is finite use table :

( ∘ )( ) = ( ) = ( )= = ,( ∘ )( ) = ( ) = (− ) = − = ,

( ∘ )( ) = ( ) = = = ,( ∘ )( ) = ( ) = = = ,

( ∘ )( ) = ( ) = ( )=− = ,( ∘ )( ) = ( ) = (− ) = = ,

( ∘ )( ) = ( ) = =− = ,( ∘ )( ) = ( ) = = = ,

( ∘ )( ) = ( ) = ( )= = ,( ∘ )( ) = ( ) = (− ) = − = ,

( ∘ )( ) = ( ) = = = ,( ∘ )( ) = ( ) = =− = ,

Similarly we can find the remaining compositions and we get the following table.

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In Theorem-1.1 we proved that the binary operation composition,∘, of Mappings is associative.

Hence axiom is fulfilled. From the above table we can conclude the following:

 S is closed under ∘ .
 ∘is well defined.
 ∘is commutative. Note that composition operation in general may not be commutative, but
in this example it is commutative, since the table is symmetric with respect to the main
diagonal. Hence Commutativity is fulfilled.
 is an identity element of S wrt∘.Hence axiom is fulfilled
 ℎ ∘.That is
 ℎ .
 ℎ .
 ℎ .
 ℎ .That every element in S is its own inverse.
Hence axiom is fulfilled
Therefore ( ,∘) is a finite abelian group with| | = 4.

Example-7:Show that the set × (ℝ) 2 × 3 matrices under matrix addition is an

abelian group.

Solution: × (ℝ) = : , , , , , ∈ℝ .

From linear algebra we know that matrix addition is associative. Hence axiom is fulfilled.

0 0 0
The zero matrix is the identity element of × (ℝ) wrt +.Hence axiom is
0 0 0

fulfilled. For any matrix = ∈ × (ℝ) there exists a matrix

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− − −
(ℝ)such that A+(-A)=-A+A= 0 0 0
− = ∈ × .Thus every element
− − − 0 0 0
in × (ℝ) has an inverse in × (ℝ).Hence axiom is fulfilled. And also from linear
algebra we know that matrix addition is commutative. Hence commutativity is fulfilled.

Therefore ( × (ℝ), +) is an infinite abelian group. ∎

Group Activity 1.2.1

1) Show that the set (ℝ) × matrices under matrix multiplication is not a
group.
2) Show that the subset S of (ℝ) × matrices under
matrix multiplication is a group.
∎

Elementary Properties of Group.

Theorem-1.2.1(Cancellation law)
Let ( ,∗) , , ∈
i. ∗ = ∗ , ℎ = . [ ]
ii. ∗ = ∗ , ℎ = . [ ℎ ]
( )Consider ∗ = ∗ ,since , ℎ ∃ ∈ .
∗( ∗ ) = ∗( ∗ )
⇔( ∗ )∗ =( ∗ ) ∗ , by axiom .
⇔e*b=e*c,by axiom
⇔ b=c,by axiom
( ): .
Theorem-1.2.2
Let ( ,∗)be a group and let , ∈ . ℎ ℎ ∗ = ∗ = ,ℎ

: Consider ∗ = . Given that , ℎ ∃ ∈ .

Then ∗( ∗ )= ∗

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⇔ ( ∗ )∗ = ∗ , by

⇔ ∗ = ∗ , by .

⇔ = ∗ , by .Thus ∗ is the solution of the equation ∗ = .

 Next show that the solution is unique.

Suppose that ℎ ∗ = .Then we have
∗ = ∗ =
⟹ ∗ = ∗
⇔ = , by left cancellation law of group. Thus the solution is unique.

The proof of ∗ = is exercise.

∎
Theorem-1.2.2
1. In a group ℎ ∗, ℎ ℎ ℎ
∗ = = ∗ , ∀ ∈ . be a group
2. In a group ℎ ∗, ℎ ∈ ℎ ℎ
ℎ ∗ = = ∗
 In summary, identity element and inverse of each element are unique in a group.

PROOF :( 1) Let G has two identity elements, say .Then

I. ∗ = = ∗ , .
II. ∗ = = ∗ , .
From I and II we can observe that = .Thus an identity element of a group is unique.
PROOF :( 2) Suppose ∈ ℎ ℎ by definition of inverse
We have
∗ = ∗ = and ∗ = ∗ = . Then
∗ = ∗ and by left cancellation law of a group we have = .
ℎ ℎ .

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Corollary-1.2.1: ( ,∗) . , ∈ , ℎ ( ∗ ) = ∗

PROOF : Consider ( ∗ ) ∗ ( ∗ )
= ∗( ∗ )∗ , by group axiom .
= ∗ ∗ , by group axiom .
=( ∗ )∗ , by group axiom .
= ∗ , by group axiom .
= , by group axiom .
ℎ ( ∗ ) = ∗ .
Remark: Throughout this chapter we denote a group ( ,∗) saying a group G
and , ∈ ∗ .
Example-8:let , ∈ . ℎ ℎ ℎ
( ) = = .Where n is a positive integer.

: of(⟹) let ( ) = . Now consider ( ) . That is

( ) =( )( )( ). . . ( ) , n times

= ( ) ( ) . . . , .

= . . . .

= . . . .

Thus by the hypothesis of the theorem we have ( ) = = . Then by

cancelation law of group we get = .

: of(⟸)let = .We want show that ( ) = . Previously we proved that

( ) = , but by the hypothesis of the theorem we have = .

Thus ( ) = ∎

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Example-9: An element in the group G is called idempotent if = . Show that the

only idempotent element of a group is the identity element of G.
PROOF:- . . Then
we have = , .
⇔ =
⇔ = e, by group axiom .
⇔ = , by left cancelation law of group.
Thus e is the only idempotent element of G.
Example-10: If G is a group such that = ∈ . ℎ ℎ .
PROOF:-Let , ∈ . ℎ ℎ = = = = .
Now consider ( )( )=( ) =
⇔( )( ) =
⇔( ) ( )= , by group axiom and by group axiom .
⇔( ) = , since = =
⇔( )( )= , since = =
⇔( )( ) =
⇔ = , by group axiom .
Therefore G is abelian.
∎

Example-11:Show that the set = {1,3,5,7} is a group under multiplication modulo 8.

Solution:Since G is finite construct table:

⨂ = is the remainder when 8. For instance3 ⨂ 5 = 7 ℎ remainder

when 3x5=15 is divided by 8. In a similar way we can complete the table.

⨂ 1 3 5 7
1 1 3 5 7
3 3 1 7 5
5 5 7 1 3
7 7 5 3 1

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There is no short method to check the operation multiplication modulo 8 is associative. Thus we
must check the associativity of the operation by ordering any three members of G at a time,
!
totally there are (4,3) = ( )!
= 24 arrangements. For instance:

(1⨂3)⨂5 = 1⨂(3⨂5) ⇔ 3⨂5 = 1⨂7 ⇔ 7 = 7 .

(3⨂7)⨂5 = 3⨂(7⨂5) ⇔ 5⨂5 = 3⨂3 ⇔ 1 = 1

Similarly check the remaining 22 arrangements. Thus Multiplication modulo 8 is associative.

Hence axiom is fulfilled. The other axioms of group and the commutativity of the operation
can be easily checked from the table.

 The identity element of G is 1.Hence axiom is fulfilled.

 Every element in G has an inverse in G. That is
The inverse of 1 is 1 itself, the inverse of 3 is 3 itself, the inverse of 5 is 5 itself and the
inverse of 7 is 7 itself. Hence axiom is fulfilled.
 The table is symmetric wrt the main diagonal, thus the operation ⨂ is commutative.
Therefore G is a finite abelian group with | | = 4
∎

Quick Check Class activity -1.2.3

1. Show that G is abelian group if and only if ( ) = ,∀ , ∈ .

2. Show that the set = {0,2,4,6} is a group under addition modulo 8.
∎

Exercise-1.2.1

1. Check whether the following are groups or not .Give your reason.
a) ∗ ℤ ∗ = .
b) ∗ 2ℤ = {2 : ∈ ℤ} ∗ = + .
c) ∗ ℝ ∗ =√ .
d) ∗ ℚ ∗ = .
e) ∗ ℂ ∗ =| |.

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f) ∗ ℎ ℝ∗

∗ = .

2. Let n be a positive integer and let ℤ = { : ∈ ℤ}. Show that( ℤ, +) is a group.

3. Determine whether the given set of matrices under the specified operation is a group or not.
a) All × diagonal matrices under matrix addition.
b) All × diagonal matrices under matrix multiplication.
c) All × upper triangular matrices under matrix addition.
d) All × upper triangular matrices under matrix multiplication.
e) All × matrices with determinant either 1 or -1 under matrix multiplication
4. Let S be the set of all real numbers except -1. Define ∗ ∗ = + + .
a) Show that ∗ is a binary operation on S.
b) Show that ( ,∗) .
c) Find the solution of the equation 2 ∗ ∗3=7 .
5. Mark each of the following true or false.
a) A group may have more than one identity element.
b) In a group, each linear equation has a unique solution.
c) Every group of at most three elements is abelian.
d) An equation of the form ∗ ∗ = always has a unique solution in a group.
e) The empty set can be considered a group.
6. Show that if G is a finite group with identity e and with an even number of elements, then
there is ≠ ℎ ℎ ∗ = .

7. Let G be an abeliangroupand let = ∗ ∗ . . .∗ . ℎ ∈ and

∈ ℤ . Give a mathematical induction proof that ( ∗ ) = ∗ .
8. Let G be a group with a finite number of elements. Show that for any ∈ , there exists an
∈ℤ ℎ ℎ = .[Hint : consider , , , , . . . , . Where m is the number of
elements in G, and use cancellation laws.]
9. Show that if ( ∗ ) = ∗ , ℎ ∗ = ∗ .
10.Let( ,△) . ∗ ∗ = △ .

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For , ∈ .prove that ( ,∗) .

∎
It is customary to denote the inverse of an element in multiplicative
notation and − in additive notation. From now on, we shall be using these notations in the place
of the symbol .
Let n be a positive integer. If is an element of a group G, written multiplicatively, wedenote the
product . . . . the identity element e, and denote the
product . . . . It is easy to see that our usual law of
exponents, = , ∈ ℤ, ℎ . , ∈ℤ , . We illustrate another
type of case by an example:
= = ( ) = = ( ) =
=( ) = =( ) = = .
In additive notation, we denote + + + . . .+ ,denote (− ) +
(− ) + (− ) + . . . (− ) − ,and let 0 be denoteidentity element. Be
careful: In notation , the number n is in ℤ not in G. One reason we prefer to present group
theory using multiplicative notation, even if G is abelian, is the confusion caused by regarding n
as being in G in this notation . No one ever misinterprets the n when it appears in an
exponent. ∎

1.3.SUBGROUPS
You may have noticed that we sometimes have had groups contained within larger groups.
For example, the group ℤ under addition is contained within the group ℚ under addition. We
are requiring not only that the set of one group be a subset of the other, but also that the
group operation on the subset be induced operation that assigns the same element to each
ordered pair from this subset as is assigned by the group operation on the whole set.

Definition:1. 3.1 (subgroup)

If a subset H of a group G is closed under the binary operation of G and if H with the induced
operation from G is itself a group, then His a subgroup of G. We shall let ≤ ≥
ℎ , < > ℎ ≤ , ≠ .

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:Every group G has subgroups G itself and { }, where e is the identity element of G.

Example 1: ℎ ℎ (ℤ, +) < (ℝ, +).

Solution: ℎ ℎ ℤ⊂ℝ (ℤ, +) . ℎ (ℤ, +) < (ℝ, +)

Example 2: ℎ ℎ ( ℤ, +) < (ℤ, +)

Solution:Clearly 2ℤ = {2 : ∈ ℤ} ⊂ ℤ. Next by using definition of group show that ( ℤ, +)

is a group.

i. Associativity
We know that addition of even integers is associative. Hence group axiom G1 is fulfilled.
ii. Existence of Additive Identity
=0 ℎ 2ℤ. Hence group axiom G2 is fulfilled.
iii. Existence of Additive Inverse.
Every element2 ∈ 2ℤ has an additive inverse −2 ∈ 2ℤ .Hence group axiom G3 is
fulfilled.
Hence ( ℤ, +) . Therefore ( ℤ, +) < (ℤ, +)
∎

Quick Check Class activity -1.3.1

1. Show that( , . ) < (ℂ∗ , . ). Where = {1, −1, , − }, ℂ∗ is nonzero complex numbers and
. multiplication of complex numbers. ∎

Definition: 1.3.2
If G is a group, then the subgroup consisting of G itself is the improper subgroup of G.
All other subgroups are proper subgroups. The subgroup { }is the trivial subgroup of G.
All other subgroups are nontrivial.

Example3:ℚ ℝ under multiplication.

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There are two different types of group structures of order 4, we describe them by their group
tables (see in the following tables). The group V is the Klein 4- group, and the notation V
comes from the German word vier for four. The group ℤ is isomorphic to the group

= {1, , −1, } under multiplication.

Z4 V e b c
+ 0 1 2 3
0 1 1 2 3 e e b c

1 1 2 3 0 e c b

2 2 3 0 1 b b c e
3 3 0 1 2 c c b e

The only nontrivial proper subgroup of ℤ is {0,2}.Note that {0,3} is not a subgroup of ℤ , since
{0,3} is not closed under +. For example,3+3=2, and 2 ∉ {0,3}. However,the group V has three
nontrivial proper subgroups, { , }, { , } { , }. { , , } is not subgroup, since
{ , , }is not closed under the operation of V because = , ∉ { , , }.
It is often useful to draw a subgroup diagram of the subgroups of a group.In such a diagram, a
line running downward from a group G to to a group H means that H is a subgroup of G. Thus
the larger group is placed nearer the top of the diagram.See the figure below that contains the
subgraph diagrams for the groups ℤ and V.

a) a subgrroup diagram of ℤ b) a subgroup diagram of V

Example 4:

Let G be the group of all real-valued functions with domain ℝ under addition. The subset H of
G consisting of those functions that are continuous is a subgroup of G, for the sum of continuous

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functions is continuous ,the functionn ℎ ( )=0 is continuous and is the

additive identity element, and if , ℎ − .

It is convenient to have routine steps for determining whether a subset of a group G is a subgroup
of G. The next theorem will set the criteria for checking a subset of a group G is a subgroup of
G or not.

Theorem-1.3.1 (Criteria for subgroup)

The non-empty subset H of a group G is a sub group of G if and only if:
(i) H is closed under the operation of G. i.e ∀ , ∈ ⟹ ∈ .
(ii) Every element of H has an inverse in H. i.e ∀ ∈ ⟹ ∈ .

PROOF:
i. Proof of (⟹)
Let H ≠ ∅ and H ≤ G. We want show that:
a) ∀ , ∈ ⟹ . b) ∀ ∈ ⟹ ∈

⟹ ∈ ≤ .

ii. Proof of (⟸)

∅ ≠ H ⊆ G and from the hypothesis of the theorem we have that ∀ ∈ ⟹
−1
.That is H satisfies a group axiom . Next show that H satisfies the group axiom
(Associativity).
, , ∈ ⟹ , , ∈ , H⊆G

⟹( ) = ( ), H ⊆ G. Hence H satisfies group axiom .

Finally show that H satisfies group axiom ,existence of identity.
∈
⟹ ∈ , ℎ ℎ ℎ ℎ ℎ .

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⟹ ∈ , ℎ ℎ ℎ ℎ ℎ .
⟹ ∈ , = .
Hence H satisfies group axiom .
Thus H satisfies all the three group axioms and H ⊆ G.Hence ≤

Example 5: In any group G, the set ={ ∈ : = , ∀ ∈ } is a sub group of G.

PROOF:-To prove this result uses the subspace criteria theorem.

(i) Show that ≠ ∅.

Since G is a group and hence by group axiom it has an identity.i.e
∈
⟹ = = ,∀ ∈ , .
⟹ = ,∀ ∈ .
⟹ ∈ , .Thus ≠ ∅.
(ii) Show that H is closed under the operation of G.
, ∈ .Then from the definition of H we have
= = ,∀ ∈ .
Now consider ( ) ,but
( ) = ( ), , , ∈ .
= ( ), =
=( ) , , , ∈ .
= ( ) , = .
= ( ), , , ∈ .
( ) = ( ), ∀ ∈ .Then by definition of H we have that ∈ .Thus H is
closed under the operation of G.
(iii)Finally prove that every element in H has an inverse in H.
∈ . ℎ ℎ
= ,∀ ∈ .
ℎ ℎ ℎ .

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( )= ( )
⇔( ) =( ) , .
⇔ =( ) , = = .
Again multiply both sides of the above equation by from the right. i.e
= ( )
⇔ =( )( ), .
⇔ = ,∀ ∈ .
∈ , .
ℎ ℎ ℎ .
:The above subgroup ={ ∈ : = , ∀ ∈ } is called the centre of G and it is
denoted by ( ). ℎ ( )={ ∈ : = ,∀ ∈ }
Example 5:If H and K are subgroups of a group G, then prove that the intersection of H and
K, ∩ , is also a sub group of G.

PROOF: To prove this result uses the subspace criteria theorem.

(i) Show that ∩ ≠ ∅.

From the definition of sub group we have that

∈ ∈ ,Since H and K are subgroups of G

⇔ ∈ ∩ , .

⟹ ∩ ≠∅

(ii) Show that ∩ is closed under the operation of G.

, ∈ ∩

⇔ , ∈ , ∈ , .

⇔ ∈ ∈ , ℎ .

⇔ ∈ ∩ , .

Thus ∩ is closed under the operation of G.

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(iii) Finally prove that every element in ∩ has an inverse in ∩ .

∈ ∩ .

⇔ ∈ ∈ , .

⇔ ∈ ∈ , ℎ .

⇔ ∈ ∩ , .

Thus every element in ∩ has an inverse in ∩ .

ℎ ℎ ℎ ∩ .
∎

Definition: 1.3.2

Let H and K be subgroups of G. The set = {ℎ : ℎ ∈ ∈ } is called the product of

H and K

Remark: The product HK is not always a subgroup of G.

Theorem-1.3.2

Let H and K be subgroups of G. Then the product set = {ℎ : ℎ ∈ ∈ } is a sub

group of G if and only if HK=KH.

PROOF:
(i) Proof of (⟹)
Let = {ℎ : ℎ ∈ ∈ } ≤ .We want show that HK=KH.
Let ∈
⟹ ∈ , ≤ . Then from the definition of HK ∃ℎ ∈ ∃ ∈ such
that = ℎ .Now take the inverse of both sides
( ) = (ℎ ) .Then by Corollary-2.1 we have

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⇔ = ℎ ∈ , . ℎ ∈ is a subgroup
and ℎ ∈ , .
⇔ ∈ . ℎ ℎ ⊆ .

Similarly let ∈

Then from the definition of KH ∃ ∈ ∃ℎ ∈ such that = ℎ.

Since ⊆ ⟹ℎ∈ ⊆ ⟹ ∈ .Thus
= ℎ∈
⟹ ∈ , .Now consider
= ( ℎ)
⇔ =ℎ , by Corollary − 2.1
⇔ =ℎ ∈ , .That is ∈ .But HK is asub group
of G so that
( ) ∈
⟹ ∈
ℎ ⊆ .
ℎ ℎ =
(ii) Proof of (⟸)
Let HK=KH.We want show that ≤ .To prove this result use the subspace criteria theorem.
a) Show that ≠ ∅.
≤ ⟹ ∈ ≤ ⟹ ∈ .
ℎ ℎ ∈ ⇔ ∈ .
≠ ∅.
b) Show that HK is closed under the operation of G.
, ∈ . ℎ ℎ ∃ℎ , ℎ ∃ , such that
=ℎ =ℎ .

= (ℎ )(ℎ )=ℎ ℎ ,by associative property in G ,but

∈

ℎ ∈ , .
⟹ ℎ ∈ , = .
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⟹ ∃ℎ ∈ ∃ ∈ ℎ ℎ ℎ = ℎ .hence

= (ℎ )(ℎ )=ℎ ℎ = ℎ (ℎ )
∈

= ℎ ℎ , .
∈ ∈

⟹ = ℎ ℎ ∈ , .
∈ ∈

ℎ ∈ . ℎ ℎ .
c) Show that every element in HK has an inverse in HK.
∈ .
ℎ ℎ ∃ℎ ∈ ∃ ∈ ℎ ℎ
=ℎ . ℎ
= (ℎ )
= ⏟
ℎ , 2.1
∈ ∈

⟹ ∈ , .
⟹ ∈ , = .
Thus every element in HK has an inverse in HK, since x is an arbitrary element of HK.
Therefore by the subspace criteria theorem ≤ .

Quick Check Class activity -1.3.2

1. Determine whether the given subset of complex numbers is a subgroup of the

group ℂ of complex numbers under addition.

) ℝ ) ℚ ) 7ℤ d) The set ℝ of pure imaginary numbers including 0.

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Exercise-1.3.1

1. Mark each of the following true or false.

a) The associative law holds in every group.
b) There may be a group in which the cancellation law fails.
c) Every group is a subgroup of itself.
d) Every group has exactly two improper subgroups.
2. Show that If H and K are subgroups of an abelian group G, then {ℎ : ℎ ∈ ∈ } is a
subgroup of G.
3. Show that a nonempty subset H of G is a subgroup of G if and only if
∈ , ∈ .
4. Prove that if G is an abelian group, written multiplicatively, with identity elements x of G
satisfying the equation = form a subgroup H of G.
5. Show that if ∈ , where G is a finite group with identity e, then there exists ∈ ℤ ,such
that = .
6. Let a nonempty finite subset H of a group G be closed under the binary operation of G. Show
that H is a subgroup of G.

1.4.CYCLIC GROUPS
Let us see how large a subgroup H of ℤ would have to be it contains 3.It would have to contain
the identity element 0 and 3+3, which is 6.Then it has to contain 6+3, which is 9. Note that the
inverse of 3 is 9 and the inverse of 6 is 6.It is easily checked that = {0,3,6,9} is a subgroup of
ℤ , and the smallest subgroup containing 3.

A subgroup G containing the element a must be contain all elements of ( for additive
groups) for all ∈ ℤ. That is, a subgroup containing must contain { : ∈ ℤ}.Note that these
powers of need not be distinct.

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Theorem-1.4.1

Let G be a group and let ∈ . Then ={ : ∈ ℤ} is the subgroup of G that contains ,that is,
every subgroup containing contains H. That is H is the smallest subgroup of G containing .

Proof: To prove this theorem use the subspace criteria theorem. That is

i. Show that H is closed under the operation of G.

, ∈ . ℎ ℎ ∃ , ∈ℤ ℎ ℎ =
= . Now consider
= = ∈ , + ∈ ℤ. Hence H is closed under the operation of G.
ii. Show that every element in H has an inverse in H.
let ∈ . Then from the definition of H ∃ ∈ ℤ such that = and also
∃ ∈ ℎ ℎ = , − ∈ ℤ. Now consider = = =

Thus every element in H has an inverse in H.

Therefore by the subspace criteria theorem H is the subgroup of G.

iii. Finally show that H is the smallest subgroup of G containing .

Suppose that F is any subgroup of G containing .
let ∈ . Then from the definition of H ∃ ∈ ℤ such that = ,but = ∈ ,
since ∈ that is F is closed under the operation of G. Hence ⊆ .
Therefore H is the smallest subgroup of G containing .

Definition-1.4.1

Let G be a group and let ∈ . Then the subgroup{ : ∈ ℤ} of G, characterized in Theorem 4.1is
called the cyclic subgroup of G generated by ,Denoted by 〈 〉.

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Definition-1.4.2

An element = 〈 〉. A group G is
cyclic if there is some element .

Example 1:The group ℤ is cyclic,since ℤ = 〈1〉 = 〈3〉

Example 2:The group ℤ under addition is a cyclic group.Both 1and -1 are generator of this
group.

Quick Check Class activity -1.4.1

1. Mark each of the following true or false.

a) In every cyclic group, every element is a generator.
b) A cyclic group has a unique generator.
c) ℤ is a cyclic group.
2. Prove that a cyclic group with only one generator can have at most 2 elements.
3. Show that a group with no proper nontrivial subgroups is cyclic.

ELEMENTARY PROPERTIES OF CYCLIC GROUPS

Theorem-1.4.2 Every cyclic group is abelian.

PROOF: Let G be a cyclic group and let be the generator of G so that

=〈 〉={ : ∈ ℤ}.let then by definition of G there

exists ℤ ℎ ℎ = = . Now consider

= = = = = .Thus G is abelian.

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Theorem-1.4.3.A subgroup of a cyclic group is cyclic.

so b is a power of c.

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1.5.COSETS AND LAGRRAGE’S THEOREM.

Lagrange’s Theorem, one of the most important results in finite group theory, states
that the order of a subgroup must divide the order of the group .This theorem provides a
powerful tool for analyzing finite groups; it gives us an idea of exactly what type of
subgroups we might expect a finite group to possess. Central to understanding Lagranges’s
Theorem is the notion of a coset.
1.5.1 Cosets

Let G be a group and H a subgroup of G. Define a left coset of H with representative g ∈ G to be

the set gH = {gh : h ∈ H}.

Right cosets can be defined similarly by Hg = {hg : h ∈ H}.

If left and right cosets coincide or if it is clear from the context to which type of coset that we are
referring, we will use the word coset without specifying left or right.
Example 1. Let H be the subgroup of Z6 consisting of the elements 0 and 3. The cosets are
0 + H = 3 + H = {0, 3}
1 + H = 4 + H = {1, 4}
2 + H = 5 + H = {2, 5}.
We will always write the cosets of subgroups of Z and Zn with the additive notation we have
used for cosets here. In a commutative group, left and right cosets are always identical.
Example 2. Let H be the subgroup of S3 defined by the permutations {(1), (123), (132)}. The left
cosets of H are
(1)H = (123)H = (132)H = {(1), (123), (132)}
(12)H = (13)H = (23)H = {(12), (13), (23)}.
The right cosets of H are exactly the same as the left cosets:
H(1) = H(123) = H(132) = {(1), (123), (132)}
H(12) = H(13) = H(23) = {(12), (13), (23)}.
It is not always the case that a left coset is the same as a right coset.
Let K be the subgroup of S3 defined by the permutations {(1), (12)}. Then
the left cosets of K are
(1)K = (12)K = {(1), (12)}

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(13)K = (123)K = {(13), (123)}

(23)K = (132)K = {(23), (132)};
however, the right cosets of K are
K(1) = K(12) = {(1), (12)}
K(13) = K(132) = {(13), (132)}
K(23) = K(123) = {(23), (123)}.
The following lemma is quite useful when dealing with cosets. (We leave
its proof as an exercise.)

Lemma 5.1 Let H be a subgroup of a group G and suppose that g1, g2 ∈ G. The following

conditions are equivalent.

1. g1H = g2H;
2. Hg1 −1 = Hg2 −1;

3. g1H ⊆ g2H;

4. g2 ∈ g1H;

5. g1 −1g2 ∈ H.

In all of our examples the cosets of a subgroup H partition the larger group G. The following
theorem proclaims that this will always be the case.
Theorem1.5.1 Let H be a subgroup of a group G. Then the left cosets of H in G partition G.
That is, the group G is the disjoint union of the left cosets of H in G.

Proof. Let g1H and g2H be two cosets of H in G. We must show that either g1H ∩ g2H = ∅ or

g1H = g2H. Suppose that g1H ∩ g2H ≠∅ and a ∈ g1H ∩ g2H. Then by the definition of a left

coset, a = g1h1 = g2h2 for some elements h1 and h2 in H. Hence, g1 = g2h2h− 1 1 or g1 ∈ g2H. By

the above Lemma, g1H = g2H.

Remark. There is nothing special in this theorem about left cosets. Right cosets also partition G;
the proof of this fact is exactly the same as the proof for left cosets except that all group
multiplications are done on the opposite side of H.
Let G be a group and H be a subgroup of G. Define the index of H in G to be the number of left

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cosets of H in G. We will denote the index by [G : H].

Example 3. Let G = Z6 and H = {0, 3}. Then [G : H] = 3.
Example 4. Suppose that G = S3, H = {(1), (123), (132)}, and K = {(1), (12)}. Then [G : H] = 2
and [G : K] = 3.
Theorem1. 5.2 Let H be a subgroup of a group G. The number of left cosets of H in G is the
same as the number of right cosets of H in G.
Proof. Let LH and RH denote the set of left and right cosets of H in G, respectively. If we can
define a bijective map φ : LH → RH, then the theorem will be proved. If gH ∈LH,
let φ(gH) = Hg−1. By the above Lemma ,the map φ is well-defined; that is, if g1H = g2H, then
Hg1 −1 = Hg2 −1. To show that φ is one-to-one, suppose that
Hg1 −1 = φ(g1H) = φ(g2H) = Hg2 −1.
Again by above Lemma, g1H = g2H. The map φ is onto since φ(g−1H) = Hg.
Lagrange’s Theorem
Proposition Let H be a subgroup of G with g ∈ G and define a map φ : H → gH by φ(h) = gh.

The map φ is bijective; hence, the number of elements in H is the same as the number of elements
in gH.
Proof. We first show that the map φ is one-to-one. Suppose that φ(h1) = φ(h2) for element

h1, h2 ∈ H. We must show that h1 = h2, but φ(h1) = gh1 and φ(h2) = gh2. So gh1 = gh2, and by left

cancellation h1 = h2. To show that φ is onto is easy. By definition every element of gH is of the

form gh for some h ∈ H and φ(h) = gh.

Theorem 1.5.3 (Lagrange) Let G be a finite group and let H be a subgroup of G.

Then |G|/|H| = [G : H] is the number of distinct left cosets of H in G. In particular, the number of
elements in H must divide the number of elements in G.
Proof. The group G is partitioned into [G : H] distinct left cosets. Each left coset has |H|
elements; therefore, |G| = [G : H]|H|.
Corollary 1.5.1 Suppose that G is a finite group and g ∈G. Then the order of g must divide the
number of elements in G.
Corollary1.5.2 Let |G| = p with p a prime number. Then G is cyclic and any g ∈G
such that g ≠e is a generator.

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Proof. Let g be in G such that g ≠e. Then by above Corollary , the order of g must divide the
order of the group. Since |<g>| > 1, it must be p. Hence, g generates G. The above Corollary
suggests that groups of prime order p must somehow look like Zp.
Corollary1. 5.3 Let H and K be subgroups of a finite group G such that G ⊃H ⊃K. Then
[G : K] = [G : H][H : K].
Proof. Observe that
[G : K] = | |/| | = | |/| | · | |/| | = [G : H][H : K].
The converse of Lagrange’s Theorem is false. The group A4 has order 12; however, it can
be shown that it does not possess a subgroup of order 6. According to Lagrange’s Theorem,
subgroups of a group of order 12 can have orders of either 1, 2, 3, 4, or 6. However, we are not
guaranteed that subgroups of every possible order exist. To prove that A4 has no subgroup
of order 6, we will assume that it does have a subgroup H such that |H| = 6 and show that a
contradiction must occur. The group A4 contains eight 3-cycles; hence, H must contain a 3-cycle.
We will show that if H contains one 3-cycle, then it must contain every 3-cycle, contradicting the
assumption that H has only 6 elements.
Theorem1. 5.4 Two cycles τ and µ in Sn have the same length if and only if there exists a

σ ∈ Sn such that µ = στσ−1.

Proof. Suppose that τ = (a1, a2, . . . , ak)

µ = (b1, b2, . . . , bk).
Define σ to be the permutation
σ(a1) = b1
σ(a2) = b2
...
σ(ak) = bk.
Then µ = στσ−1.

Conversely, suppose that τ = (a1, a2, . . . , ak) is a k-cycle and σ ∈ Sn. If

σ(ai) = b and σ(a(i mod k)+1) = b’, then µ(b) = b’. Hence,
µ = (σ(a1), σ(a2), . . . , σ(ak)).
Since σ is one-to-one and onto, µ is a cycle of the same length as τ.

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Corollary1. 5.4The group A4 has no subgroup of order 6.

Proof. Since [A4 : H] = 2, there are only two cosets of H in A4. In as much as one of the cosets is

H itself, right and left cosets must coincide; therefore, gH = Hg or gHg−1 = H for every g ∈ A4.

By the above Theorem , if H contains one 3-cycle, then it must contain every 3-cycle,
contradicting the order of H.
Fermat’s and Euler’s Theorems
The Euler φ-function is the map φ : N → N defined by φ(n) = 1 for n = 1, and, for n > 1, φ(n) is
the number of positive integers m with 1 ≤ m < n and gcd(m, n) = 1.
we know that the order of U(n), the group of unitsin Zn, is φ(n). For example,|U(12)| = φ(12) = 4
since the numbers that are relatively prime to 12 are 1, 5, 7, & 11. For any prime p, φ(p) = p− 1.
We state these results in the following theorem.
Theorem 1.5.5 Let U(n) be the group of units in Zn. Then |U(n)| = φ(n).The following theorem
is an important result in number theory, due to Leonhard Euler.
Theorem 1.5.6 (Euler’s Theorem) Let a and n be integers such that n >0 and gcd(a, n) = 1.
Then aφ(n) ≡ 1 (mod n).
Proof. By the above Theorem the order of U(n) is φ(n). Consequently, aφ(n) = 1

for all a ∈ U(n); or aφ(n)−1 is divisible by n. Therefore, aφ(n) ≡ 1 (mod n).

If we consider the special case of Euler’s Theorem in which n = p is prime and recall that
φ(p) = p − 1, we obtain the following result, due to Pierre de Fermat.
Theorem 1.5.7 (Fermat’s Little Theorem) Let p be any prime number and suppose that
p†a. Then ap−1 ≡ 1 (mod p).Furthermore, for any integer b, bp ≡ b (mod p).
The Index is Multiplicative If K ≤ H ≤ G then [G : K] = [G : H][H : K].
Proof. Choose representatives ai from each left coset of H in G, and representatives bj from each

left coset of K in H. If cK is any left coset of K in G, then c ∈ aiH for some unique i, and

if c = aih, h ∈ H, then h ∈ bjK for some unique j, so that c belongs to aibjK.

The map (ai, bj) → aibjK is therefore onto, and it is one-to-one by the uniqueness of i and j.We
therefore have a bijection between a set of size [G : H][H : K] and a set of size [G : K],
as asserted. ♣
Now suppose that H and K are subgroups of G, and define HK to be the set of all products

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hk, h ∈ H, k ∈ K. Note that HK need not be a group, since h1k1h2k2 is not necessarily equal to

h1h2k1k2. If G is abelian, then HK will be a group, and we have the following useful
generalization of this observation.
Proposition If H ≤ G and K ≤ G, then HK ≤ G if and only if HK = KH. In this case, HK is the
subgroup generated by H ∪K.
Proof. If HK is a subgroup, then (HK)−1, the collection of all inverses of elements of HK,
must coincide with HK. Bu t (HK)−1 = K−1H−1 = KH. Conversely, if HK = KH,then the inverse of
an element in HK also belongs to HK, because (HK)−1 = K−1H−1 =KH = HK. The product of two
elements in HK belongs to HK, because (HK)(HK) =HKHK = HHKK = HK. The last statement
follows from the observation that any subgroup containing H and K must contain HK. ♣
The set product HK defined above suggests a multiplication operation on cosets. If H is a
subgroup of G, we can multiply aH and bH, and it is natural to hope that we get abH. This does
not always happen, but here is one possible criterion.
Lemma 1.5.2 If H ≤ G, then (aH)(bH) = abH for all a, b ∈G iff cHc−1 = H for all c ∈G.
(Equivalently, cH = Hc for all c ∈G.)
Proof. If the second condition is satisfied, then (aH)(bH) = a(Hb)H = abHH = abH. Conversely,
if the first condition holds, then cHc−1 ⊆cHc−1H since 1 ∈H, and (cH)(c−1H) = cc−1H(= H) by
hypothesis. Thus cHc−1 ⊆H, which implies that H ⊆c−1Hc. Since this holds for all c ∈G, we
have H ⊆cHc−1, and the result follows. ♣
Exercises 1.5.1
1. Suppose that G is a finite group with an element g of order 5 and an element h of order 7. Why
must |G| ≥ 35?
2. Suppose that G is a finite group with 60 elements. What are the orders of possible subgroups
of G?
3. Prove or disprove: Every subgroup of the integers has finite index.
4. Prove or disprove: Every subgroup of the integers has finite order.
5. List the left and right cosets of the subgroups in each of the following.
(a) <8> in Z24
(b) <3> in U(8)
(c) 3Z in Z

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(d) A4 in S4
(e) An in Sn
(f) D4 in S4
(g) T in C∗
(h) H = {(1), (123), (132)} in S4
6. Describe the left cosets of SL2(R) in GL2(R). What is the index of SL2(R)
in GL2(R)?
7. Verify Euler’s Theorem for n = 15 and a = 4.
8. Use Fermat’s Little Theorem to show that if p = 4n + 3 is prime, there is no solution to the
equation x2 ≡ −1 (mod p).
9. Show that the integers have infinite index in the additive group of rational numbers.
10. Show that the additive group of real numbers has infinite index in the additive group of the
complex numbers.

11. Let H be a subgroup of a group G and suppose that g1, g2 ∈ G. Prove that the following

conditions are equivalent.

(a) g1H = g2H
(b) Hg1 −1 = Hg2 −1

(c) g1H ⊆ g2H

(d) g2 ∈ g1H (e) g1 −1g2 ∈ H

12. If ghg−1 ∈ H for all g ∈ G and h ∈ H, show that right cosets are identical to left cosets.

13. What fails in the proof of Theorem 5.3 if φ : LH → RH is defined by φ(gH) = Hg?
14. Suppose that gn = e. Show that the order of g divides n.
15.If |G| = 2n, prove that the number of elements of order 2 is odd. Use this result to show that G
must contain a subgroup of order 2.

16. Suppose that [G : H] = 2. If a and b are not in H, show that ab ∈ H.

17. If [G : H] = 2, prove that gH = Hg.

18. Let H and K be subgroups of a group G. Prove that gH ∩ gK is a coset of
H ∩ K in G.

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1.6.Factor Groups and Normal Subgroups

If H is a subgroup of a group G, then right cosets are not always the same as left cosets;

that is, it is not always the case that gH = Hg for all g ∈ G. The subgroups for which this property

holds play a critical role in group theory: they allow for the construction of a new class of
groups, called factor or quotient groups. Factor groups may be studied by using homomorphisms,
a generalization of isomorphisms.
1.6.1.Normal Subgroups

A subgroup H of a group G is normal in G if gH = Hg for all g ∈ G. That is, a normal subgroup

of a group G is one in which the right and left cosets are precisely the same.OR
Definition1.6.1 Let H be a subgroup of G. If any of the following equivalent conditions holds,
we say that H is normal subgroup of G, or that H is normal in G:

1. cHc−1 ⊆ H for all c ∈ G (equivalently, c−1Hc ⊆ H for all c ∈ G)

2. cHc−1 = H for all c ∈ G (equivalently, c−1Hc = H for all c ∈ G)

3. cH = Hc for all c ∈ G

4. Every left coset of H in G is also a right coset

5. Every right coset of H in G is also a left coset
We have established the equivalence of 1,2 and 3 above, and 3 immediately implies 4.To show
that 4 implies 3, suppose that cH = Hd. Then since c belongs to both cH and Hc, i.e., to both Hd
and Hc, we must have Hd = Hc because right cosets partition G, so that any two right cosets
must be either disjoint or identical. The equivalence of condition 5 is proved by a symmetrical
argument.
Notation: H ⊴ G indicates that H is a normal subgroup of G; if H is a proper normal subgroup,
we write H ⊲ G.

Example 1. Let G be an abelian group. Every subgroup H of G is a normal subgroup.

Since gh = hg for all g ∈ G and h ∈ H, it will always be the case that gH = Hg.

Example 2. Let H be the subgroup of S3 consisting of elements (1) and (12). Since

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(123)H = {(123),(13)}
and H(123) = {(123),(23)},
H cannot be a normal subgroup of S3. However, the subgroup N, consisting
of the permutations (1), (123), and (132), is normal since the cosets of N are
N = {(1), (123), (132)}
(12)N = N(12) = {(12), (13), (23)}.
The following theorem is fundamental to our understanding of normal subgroups.
Theorem 1.6.1 Let G be a group and N be a subgroup of G.
Then the following statements are equivalent.
1. The subgroup N is normal in G.

2. For all g ∈ G, gNg−1 ⊂ N.

3. For all g ∈ G, gNg−1 = N.

Proof. (1) ⇒ (2). Since N is normal in G, gN = Ng for all g ∈ G. Hence,for a given g ∈ G and

n ∈ N, there exists an n’ in N such that gn = n’g.Therefore, gng−1 = n’ ∈N or gNg−1 ⊂N.

(2) ⇒(3). Let g ∈G. Since gNg−1 ⊂N, we need only show N ⊂gNg−1. For n ∈N,
g−1ng = g−1n(g−1)−1 ∈N. Hence, g−1ng = n’ for some n’ ∈N. Therefore, n = gn’g−1 is in gNg−1.
(3) ⇒(1). Suppose that gNg−1 = N for all g ∈G. Then for any n ∈N there exists an n’∈N such
that gng−1 = n’. Consequently, gn = n’g or gN ⊂Ng. Similarly, Ng ⊂gN.
1.6.2.Factor Groups(quotient group)
If N is a normal subgroup of a group G, then the cosets of N in G form a group G/N under
the operation (aN)(bN) = abN. This group is called the factor or quotient group of G and N. Our
first task is to prove that G/N is indeed a group.
To verify that cosets form a group under the above multiplication, we consider the four
defining requirements.
Closure: The product of two cosets is a coset.
Associativity: This follows because multiplication in G is associative.
Identity: The coset 1H = H serves as the identity.
Inverse: The inverse of aH is a−1H.
The group of cosets of a normal subgroup N of G is called the quotient group of G by

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N; it is denoted by G/N.Since the identity in G/N is 1N = N, we have, intuitively, “set everything

in N equal to 1”.
Theorem 1.6.2. Let N be a normal subgroup of a group G. The cosets of N in G form a group
G/N of order [G : N].
Proof. The group operation on G/N is (aN)(bN) = abN. This operation must be shown to be well-
defined; that is, group multiplication must be independent of the choice of coset representative.
Let aN = bN and cN = dN. We must show that
(aN)(cN) = acN = bdN = (bN)(dN).
Then a = bn1 and c = dn2 for some n1 and n2 in N. Hence,acN = bn1dn2N
= bn1dN
= bn1Nd
= bNd
= bdN.
The remainder of the theorem is easy: eN = N is the identity and g−1N is the inverse of gN. The
order of G/N is, of course, the number of cosets of N in G.
It is very important to remember that the elements in a factor group are sets of elements in the
original group
. Example 1 . Consider the normal subgroup of S3, N = {(1), (123), (132)}.The cosets of N in
S3 are N and (12)N. The factor group 3/ has the following multiplication table.
N (12)N
N N (12)N
(12)N (12)N N
This group is isomorphic to Z2. At first, multiplying cosets seems both complicated and strange;
however, notice that S3/N is a smaller group. The factor group displays a certain amount of
information about S3. Actually,N = A3, the group of even permutations, and (12)N = {(12), (13),
(23)} is
the set of odd permutations. The information captured in G/N is parity;that is, multiplying two
even or two odd permutations results in an even permutation, whereas multiplying an odd
permutation by an even permutation yields an odd permutation.

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Example 2 . Consider the normal subgroup 3Z of Z. The cosets of 3Z in Z are

0 + 3 = {. . . , −3, 0, 3, 6, . . . }
1 + 3 = {. . . , −2, 1, 4, 7, . . . }
2 + 3 = {. . . , −1, 2, 5, 8, . . . }.
The group /3 is given by the multiplication table below.
+ 0 + 3Z 1 + 3Z 2 + 3Z
0 + 3Z 0 + 3Z 1 + 3Z 2 + 3Z
1 + 3Z 1 + 3Z 2 + 3Z 0 + 3Z
2 + 3Z 2 + 3Z 0 + 3Z 1 + 3Z
In general, the subgroup nZ of Z is normal. The cosets of Z/nZ are nZ
1 + nZ
2 + nZ
...
(n − 1) + nZ.
The sum of the cosets k + Z and l + Z is k + l + Z. Notice that we have written our cosets
additively, because the group operation is integer addition.
Example 3.Let GL(n, R) be the set of all nonsingular n by n matrices with real coefficients, and
let SL(n, r) be the subgroup formed by matrices whose determinant is 1 (GL stands for “general
linear” and SL for “special linear”). Then SL(n, R) * GL(n, R),because if A is a nonsingular n by
n matrix and B is n by n with determinant 1, then
det(ABA−1) = (det A)(det B)(det A−1) = det B = 1.

1.7.Groups homomorphisms

Definition If f : G → H, where G and H are groups, then f is said to be a homomorphism if for

all a, b in G, we have f(ab) = f(a)f(b).
This idea will look familiar if G and H are abelian, in which case we write, using additive
notation,
f(a + b) = f(a) + f(b);
thus a linear transformation on a vector space is, in particular, a homomorphism on the

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underlying abelian group.

If f is a homomorphism from G to H, it must map the identity of G to the identity of H,
since f(a) = f(a1G) = f(a)f(1G); multiply by f(a)−1 to get 1H = f(1G). Furthermore,the inverse of
f(a) is f(a−1), because 1 = f(aa−1) = f(a)f(a−1),
so that [f(a)]−1 = f(a−1).

Example 1 . Let G be a group and g ∈ G. Define a map φ : Z → G by φ(n) = gn. Then φ is a

group homomorphism, since φ(m + n) = gm+n = gmgn = φ(m)φ(n).

This homomorphism maps Z onto the cyclic subgroup of G generated by g.

Example 2. Let G = GL2(R). If

A=

is in G, then the determinant is nonzero; that is, det(A) = ad − bc ≠0. Also, for any two elements
A and B in G, det(AB) = det(A) det(B). Using the determinant, we can define a homomorphism
φ : GL2(R) → R∗ by A → det(A).
Example . Recall that the circle group T consists of all complex numbers z such that |z| = 1. We
can define a homomorphism φ from the additive group of real numbers R to T by
φ : θ → cos θ + i sin θ. Indeed,
φ(α + β) = cos(α + β) + i sin(α + β)
= (cos α cos β − sin α sin β) + i(sin α cos β + cos α sin β)
= (cos α + i sin α) + (cos β + i sin β)
= φ(α)φ(β).
Geometrically, we are simply wrapping the real line around the circle in a group-theoretic
fashion.
1.7.1.The Connection Between Homomorphisms and Normal Subgroups
If f : G → H is a homomorphism, define the kernel of f as

kerf = {a ∈ G : f(a) = 1};

then kerf is a normal subgroup of G. For if a ∈ G and b ∈ kerf, we must show that aba−1

belongs to kerf. Bu t f(aba−1) = f(a)f(b)f(a−1) = f(a)(1)f(a)−1 = 1.

Conversely, every normal subgroup is the kernel of a homomorphism. To see this, suppose that

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N⊴ G, and let H be the quotient group G/N. Define the map π : G → G/N
by π(a) = aN; π is called the natural or canonical map. Since
π(ab) = abN = (aN)(bN) = π(a)π(b),

π is a homomorphism. The kernel of π is the set of all a ∈ G such that aN = N(= 1N), or

equivalently, a ∈ N. Thus ker π = N.

Proposition A homomorphism f is injective if and only if its kernel K is trivial,that is, consists
only of the identity.

Proof. If f is injective and a ∈ K, then f(a) = 1 = f(1), hence a = 1. Conversely, if K is trivial and

f(a) = f(b), then f(ab−1) = f(a)f(b−1) = f(a)[f(b)]−1 = f(a)[f(a)]−1 = 1, so

ab−1 ∈ K. Thu s ab−1 = 1, i.e., a = b, proving f injective. ♣

Some Standard Terminology

monomorphism = injective homomorphism
epimorphism = surjective homomorphism
isomorphism = bijective homomorphism
endomorphism = homomorphism of a group to itself
automorphism = isomorphism of a group with itself
We close the section with a result that is often applied.
Proposition Let f : G → H be a homomorphism.
(i) If K is a subgroup of G, then f(K) is a subgroup of H. If f is an epimorphism and K is normal,
then f(K) is also normal.
(ii) If K is a subgroup of H, then f −1(K) is a subgroup of G. If K is normal, so is f −1(K).
Proof.
(i) If f(a) and f(b) belong to f(K), so does f(a)f(b)−1, since this element coincides with f(ab−1). If K

is normal and c ∈ G, we have f(c)f(K)f(c)−1 = f(cKc−1) = f(K), so if f is surjective, then f(K) is

normal.
(ii) If a and b belong to f −1(K), so does ab−1, because f(ab−1) = f(a)f(b)−1, which belongs

to K. If c ∈ G and a ∈ f −1(K) then f(cac−1) = f(c)f(a)f(c)−1, so if K is normal,

we have cac−1 ∈ f−1(K), proving f −1(K) normal. ♣

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Proposition Let φ : G1 → G2 be a homomorphism of groups. Then

1. If e is the identity of G1, then φ(e) is the identity of G2;

2. For any element g ∈ G1, φ(g−1) = [φ(g)]−1;

3. If H1 is a subgroup of G1, then φ(H1) is a subgroup of G2;

4. If H2 is a subgroup of G2, then φ−1(H2) = {g ∈ G : φ(g) ∈H2} is a subgroup of G1.

Furthermore, if H2 is normal in G2, then φ−1(H2) is normal in G1.

Proof. (1) Suppose that e and e’ are the identities of G1 and G2, respectively; then e’φ(e) = φ(e) =
φ(ee) = φ(e)φ(e).By cancellation, φ(e) = e’
(2) This statement follows from the fact that φ(g−1)φ(g) = φ(g−1g) = φ(e) = e.
(3) The set φ(H1) is nonempty since the identity of H2 is in φ(H1).
Suppose that H1 is a subgroup of G1 and let x and y be in φ(H1). There exist elements a, b ∈H1
such that φ(a) = x and φ(b) = y. Since xy−1 = φ(a)[φ(b)]−1 = φ(ab−1) ∈φ(H1),
φ(H1) is a subgroup of G2 by a Proposition aove.
(4) Let H2 be a subgroup of G2 and define H1 to be φ−1(H2); that is,H1 is the set of all g ∈G1
such that φ(g) ∈H2. The identity is in H1 since φ(e) = e. If a and b are in H1, then φ(ab−1) =
φ(a)[φ(b)]−1 is in H2 since H2 is a subgroup of G2. Therefore, ab−1 ∈H1 and H1 is a subgroup of
G1. If H2 is normal in G2, we must show that g−1hg ∈H1 for h ∈H1 and g ∈G1.
But φ(g−1hg) = [φ(g)]−1φ(h)φ(g) ∈H2,
since H2 is a normal subgroup of G2. Therefore, g−1hg ∈H1.
Let φ : G → H be a group homomorphism and suppose that e is the identity of H. By Proposition
, φ−1({e}) is a subgroup of G. This subgroup is called the kernel of φ and will be denoted by
ker φ. In fact, this subgroup is a normal subgroup of G since the trivial subgroup is normal in
H. We state this result in the following theorem, which says that with every
homomorphism of groups we can naturally associate a normal subgroup.
Theorem 7.1 Let φ : G → H be a group homomorphism.
Then the kernel of φ is a normal subgroup of G.
Example 1 . Let us examine the homomorphism φ : GL2(R) → R∗ defined by A → det(A).
Since 1 is the identity of R∗, the kernel of this homomorphism is all 2×2 matrices
having determinant one. That is, ker φ = SL2(R).

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Example 2 . The kernel of the group homomorphism φ : R → C∗ defined

by φ(θ) = cos θ + i sin θ is {2 ∶ ∈ }. Notice that ker φ ≌ Z.

Example 3. Suppose that we wish to determine all possible homomorphisms φ from Z7 to Z12.
Since the kernel of φ must be a subgroup of Z7, there are only two possible kernels, {0} and all of
Z7. The image of a subgroup of Z7 must be a subgroup of Z12. Hence, there is no injective
homomorphism; otherwise, Z12 would have a subgroup of order 7, which is impossible.
Consequently, the only possible homomorphism from Z7 to Z12 is the one mapping all elements
to zero.

Example 4. Let G be a group. Suppose that g ∈ G and φ is the homomorphism from Z to G given

by φ(n) = gn. If the order of g is infinite, then the kernel of this homomorphism is {0} since φ
maps Z onto the cyclic subgroup of G generated by g. However, if the order of g is finite, say n,
then the kernel of φ is nZ
Problems For this Section
In Problems 1-6, H is a subgroup of the group G, and a and b are elements of G.

1. Show that Ha = Hb iff ab−1 ∈ H.

2. Show that “a ∼ b iff ab−1 ∈ H” defines an equivalence relation.

3. If we define a and b to be equivalent iff ab−1 ∈ H, show that the equivalence class of a is Ha.

4. Show that aH → Ha−1 is a one-to-one correspondence between left and right cosets of H.

5. If aH is a left coset of H in G and a1 ∈ aH, show that the left coset of H generated by a1 (i.e.,

a1H), is also aH.

6. If [G : H] = 2, show that H is a normal subgroup of G.
7. Let S3 be the group of all permutations of {1, 2, 3}, and take a to be permutation (1,2,3),
b the permutation (1,2), and e the identity permutation. Show that the elements of S3 are,
explicitly, e , a , a2 , b , ab and a2b.
8. Let H be the subgroup of S3 consisting of the identity e and the permutation b = (1, 2).
Compute the left cosets and the right cosets of H in S3.
9. Continuing Problem 8, show that H is not a normal subgroup of S3.
10. Let f be an endomorphism of the integers Z. Show that f is completely determined by its

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action on 1. If f(1) = r, then f is multiplication by r, in other words, f(n) = rn for every integer n.
11. If f is an automorphism of Z, and I is the identity function on Z, show that f is either I or −I.
12. Since the composition of two automorphisms is an automorphism, and the inverse of an
automorphism is an automorphism, it follows that the set of automorphisms of a group is a group
under composition. In view of Problem 11, give a simple description of the group of
automorphisms of Z.

13. Let H and K be subgroups of the group G. If x, y ∈ G, define x ∼ y iff x can be written as hyk

for some h ∈ H and k ∈ K. Show that ∼ is an equivalence relation.

14. The equivalence class of ∈ = {ℎ ∶ ℎ ∈ , ∈ }, which is called a

double coset associated with the subgroups H and K. Thus the double cosets partition G.
Show that any double coset can be written as a union of right cosets of H, or equally well as a
union of left cosets of K.
1.8. The Isomorphism Theorems
Though at first it is not evident that factor groups correspond exactly to homomorphic
images, we can use factor groups to study homomorphisms. We already know that with every
group homomorphism φ : G → H we can associate a normal subgroup of G, ker φ; the converse
is also true. Every normal subgroup of a group G gives rise to homomorphism of groups.
Let H be a normal subgroup of G. Define the natural or canonical homomorphism
φ : G → G/H
by
φ(g) = gH.
This is indeed a homomorphism, since
φ(g1g2) = g1g2H = g1Hg2H = φ(g1)φ(g2).
The kernel of this homomorphism is H. The following theorems describe the relationships
among group homomorphisms, normal subgroups, and factor groups.But befor the theorems let
us see what do we mean by the above idea diagramaticaly.
Suppose that N is a normal subgroup of G, f is a homomorphism from G to H, and π
is the natural map from G to G/N, as pictured in Figure below

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G → H
↓ ̅
G/N

We would like to find a homomorphism :̅ G/N → H that makes the diagram commutative,
̅
that is, (aN) = f(a). Thus we get the same result by traveling directly from G to H via
f as we do by going by the roundabout route via π followed by .̅ Here is the key result.
Factor Theorem :-Any homomorphism f whose kernel K contains N can be factored
through G/N. In other words, in the above Figure there is a unique homomorphism
̅ : G/N →H such that ◦ π = f. Furthermore,
(i) ̅ is an epimorphism if and only if f is an epimorphism;
(ii) ̅ is a monomorphism if and only if K = N;
(iii) ̅ is an isomorphism if and only if f is an epimorphism and K = N.
̅
Proof. If the diagram is to commute, then (aN) must be f(a), and it follows that ,̅ if
it exists, is unique. The definition of ̅ that we have just given makes sense, because if

aN = bN, then a−1b ∈ N ⊆ K, so f(a−1b) = 1, and therefore f(a) = f(b). Since

̅ (aNbN) = (abN)
̅ ̅
= f(ab) = f(a)f(b) = (aN) ̅ (bN), ̅ is a homomorphism. By construction, ̅

has the same image as f, proving (i). Now the kernel of ̅ is

{ ∶ ( ) = 1} = { ∶ ∈ } = / .
we know that a homomorphism is injective, i.e., a monomorphism, if and only if its kernel is
trivial. Thus ̅ is a monomorphism if and only if K/N consists only of the identity element
N. This means that if a is any element of K, then the coset aN coincides with N, which
forces a to belong to N. Thu s ̅ is a monomorphism if and only if K = N, proving (ii).
Finally, (iii) follows immediately from (i) and (ii). ♣The factor theorem yields a fundamental
result.

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1. 8.1 First Isomorphism Theorem

If f : G → H is a homomorphism with kernel K,then the image of f is isomorphic to / .
Proof. Apply the factor theorem with N = K, and note that f must be an epimorphism of G onto
its image. ♣
If we are studying a subgroup K of a group G, or perhaps the quotient group G/K,we might try to
construct a homomorphism f whose kernel is K and whose image H has desirable properties. The
first isomorphism theorem then gives / ≌ ( ℎ ≌ is our symbol for isomorphism). If
we know something about H, we may get some insight into K and G/K.
Example 1. Let G be a cyclic group with generator g. Define a map φ : Z → G by n → gn.
This map is a surjective homomorphism since φ(m + n) = gm+n = gmgn = φ(m)φ(n).
Clearly φ is onto. If |g| = m, then gm = e. Hence, ker φ = mZ and / = / ≌ . On
the other hand, if the order of g is infinite, then ker φ = 0 and φ is an isomorphism of G and Z.
Hence, two cyclic groups are isomorphic exactly when they have the same order. Up to
isomorphism, the only cyclic groups are Z and Zn.
We will prove several other isomorphism theorems after the following preliminary result.
Lemma 8.1 Let H and N be subgroups of G, with N normal in G. Then
(i) HN = NH, and therefore HN is a subgroup of G.
(ii) N is a normal subgroup of HN.
(iii) H ∩ N is a normal subgroup of H.
Proof.

(i) We have hN = Nh for every h ∈ G, in particular for every h ∈ H.

(ii) Since N is normal in G, it must be normal in the subgroup HN.

(iii) H ∩ N is the kernel of the canonical map π : G → G/N, restricted to H. ♣
HN

H N

H∩

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1.8.2Second Isomorphism Theorem

If H and N are subgroups of G, with N normal in G, then
/( ∩ )≌ / .
Note that we write HN/N rather than H/N, since N need not be a subgroup of H.
Proof. Let π be the canonical epimorphism from G to G/N, and let π0 be the restriction of
π to H. Then the kernel of π0 is H ∩ N, so by the first isomorphism theorem, H/(H ∩ N)
is isomorphic to the image of π0, which is {ℎ ∶ ℎ ∈ } = / . (To justify the last

equality, note that for any n ∈ N we have hnN = hN.) ♣

1.8.3 Third Isomorphism Theorem

If N and H are normal subgroups of G, with N contained in H, then
/ ≌ ( / )/( / ), a “cancellation law”.
Proof. This will follow directly from the first isomorphism theorem if we can find an
epimorphism of G/N onto G/H with kernel H/N, and there is a natural candidate: f(aN) = aH.
To check that f is well-defined, note that if aN = bN then a−1b ∈N ⊆H, so aH = bH.
Since a is an arbitrary element of G, f is surjective, and by definition of coset multiplication, f is
a homomorphism. But the kernel of f is
{ ∶ = } = { ∶ ∈ } = / .♣
Now suppose that N is a normal subgroup of G. If H is a subgroup of G containing N, there is a
natural analog of H in the quotient group G/N, namely the subgroup H/N. In fact we can make
this correspondence very precise.
Let ψ(H) = H/N
be a map from the set of subgroups of G containing N to the set of subgroups of G/N. We

claim that ψ is a bijection. For if H1/N = H2/N then for any h1 ∈ H1, we have h1N = h2N

for some h2 ∈ H2, so that h2- 1h1 ∈ N, which is contained in H2. Thu s H1 ⊆ H2, and by

symmetry the reverse inclusion holds, so that H1 = H2 and ψ is injective. Now if Q is a subgroup
-1
of G/N and π : G → G/N is canonical, then ( ) = { ∈ ∶ ∈ },
a subgroup of G containing N, and ψ(π−1(Q)) = {aN : aN ∈Q} = Q,
proving ψ surjective.
The map ψ has a number of other interesting properties, summarized in the following result,
sometimes referred to as the fourth isomorphism theorem.

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1. 8.4 Correspondence Theorem

If N is a normal subgroup of G, then the map ψ :H → H/N sets up a one-to-one correspondence
between subgroups of G containing N and subgroups of G/N. The inverse of ψ is the map
τ : Q → π−1(Q), where π is the canonical epimorphism of G onto G/N. Furthermore,
(i) H1 ≤ H2 if and only if H1/N ≤ H2/N, and in this case,[H2 : H1] = [H2/N : H1/N]
(ii) H is a normal subgroup of G if and only if H/N is a normal subgroup of G/N. More generally,
(iii) H1 is a normal subgroup of H2 if and only if H1/N is a normal subgroup of H2/N, and in this

case, H2/H1 ≌ (H2/N)/H1/N).

Proof. We have established that ψ is a bijection with inverse τ. If H1 ≤ H2, we have H1/N ≤ H2/N
immediately, and the converse follows from the above proof that ψ is injective. To prove the last

statement of (i), let η map the left coset aH1, a ∈ H2, to the left coset (aN)(H1/N). Then η is a

well-defined and injective map of aH1 = bH1 iff a−1b ∈ H1

iff (aN)−1(bN) = a−1bN ∈ H1/N

iff (aN)(H1/N) = (bN)(H1/N); η is surjective because a ranges over all of H2.

To prove (ii), assume that H G; then for any a ∈G we have
(aN)(H/N)(aN)−1 = (aHa−1)/N = H/N
so that H/N G/N. Conversely, suppose that H/N is normal in G/N. Consider the
homomorphism a → (aN)(H/N), the composition of the canonical map of G onto G/N and the
canonical map of G/N onto (G/N)/(H/N). The element a will belong to the kernel of this map if
and only if (aN)(H/N) = H/N, which happens if and only if aN ∈H/N, that is, aN = hN for some
h ∈H. But since N is contained in H, this statement is equivalent to a ∈H. Thu s H is the kernel
of a homomorphism, and is therefore a normal subgroup of G.
Finally, the proof of (ii) also establishes the first part of (iii); just replace H by H1 and G by H2.
The second part of (iii) follows from the third isomorphism theorem (with the same replacement)

Proposition If H is a subgroup of G and N is a normal subgroup of G, we know

that HN, the subgroup generated by H ∪ N, is a subgroup of G. If H is also

a normal subgroup of G, then HN is normal in G as well. More generally, if for each i in

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the index set I, we have Hi G, then < Hi , i ∈ I >,the subgroup generated by the Hi

(technically, by the set ∪i∈IHi) is a normal subgroup of G.

Proof. A typical element in the subgroup generated by the Hi is a = a1a2 · · · an where ak

belongs to Hik. If g ∈ G then

g(a1a2 · · ·an)g−1 = (ga1g−1)(ga2g−1) · · · (gang−1)

and gakg−1 ∈ Hik because Hik G. Thus gag−1 belongs to < Hi, i ∈ I >. ♣

Problems For this Section

1. Let Z be the integers, and nZ the set of integer multiples of n. Show that Z/nZ is isomorphic to
Zn, the additive group of integers modulo n. (This is not quite a tautology if we view Z
n concretely as the set {0, 1, . . . , n−1}, with sums and differences reduced modulo n.)
2. If m divides n then Zm ≤ Zn; for example, we can identify Z4 with the subgroup

{0, 3, 6, 9} of Z12. Show that Zn/Zm ≌ Zn/m.

3. Let a be an element of the group G, and let fa : G → G be “conjugation by a”, that is,
fa(x) = axa−1, x ∈G. Show that fa is an automorphism of G.
4. An inner automorphism of G is an automorphism of the form fa for some a ∈G (see
Problem 3). Show that the inner automorphisms of G form a group under composition of
functions (a subgroup of the group of all automorphisms of G).
5. Let Z(G) be the center of G, that is, the set of all x in G such that xy = yx for all y in
G. Thu s Z(G) is the set of elements that commute with everything in G. Show that Z(G) is a
normal subgroup of G, and that the group of inner automorphisms of G is isomorphic to G/Z(G).
6. If f is an automorphism of Zn, show that f is multiplication by m for some m relatively prime to
n. Conclude that the group of automorphisms of Zn can be identified with the group of units
modn.
7. The diamond diagram associated with the second isomorphism theorem (1.4.4) illustrates
least upper bounds and greatest lower bounds in a lattice. Verify that HN is the smallest
subgroup of G containing both H and N, and H ∩N is the largest subgroup of G contained
in both H and N.
8. Let g be an automorphism of the group G, and fa an inner automorphism (see Problem
4). Show that g◦fa◦g−1 is an inner automorphism. Thus the group of inner automorphisms
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of G is a normal subgroup of the group of all automorphisms.

9. Identify a large class of groups for which the only inner automorphism is the identity mapping.

1.9. Direct sum of abelian groups and product of groups

1.9.1Direct Products

External and Internal Direct Products

In this section we examine a popular construction. Starting with a given collection of groups, we
build a new group with the aid of the cartesian product. Let’s start with two given groups H and

K, and let G = H ×K, the set of all ordered pairs (h, k), h ∈ H, k ∈ K. We define multiplication on

G componentwise:

(h1, k1)(h2, k2) = (h1h2, k1k2).

Since (h1h2, k1k2) belongs to G, it follows that G is closed under multiplication. The
multiplication operation is associative because the individual products on H and K are
associative. The identity element in G is (1H, 1K), and the inverse of (h, k) is (h−1, k−1).Thus G is
a group, called the external direct product of H and K.We may regard H and K as subgroups of
G. More precisely, G contains isomorphic copies of H and K, namely

= {(h, 1K) : h ∈ H} and = {(1H, k) : k ∈ K.}

Furthermore, H and K are normal subgroups of G. (Note that (h, k)(h1, 1K)(h−1, k−1) =

(hh1h−1, 1K), with hh1h−1 ∈ H.) Also, from the definitions of H and K, we have

G = H K and H ∩ K = {1}, where 1 = (1H, 1K).

If a group G contains normal subgroups H and K such that G = HK and H ∩K = {1},we say that
G is the internal direct product of H and K.
Notice the key difference between external and internal direct products. We construct
the external direct product from the component groups H and K. On the other hand,
starting with a given group we discover subgroups H and K such that G is the internal
direct product of H and K. Having said this, we must admit that in practice the distinction
tends to be blurred, because of the following result.

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Proposition If G is the internal direct product of H and K, then G is isomorphic

to the external direct product H × K.
Proof. Define f : H × K → G by f(h, k) = hk; we will show that f is an isomorphism.First note
that if h ∈H and k ∈K then hk = kh. (Consider hkh−1k−1, which belongs to
K since hkh−1 ∈K, and also belongs to H since kh−1k−1 ∈H; thus hkh−1k−1 = 1, so hk = kh.)
(a) f is a homomorphism, since
f((h1, k1)(h2, k2)) = f(h1h2, k1k2) = h1h2k1k2 = (h1k1)(h2k2) = f(h1, k1)f(h2, k2).
(b) f is surjective, since by definition of internal direct product, G = HK.
(c) f is injective, for if f(h, k) = 1 then hk = 1, so that h = k−1.Thus h belongs to both H
and K, so by definition of internal direct product, h is the identity, and consequently so is k. The
kernel of f is therefore trivial. ♣
External and internal direct products may be defined for any number of factors. We will restrict
ourselves to a finite number of component groups, but the generalization to arbitrary Cartesian
products with component wise multiplication is straightforward.
Definitions and Comments If H1, H2, . . . Hn are arbitrary groups, the external direct product of
the Hi is the Cartesian product G = H1×H2×· · ·×Hn, with component wise multiplication:
(h1, h2, ..., hn)(h1’, h2’, . . . hn’) = (h1h1’, h2h2’, . . . hnhn’); G contains an isomorphic copy of each
Hi, namely Hi = {(1H1, . . . ,1Hi−1, hi, 1Hi+1, . . . ,1Hn) : hi ∈Hi}.
As in the case of two factors, G = 1 2 · · · , and Hi G for all i; furthermore, if g ∈G
then g has a unique representation
g = ℎ1 ℎ2 · · · ℎ where hi ∈Hi.

Specifically, g = (h1, . . . , hn) = (h1, 1, . . . ,1) . . .(1, . . . ,1, hn). The representation is unique
because the only way to produce the ith component hi of g is for hi to be the ith component
of the factor from .
If a group G contains normal subgroups H1, . . . , Hn such that G = H1 · · ·Hn, and each

g ∈ G can be uniquely represented as h1 · · · hn with hi ∈ Hi, i = 1, 2, . . . , n, we say that G

is the internal direct product of the Hi. As in the case of two factors, if G is the internal
direct product of the Hi, then G is isomorphic to the external direct product H1 × · · · ×Hn;
the isomorphism f : H1 × · · · × Hn → G is given by f(h1, . . . , hn) = h1 · · ·hn. The next result
frequently allows us to recognize when a group is an internal direct product.

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Proposition Suppose that G = H1 · · ·Hn, where each Hi is a normal subgroup of G. The

following conditions are equivalent:
(1) G is the internal direct product of the Hi.
(2) For all i = 1, 2, . . . , n, Hi ∩ ∏ = {1};thus it does not matter in which order the Hi are
listed.
(3) For all i = 1, 2, . . . , n, Hi ∩ ∏ = {1}.
Proof.
(1) implies (2) : If g belongs to the product of the Hj, j = i, then g can be written as h1 · · · hn
where hi = 1 and hj ∈Hj for j≠i. Bu t if g also belongs to Hi then g can be written as k1 · · · kn
where ki = g and kj = 1 for j = i. By uniqueness of representation in the internal direct product,

hi = ki = 1 for all i, so g = 1.
(2) implies (3): If g belongs to Hi and in addition, g = h1 · · ·hi−1 with hj ∈Hj, then
g = h1 · · ·hi−1 1Hi+1 · · ·1Hn, hence g = 1 by (2).
(3) implies (1): If g ∈G then since G = H1 · · ·Hn we have g = h1 · · ·hn with hi ∈Hi.
Suppose that we have another representation g = k1 · · ·kn with ki ∈Hi. Let i be the
largest integer such that hi ≠ ki. If i < n we can cancel the ht(= kt), t > i, to get h1 · · · hi = k1 · · · ki.
If i = n then h1 · · · hi = k1 · · ·ki by assumption. Now any product of the Hi is a subgroup of G (as
in (1.5.2), hihj = hjhi for i = j, and the result follows from (1.3.6)).

Therefore hiki −1 ∈∏
and since hiki −1 ∈Hi, we have hiki −1 = 1 by (3). Therefore hi = ki, which is a contradiction.

Problems For this Section

1. Let C2 be a cyclic group of order 2, e.g., C2 = {1, a} where a2 = 1. Describe the multiplication
table of the direct product C2 × C2. Is C2 × C2 cyclic?
2. Show that C2 × C2 is isomorphic to the four group .
3. Let Cn be a cyclic group of order n, e.g., Cn = {1, a, a2, . . . an−1} with an = 1. Show that the
direct product C2 × C3 is cyclic, in particular it is isomorphic to C6.
4. If n and m are relatively prime, show that Cn×Cm is isomorphic to Cnm, and is therefore cyclic.
5. If n and m are not relatively prime, show that Cn × Cm is not cyclic.
6. If p and q are distinct primes and |G| = p, |H| = q, show that the direct product G × H is cyclic.

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7. If H and K are arbitrary groups, show that H × K ≌ K × H.

8. If G, H and K are arbitrary groups, show that G × (H × K) ≌ (G × H) × K. In fact,both sides

are isomorphic to G × H × K.

1.10. GROUP OF PERMUTATIONS.

Definition1. 10.1: A permutation of a set A is a function ∅: → that is both one to one and onto.

We now show that function composition ∘ is a binary operation on the collection of all
permutations of a set A. We call this operation permutation multiplication. Let A be a set, and
let be permutations of A so that are both one to one functions mapping A onto
A. The composite function ∘ defined schematically by

→ →
Gives a mapping of A into A. Rather than keep the symbol ∘ for permutation multiplication, we
will denote ∘ by the juxtaposition , as we done for general groups. Now will be a
permutation if it is one to one and onto A. Remember that the action of on A must be read
from right to left order: first apply and then .Let us show that is one to one:
, ∈ ℎ ℎ :
( )( ) = ( )( ) ⟺ ( ) = ( ) ⟺ ( ) = ( ), .
⟺ = , . Thus is one to one. Next show that .
∈ , ℎ ℎ ∈ ℎ ℎ ( )= , .Ssimilarly there exists
∈ ℎ ℎ ( ) = ,since .
(∀ ∈ )(∃ ∈ ) ℎ ℎ ( )( ) = ( ) = ( ) = . Thus is onto.
Example 1:Suppose that = {1,2,3,4,5} and a permutation given by
1 2 3 45
= so that (1) = 4, (2) = 2, (5) = 1 . Let
4 2 5 31
1 2 3 45 1 2 3 45 1 2 3 45 1 2 3 45
= . Then = =
3 5 4 21 4 2 5 31 3 5 4 21 5 1 3 24

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For example multiplying, in right to left order gives

( )(1) = (1) = (3) = 5 .

We now show that the collection of all permutations of a nonempty set A form a group under
this permutation multiplication.

Theorem 1.10.1: Let A be a nonempty set, and let be the collection of all permutation of
A.Then is a group under permutation multiplication.

PROOF: In the above example we have shown that composition of two permutations
of A yields a permutation of A, so is closed under permutation multiplication.
Now permutation multiplication defined as function composition, and in theorem 1.1
,we proved that function ( operation) composition is associative. Hence the group axiom
is satisfied.
The permutation ( ) = , ∈ acts as identity. Therefore the group axiom
is satisfied.

For a permutation , ℎ , , ℎ ℎ reverses the

direction of the mapping ,that is , ( ) ℎ ℎ ℎ = ( ).
The existence of exactly one such element is the consequence of the fact that, as a
function, is both one to one and onto. For each ∈ we have
( )= = ( )= ( ) = ( )and also
( )= , ( )= ( ) = ( ),
=
So that the permutations both are the permutation . Thus group axiom
is satisfied . Therefore .

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Definition 1.10.2: Let A be the finite set {1,2,3, . . . , }. The group of all permutations of set A is
the symmetric group on n-letters, and is denoted by .

Note that has !- elements, where ! = ( − 1)( − 2). . . (3)(2)(1).

Example 2:An interesting example for us is the group 3! = 6 . Let the set =
{1,2,3} we list the permutation of A and assign to each a subscripted Greek letter for
name.
The permutations of A are. Let
1 2 3 1 2 3
= , =
1 2 3 1 3 2

1 2 3 1 2 3
= , =
2 3 1 3 2 1

1 2 3 1 2 3
= , =
3 1 2 2 1 3

Now let us construct the table for the members of .

The multiplication table for is shown above. Note that this group is not abelian! We know that
any group of at most 4-elements is abelian. And also a group of 5-elements is abelian. Thus
has minimum order for any nonabelian group. ∎

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1.11. THE CAYLEY’S THEOREM

The relevance of permutations groups lies in the fact that each group is isomorphic to a
permutation group. More precisely:

Theorem 1.11.1 (Cayley's Theorem) Each group G is isomorphic to a

group of permutations on G.

Proof:-Reading Assignment

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1.12. Summery

 Let G be a non-empty set. Any mapping from × ⟶ is called a binary

operationon G.
 A binary operation ∗ on a set G is called:Commutative if and only if ∗ = ∗
,∀ , ∈ .Associative if and only if ( ∗ ) ∗ = ∗ ( ∗ ), ∀ , , ∈
 A group ( ,∗) , ∗, ℎ ℎ the
following axioms are satisfied:

( ∗ )∗ = ∗ ( ∗ ), ∀ , , ∈

: Existence of identity

There is an element ℎ ℎ ∀ ∈ , ∗ = ∗ = .

 e is called the identity element of G with respect to *.

:Existence of inverse

Corresponding to each element ∈ , there is an element ℎ ℎ

∗ = ∗ =
. ( ,∗) ,∗, .
. ( ,∗) ℎ
. ( ,∗) , ℎ ℎ
 . ( ,∗) . , ∈ , ℎ ( ∗ ) = ∗
 .If a subset H of a group G is closed under the binary operation of G and if H with the
induced operation from G is itself a group, then His a subgroup of G. We shall let
≤ ≥ ℎ , < >
ℎ ≤ , ≠

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 Let G be a group and H a subgroup of G. Define a left coset of H with representative g ∈

G to be the set gH = {gh : h ∈ H}.

Right cosets can be defined similarly by Hg = {hg : h ∈ H}.

If left and right cosets coincide or if it is clear from the context to which type of coset
that we are referring, we will use the word coset without specifying left or right.
 (Lagrange) Let G be a finite group and let H be a subgroup of G.
Then |G|/|H| = [G : H] is the number of distinct left cosets of H in G. In particular,
the number of elements in H must divide the number of elements in G.

 (Euler’s Theorem) Let a and n be integers such that n >0 and gcd(a, n) = 1.
Then aφ(n) ≡ 1 (mod n).

 Fermat’s Little Theorem) Let p be any prime number and suppose that
p†a. Then ap−1 ≡ 1 (mod p).Furthermore, for any integer b, bp ≡ b (mod p).
 The Index is Multiplicative If K ≤ H ≤ G then [G : K] = [G : H][H : K].

 A subgroup H of a group G is normal in G if gH = Hg for all g ∈ G. That is, a normal

subgroup of a group G is one in which the right and left cosets are precisely the same.OR
 Let H be a subgroup of G. If any of the following equivalent conditions holds, we say
that H is normal subgroup of G, or that H is normal in G:

1. cHc−1 ⊆ H for all c ∈ G (equivalently, c−1Hc ⊆ H for all c ∈ G)

2. cHc−1 = H for all c ∈ G (equivalently, c−1Hc = H for all c ∈ G)

3. cH = Hc for all c ∈ G

4. Every left coset of H in G is also a right coset

5. Every right coset of H in G is also a left coset

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 If N is a normal subgroup of a group G, then the cosets of N in G form a group G/N under
the operation (aN)(bN) = abN. This group is called the factor or quotient group of G and
N. Our first task is to prove that G/N is indeed a group.
 If f : G → H, where G and H are groups, then f is said to be a homomorphism if for all a,
b in G, we have f(ab) = f(a)f(b).

 Some Standard Terminology

monomorphism = injective homomorphism
epimorphism = surjective homomorphism
isomorphism = bijective homomorphism
endomorphism = homomorphism of a group to itself
automorphism = isomorphism of a group with itself

 First Isomorphism Theorem If f : G → H is a homomorphism with kernel K,then

the image of f is isomorphic to / .
 Second Isomorphism Theorem If H and N are subgroups of G, with N normal in
G, then /( ∩ )≌ / .
Note that we write HN/N rather than H/N, since N need not be a subgroup of H.

 Third Isomorphism Theorem If N and H are normal subgroups of G, with N

contained in H, then / ≌ ( / )/( / ), a “cancellation law”.

 Correspondence Theorem
If N is a normal subgroup of G, then the map ψ :H → H/N sets up a one-to-one
correspondence between subgroups of G containing N and subgroups of G/N. The inverse
of ψ is the map τ : Q → π−1(Q), where π is the canonical epimorphism of G onto
G/N. Furthermore,
(i) H1 ≤ H2 if and only if H1/N ≤ H2/N, and in this case,[H2 : H1] = [H2/N : H1/N]
(ii) H is a normal subgroup of G if and only if H/N is a normal subgroup of G/N. More

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generally,
(iii) H1 is a normal subgroup of H2 if and only if H1/N is a normal subgroup of H2/N, and

in this case, H2/H1 ≌ (H2/N)/H1/N).

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CHAPTER TWO

2.RINGS
Chapter contents

2.1 Definition and examples of rings

2.2 Subrings
2.3 Ideals and quotient rings
2.4 Homomorphism of rings
2.5 Isomorphism theorems
2.6 Prime and maximal ideals
2.7 Quotient of integral domains
2.8 ED, UFD and PID
2.8 The ring of polynomials
2.9 Roots of polynomials, factorization of polynomials

2.1 Definition and Examples of Rings

So far in our study of abstract algebra, we have been introduced to one kind of abstract
system, which plays a central role in the algebra of today That was the notion of a group.
Because a group is an algebraic system with only one operation ,and because a group need not
satisfy the rule = ,it ran somewhat counter to our prior experience in algebra .We were
used to systems where you could add and multiply elements and where the elements did satisfy
the commutative law of multiplication = .Furthermore ,these systems of our acquaintance
usually came from sets of numbers – integers ,rational ,real ,and for some ,complex.

The next algebraic object we shall consider is a ring .I many ways this system will be more
reminiscent of what we had previously known than were groups .For one thing rings will be
endowed with addition and multiplication, and these will be subjected to many of the familiar
rules we all know from arithmetic .On the other hand ,rings need not come from our usual
number system ,and ,in fact ,usually have little to do with these familiar ones .Although many of

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the formal rules of arithmetic hold , many strange – or what may seem as strange – phenomena
do take place. As we proceed and see examples of rings ,we shall see some of these things occur.

With this preamble over we are ready to begin. Nationally enough, the first thing we should
do is to define that which we’ll talking about .In this topic we will give the definition and
elementary properties of rings .Do you recall the axioms of group and their consequences in
unit1? Do you imagine that there will be similar properties as in the case of an algebraic structure
with two binary operations ? the answer is positive. Thus at the end of this topic , you should be
able to:-

 Define the concept of rings

 Show that an algebraic structure is a ring or not.
 Find the zero and unity elements(if exists) of a ring.
 Identify commutative and division rings .
 Prove elementary properties of rings.
 Define subrings
 Define ideals and quotient rings
 Define ring homomorphisms and isomorphisms.
 Define polynomial rings .Find roots of polynomials

Before we see the properties of algebraic structure with two binary operations we give the
definition of ring as follows.

Definition 2.2:1:- let R be any non- empty set with two binary operations, “+” and “” Then
( , + , ) is said to be a ring if and only if

. ( , + , ) is an Abelian group.

.  is associative in R

. is distributive over “+” . for all , ,

) ( + ) =  +  (right distributive law)

) ( + ) =  +  (left distributive law)

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OR

( , + , ) is said to be a ring if it satisfies the following Ring Axioms

Rl For any two elements x and y, x + y = y + x.

R 2 For any three elements x, y and z, (x+y)+z = x + (y + z).
R 3 There is an element called the zero and denoted by 0 which has the property that
x + 0 = 0 + x = x for all elements x.
R 4 Corresponding to each element x there is an element – x called the negative of x
which has the property that x+ -x = -x+x = 0.
R5 For any three elements x, y and z, (xy) z = x(yz).
R6 For any three elements x, y and z, (x + y) z = xz + yz, x(y + z) = xy + xz.
Note that we must have both forms of the Distributive Law since multiplication is not assumed
commutative. The need for Rl
In group theory there is no need for the operation to be commutative. As soon as we introduce
a second operation and D 1, however, A 1 becomes essential for any useful algebra. The
reason appears if we try to extend R6in an obvious way. Consider (x+y) (z+w).
This can be thought of in two ways.
(a) (x+y) (z+w) = x(z + w) + y(z + w) by the first part of R6,
= xz + xw + yz + yw by the second part of R6;
(b) (x + y) (z + w) = (x + y) z + (x + y) w by the second part
of R6, = xz + yz + xw + yw by the first part of R6.
Thus we have two natural expressions for the expansion, which are equal only if the elements xw
and yz commute under addition, and so Rl is necessary to prevent formidable difficulties arising.
But note that there is no such need to assume commutativity of multiplication.
In investigating more properties of rings , we use the symbol “+” and “” instead of using other
symbols for the binary operations. But ,students should be able to aware that “+” and “” may
not be the usual addition and multiplication of real numbers and R denotes any non- empty set
mayn’t be exactly the set of real numbers. In using these two symbols ,we use the following
notations.

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Notation :- in a ring ( , + , ) ,i. The identity element of ( , + ) is usually denoted by 0 .

ii.if there exists an identity element e for  in R , we call it the unity of the ring

( , + , ) and denoted by 1 .

Definition 2.2.2:- a ring R in which = for all , in R is called a commutative ring.

Definition 2.2.3:- if a commutative ring has the unity e we call R a commutative ring with unity
otherwise it is a commutative ring without unity.

 In general a ring may or may not have a unity .

Example 1:-the students can verify that (ℤ , + , )(ℚ , + , ) (ℝ , + , ) are rings with the
usual addition and multiplication of real numbers. “0” is the additive identity and “1” is the
unity.

Example 2:- ( , + , ) ,where E is the set of even integers ,is a ring under the usual addition and
multiplication .It is a commutative ring without unity since there is no an even integer such that
= for all even integer .

Example 3:-The set 2 2 matrices over integers form a ring under matrix addition and
multiplication . M is a non commutative ring with unity . The zero matrix is the additive identity
1 0
and the matrix is the multiplicative identity (the unity).
0 1

− −
For = , = − − is the negative of A . To show that M is non

commutative it is sufficient to find two matrices A and B in M such that ≠ .Take

1 2 1 0 3 0 1 2
= and = then = and = ⇒ ≠
0 3 1 0 3 0 1 2

Example 4: Let = { + √2 ∶ , ∈ ℤ}. Prove that ( , + , ) is a ring.

Solution: Let 1, 2, and 3 be elements of . Then 1 = 1 + 1√2 , 2 = 2 + 2√2 and
3 = 3 + 3√2

(i) Let show ( , +) is an abelian group.

1 + 2 =( 1 + 1√2) +( 2 + 2√2) =( 1 + 2) +( 1 + 2)√2 ∈ i.e. closed

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(x1 + x2) + x3 = ((a1 + b1√2) + (a2 + b2√2)) + (a3 + b3√2)

= ((a1 + a2) + (b1 + b2)√2 ) + (a3 + b3√2)

= ((a1 + a2) + a3) + ((b1 + b2) + b3)√2
= (a1 + (a2 + a3)) + (b1 + (b2 + b3))√2
= (a1 + b1√2) + ((a2 + a3) + (b2 + b3)√2)
= x1 + (x2 + x3) i.e. + is associative
∀x ∈ R , x + 0 = x and 0 ∈ R since 0 = 0 + (0)√2 . i.e. identity element exist.
Since (a + b√2) + (-a - b√2) = (a - a) + (b - b)√2 = 0 + (0)√2 ,
-a - b√2 is the inverse of a + b√2.
i.e. additive inverse of each member exits in the given set.
x1 + x2 = (a1 + b1√2) + (a2 + b2√2) = (a1 + a2) + (b1 + b2)√2
= (a2 + a1) + (b2 + b1)√2
= (a2 + b2√2) + (a1 + b1√2) = x2 + x1 i.e. commutative holds
(ii) • is associative.
( 1 • 2) • 3 = (( 1 + 1√2) •( 2 + 2√2)) •( 3 + 3√2)

= (( 1 2 +2 1 2) +( 1 2 + 2 1)√2 )•( 3 + 3√2)

= (( 1 +( 2 + 3)) +( 1 +( 2 + 3))√2) •( 3 + 3√2)

= (( 1 2 +2 1 2) 3 + 2( 1 2 + 2 1) 3) + (( 1 2 + 1 2) 3 +( 1 2 +2 1 2) 3)√2

Similarly this also equals 1 +( 2 + 3) (Exercise!)

(iii) • is distributive over +.
1 •( 2+ 3) =( 1 + 1√2) • (( 2 + 2√2) +( 3 + 3√2))

=( 1 + 1√2) • (( 2 + 3) +( 2 + 3)√2)

= ( 1( 2 + 3) + 2 1( 2 + 3)) + (( 1( 2 + 3)) + 1( 2 + 3)) √2

= [( 1 2 +2 1 2) +( 1 2 + 1 2)√2] + [( 1 3 +2 1 3) +( 1 3 + 1 3)√2]

= 1 • 2 + 1 • 3

Hence ( , +,∙) is a ring.

Example 5:- let R be the set of real numbers .we define “*” on R as follows.

For a,b∈ ∗ = then show that(R,+,*) is a ring.

Solution:- .it is clear that (R,+) is an abelian group.

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.Associativety of “*” let a,b,c∈ . Then ∗( ∗ )= = = ∗

=( ∗ )∗
Hence * is associative in R.
.Distributivity of “*” over “+”

( )
Let a,b,c∈ the we see that ∗( + )= = =( ∗ )+( ∗ )
( )
Similarly, ( + ) ∗ = = = ( ∗ ) + ( ∗ ) i.e “*” is distributive over “+” and

(R,+, .) is ring.
Example 6 :Let F denote the set M(R) of all functions (mappings) f : R→ R. We
can define f + g and fg for f, g ∈F in a way that will give a ring. If f + g is to be in F, then it must
be a function from R to R. Thus we must specify (f + g)(x) for each x ∈ R.
Similarly for fg. The definitions are (f + g)(x) = f(x)+g(x) for each x∈ R and
(f g)(x) = f (x)g(x) for each x ∈ R.
To verify that this operation + is associative, f + (g + h) = (f + g) + h, we observe
that because each side is a function with domain R, what must be shown is that for all
f, g,h∈F [f + (g + h)](x) = [(f + g) + h](x) for each x ∈R.
To do this, write
[f + (g + h)](x) = f (x) + (g + h)(x) definition of + on F
= f (x) + [g(x) + h(x)] definition of + on F
= [f (x) + g(x)] + h(x) associativity of + on R
= (f + g)(x) + h(x) definition of + on F
= [(f + g) + h](x) definition of + on F.
The 0 (identity element for +) for this ring is the function defined by 0(x) = 0 for each
x ∈ R, where the 0 on the right is the zero of R:
if f ∈ F, then (f +0)(x)= f(x)+0(x)= f(x)+0= f(x) for each x ∈ R, so f + 0 = f .
The negative of a function f is the function -f defined by (- f)(x) = - f (x) for each x E R.
Verification of the remaining axioms is left as exercise.
Notice that the product of fg in this example is not fog.

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Example 7 . We can define the product of two elements a and b in Zn by ab(mod n). For
instance, in Z12, 5 · 7 ≡ 11 (mod 12). This product makes the abelian group Zn into a ring.
Certainly Zn is a commutative ring; however, it may fail to be an integral domain.
If we consider 3 · 4 ≡ 0 (mod 12) in Z12, it is easy to see that a product of two nonzero elements
in the ring can be equal to zero.

Activity 2.2.1:-
1)identify which of the following subsets of R are rings or not.
a) (Z,+, .) b) (N,+, .)
c) (Q,+, .) d) (R+,+, .) e) (S,+, .) where S = { + √3 ∶ , ∈ ℤ}.
2)let C denote the set of all continuous functions on [0,1] for , . we define
( + )( ) = ( ) + ( ) ( )( ) = ( ) ( ) [0,1] then show
that (C,+,.) is a ring.
3) let S be any non empty set define “+” and “∙” On the power set of S by
. + =( ∪ )−( ∩ ) . ∙ = ∩ show that(P(x).+,∙) is a ring.
4. Let E denote the set of even integers. Prove that with the usual addition, and with
multiplication defined by m * n = (1/2)mn, E is a ring. Is there a unity?
5. Prove that a2 - b2 (a + b)(a - b) for all a, b in a ring R if R is commutative.
6 Prove that (a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2 for all a, b in a ring R iff R is commutative.
7. Verify that if A is an Abelian group, with addition as the operation, and an operation * is
defined on A by a * b = 0 for all a, b ∈ A, then A is a ring with respect to + and *.
8. In the ring of integers, if ab = ac and a ≠ 0, then b = c. Is this true in all rings?
9.Verify that if R is a ring and a, b ∈R, then
(a + b)3 = a3 + aba + ba 2 + b2a + a2b + ab2 + bab + b3. Which ring axioms do you need?
10. Prove that if R is a commutative ring, a, b e R, and n is a positive integer, then (a + b)n can
be computed by the Binomial Theorem.
Notation: Let (R, +, .) be a ring, let ∈ and ∈ ℕ, then
a+ a + ⋯ a
1) = if n is positive integer.
−
(− a ) + (− a) + ⋯ ( − a )
2) (− ) = if n is a negative integer.
−

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Thus 5 = + + + + .
3)if n is a positive integer, by we mean x.x.x.x.x.x….. n-factors
= . . . . . .
3) 0 ∙ =
Example: The set ℤ with the operations of multiplication and addition modulo forms a
commutative ring for any ∈ ℤ , The only properties left to establish are the distributive laws.
We will show that [ ] ⊙ ([ ]⨁[ ]) = ([ ] ⊙ [ ])⨁([ ]⨀[ ]) .
The proof of ([ ]⨁[ ]) ⊙ [ ] = ([ ] ⊙ [ ])⨁([ ]⨀[ ]) is similar.
[ ] ⊙ ([ ]⨁[ ]) = [ ] ⊙ ( + )
= [ ( + )] = [ + ]
=[ ]⨁[ ]
= [ ] ⊙ [ ]⨁[ ]⨀[ ]
For example (ℤ ,⊕ , ⊙ ) is a ring under addition and multiplication modulo 6.
Example: letϜ denotes the set of all mappings . : ⟶ such that f is continuous on R. show
that 〈Ϝ, +, . 〉 is a commutative ring with unity ( ) = 1.
As we have defined earlier a ring (R, +, .) is called a ring with unity if ∃1 called unity such that
a .1 = 1.a = a ∀ a ∈ R.
Example: Find the units in z14.
Solutions: Of course, 1 and -1(which is equal to 13 in 14) are units. Since (3)(5) = 1 we see that
3 and 5 are also units; therefore −3(= 11) and −5(= 9) are units. Thus 1, 3, 5, 9, 11 and 13 are
units in z14.
Example: The units in z5 are 1, 2, 3, and 4 because 1 · 1 = 2 · 3 = 4 · 4 = 1.

Theorem2.1: Let (R, +, .) be a ring. For , ∈ , Show that

() + = + implies b = c for all , , ∈ .
( ) 0 = 0 = 0 for all ∈ .
( ) (− ) = (− ) = −( ) for all , ∈ ;
( ) −(− ) =
( ) −( + ) = (− ) + (− )
( ) (− )(− ) = for all , ∈ ;
( ) ( − )= − and ( − ) = − for all , , ∈ .
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( ) (−1) = − if R has a multiplicative identity i.e. 1 = 1 = for all a ∈ R.

Proof: (i) b = 0+b = ((- a)+a)+b = (-a)+(a+b) = (- a)+(a+c) = ((-a)+a)+c =0 + c = c
(ii) 0 = (0 + 0) = 0 + 0 . Thus, 0 + 0 = 0 = 0 + 0 so that by the right
cancellation property of the additive group we have 0 = 0.A similar argument holds for 0 = 0.
(iii) Since ab+(-a)b = (a+(-a))b = 0b = 0 then (-a)b is the additive inverse of ab. That is,
−( ) = (− ) . Similarly, since + (− ) = ( + (− )) = 0 = 0, then −( ) = (− ).
(iv) Follows from the definition of additive inverse.
(v) Since ( + ) + ((− ) + (− )) = [( + ) + (− )] + (− ) = [(− ) + ( + )] + (− )

= [((− ) + ) + ] + (− ) = (0 + ) + (− ) = 0 + ( + (− )) = 0 + 0 = 0 then
(− ) + (− ) is the additive inverse of + : That is, −( + ) = (− ) + (− ):
(vi) Using (iii), we have (-a)(-b) = -[a(-b)] = -[-(ab)] = ab:
(vii) We prove that a(b - c) = ab - ac: The prove that (a - b)c = ac - bc is similar.
a(b - c) = a(b + (-c))
= ab + a(-c) by Definition of Ring
= ab - ac by (ii)
(viii) Follows from (iii).

Definition: An element a of a commutative ring R is called a left zero divisor if there is a

nonzero element b ∈ R such that ab = 0.
An element a of a commutative ring R is called a right zero divisor if there is a
nonzero element b ∈ R such that ba = 0 .An element a∈ R that is not a zero divisor is called a
non zero divisor .Trivially if a ring R contains at least two elements ,then 0 is a left as well as
right zero divisors of R.0 is called a trivial zero devisor.
0 3 0 4 0 0
Example: let = , = then = . This implies that A and B are
0 9 0 0 0 0
non trivial zero divisors of the ring M of a 2x2 matrices.
Definition:-A non zero element of R which is a left(right) zero-divisor is called a proper
left(right)zero divisor. if R contains no such zero divisor then R is a ring without zero divisor.
If all nonzero elements of a commutative ring are non zero divisors, then R is called
an integral domain. i.e a commutative ring R is called an integral domain if for all a ,b in R
= 0 implies =0 =0

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Example:-(ℤ , + , ) is an integral domain because for any two integers a,b , = 0 implies
either =00 = 0 i.e in geneneral the ring of integers, the ring of rational numbers, and the
ring of real numbers are all integral domains. The ring of even integers is not an integral domain
because it has no unity.
Example:-The ring Z6 is not an integral domain because, as we have seen, it has
zero divisors. This happens because 6 is not a prime. More generally, if n is not a prime,
and n = rs with r and s each greater than 1, then, in Zn [r] ⊙ [s] = [rs] = [n] = [0] with
[r] ≠ [0] and [s] ≠ [0]. Thus Z. is not an integral domain if n is not a prime. On the other
hand, it can be proved that if n is a prime, then Zn is an integral domain .
For the special case n = 5 this can be seen from ; every Zn is commutative and
has a unity, and the product of any two nonzero elements in Z5 is nonzero.
Example:- (ℤ ,⊕ , ⊙ ) under the addition and multiplication modulo 8.This ring is
commutative but not an integral domain since 2 ∈ 4∈ such that

2.4 = 8 = 0 2,4 ≠ 0

Example:-The set Q under ordinary addition and multiplication is an integral domain.

Example:- let Q be the rational numbers; if a∈ we can write = ,where m and n are

relatively prime integers .Call this the reduced form for a. let R be the set of all a∈ in whose
reduced form the denominator is odd .Under the usual addition and multiplication in Q the set R
forms a ring.It is an integral domain with unit but is not a field, for ,the needed inverse of 2, is

not in R. Exactly which elements in R do have their inverse in R?.

Theorem:-in a ring R with unity 1 units form a sub group of the semi group 〈 , . 〉

Proof:-let S be the set of units, clearly 1.1 = 1 1∈ consider , ∈ then as a,b are
units there exists , ∈ such that = = 1 and = =1

Then ( )( )= ( ) = 1 = = 1.

Similarly (dc)(ab)=1 . Thus ab is a unit. So ab∈ . clearly c=a-1 is a unit. This implies a-1∈ .

Hence S is a sub group of 〈 , . 〉

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Problem: Let be a ring and R ≠{0} and 1 ∈ R ,then 1 ≠ 0

Proof: Suppose 1 = 0
∀a∈R , a = a .1 = a .0 = 0
⇒ R = {0} which is a contradiction to R ≠ {0}.
Remark: If R = {0} is a ring with unity, then 1 = 0

Definition:-Let (R, +, •) be a ring with unity. An element u of R is called a unit of R if it has a

multiplicative inverse in R. (i.e if it has an inverse with respect to •). If every non - zero element
of R is a unit of R, then R is called a division ring(Field).
OR
Let (R, +, •) be a ring .Then(R, +, •) is said to be
.commutative ring iff for all a,b inR , =
.a division ring iff for all a,b in − {0},there exists in R such that . = = 1.
.a field iff (R, +, •) is a commutative division ring.
Example:- (Z, +, •) ,(R, +, •),(Q, +, •)are all commutative rings since multiplication is
commutative in R ,Z and Q
Example :- (Z, +, •) is a ring with unity. Since 2∈ ,and there doesn’t exist a y in Z such that
2. = . 2 = 1.Then (Q, +, •) is not a division ring.
Example:- (R, +, •) and (Q, +, •) are division rings because every non zero elements of R and Q .
have inverse in R and Q.
Activity2.2.2
1.determine whether the following rings are integral domains or not.
a. (C, +, •) where C is the set of complex numbers
b. ( , +, •) , ( , +, •)
c. ( , +, •) where p is prime.

2.let * be defined on R-{0} by for a,b ∈ − {0} a*b= .

√

a.is (R-{0}, +, •) a commutative ring?

b.is (R-{0}, +, •) a division ring?
c.is (R-{0}, +, •) an integral domain?
Theorem:-let (R, +, •) be a commutative ring with unity. Then (R, +, •) is an integral domain iff
for all , , ∈ • = • = .

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Proof:-⇒: Suppose (R, +, •) is an integral domain .let a,b,c ∈ such that a≠ 0 then we get
ab=ac ⇒ ab-ac=0
⇒a(b-c)=0
⇒ a=0 or b-c=0
since a is non zero and (R, +, •) is an integral domain, we conclude that b-c=0 ⇒b=c
⟸:Suppose for all , , ∈ , a≠ 0 = ⇒ =
Let , ∈ such that xy=0 .Assume that both x and y are non zero elements .Then x≠ 0 and
xy=0 implies xy=0=x0 then y=0 .similarly y≠ 0 it follows that x=0. Therefore (R, +, •) is an
integral domain.
Theorem:- ∈ is a zero devisor if and only if ( . ) ≠ 1.
Proof:(⇒) Suppose ( . ) = 1.We recall that ( , ). ( . )=nm
Then, ( , )= .Suppose ∈ -{0} such that ≡ for some k∈ such that
k isnon-zero.Then, = for some a∈ i.e ⁄ ∕ .Hence ( , )∕
But, since ( , ) = 1, ⁄ . ⁄ . ≥ which implies that ∉ .Hence ,if
m is a zero divisor ,then ( . ) = 1.
(⇐) Suppose ( . )= ≠ 1.Then , ⁄ ∕ i.e = , =

for some , ∈ . So = ∈ , ≠ 0 Moreover = . = = 0( )

Hence ,m is a zero divisor of ( , +, •) .

Example:- consider the ring ( , +, •) .List all the zero divisors

Solution: by the above theorem all the zero divisors aren’t relatively prime to 8.

Hence (1,8) = 1 (3,8) = 1 (5,8) = 1 (7,8) = 1

(2,8) ≠ 1 (4,8) ≠ 1 (6,8) ≠ 1

So the zero divisors are 2,4 and 6 .

Example:-Consider the set 2 2 matrices of the type where a,b are complex
−
1 0
numbers and , are their conjugates.M is a ring with unity under matrix addition and
0 1

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+ +
multiplication.let A be a non zero matrix in M .Then = where x,y,u,v are
− + −
not all zero.

−
1 0
Consider = clearly B∈ and AB=BA= Thus
0 1

every non zero matrix of M is a unit. Hence M is a division ring.

Activity 2.2.3:-

1.prove that for any prime p, the set ( ) = { + √ ∶ , ∈ }. is a commutative ring

with unity.

2.Give the zero divisors of the following rings.

a. ( , +, •) b. ( , +, •)

c. ( , +, •) d. ( , +, •) where m is a composite integer.

3. Recall that an endomorphism of a group G is a homomorphism of G to itself. Thus if G is

abelian ,an endomorphism is a function f : G → G such that f(a + b) = f(a) + f(b) for all a, b ∈ G.
Define addition of endomorphisms in the natural way:(f +g)(a) = f(a)+g(a),and define
multiplication as functional composition:(fg)(a) = f(g(a)). Show that the set End G of
endomorphisms of G becomes a ring under these operations .What are the units of End G?
4. 11. Which of the following collections of n by n matrices form a ring under matrix addition
and multiplication?
(a) symmetric matrices (b) matrices whose entries are 0 except possibly in column 1
(c) lower triangular matrices (aij = 0 for i < j) (d) upper triangular matrices (aij = 0 for i > j)

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2.2 Subrings

Definition :- A subset S of a ring R is called a sub ring of R if S itself is a ring with respect to
the laws of composition of R. Or
Let R be a ring and S be a non empty subset of R . (S, +, •) is said to be a sub ring of R if and
only if

. + , . , . (S, +, •) is a ring by itself.

Examples 1:- (Z, +, •) is a sub ring of (Q, +, •)

Example2:- consider the ring (Z, +, •) .Let = {3 : } = 3 = 〈3〉 Then

≠∅ 3 Moreover = {3 : } ⊑ . Now , then there are ,
such that =3 =3

it is easy to conclude that + ∈ ∨ , ∈ Thus (S, +, •) is a sub ring of Z.

similarly (2 , +, . ) is a sub ring of (Z, +, •). Generally (nZ, +, •) is a sub ring of (Z, +, •).

0
Example 3:-The set Y of all 2x2 matrices of the type where a,b are integers is a sub ring

of the ring of all 2x2 matrices over Z.

Theorem:- A non-empty subset S of a ring R is a sub ring of R if and only . − ∈

. ∈ ℎ ; ∈

Proof:- If S is a subring then obviously the given condition is satisfied. Conversely, suppose that
the condition holds. Take any a ∈ S. We have a - a ∈ S hence 0 ∈ S. Hence for any x∈ S we
have 0 -x∈ S so -x ∈ S. Finally, if a ,b∈ S then by the above –b ∈ S. Therefore a - (-b) ∈ S, i.e.,
a + b∈ S. So S is closed with respect to both addition and multiplication. Thus S is a sub ring
since all the other axioms are automatically satisfied.

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Example:- Consider = + √3
3: , ∈ Then , the set (S, +, •) is a sub ring of the ring of real
numbers (Why?)

Let S and T be sub rings of a ring R. Then

Theorem:-Let ∩ .

Proof:- Suppose S and T are sub rings of a ring R. Let , ∈ ⋂ . ℎ ∈ ⋂ ∈ ⋂

i.e , ∈ and , ∈ .since S and T are sub rings , we have

− ∈ ∈ , . − ∈ ∈ , Hence
− ∈ ∩ ∈ ⋂ .Thus ,by definition ⋂ is a sub ring of a ring R.

Note:- ∪ may not be a sub ring of R. eg. Take = {2 : } and = {5 : } 2∈ &5∈

And hence 2,5∈ ∪ but 2 − 5 = −3 ∉ ∪ .It follows that ∪ is not a sub ring of R.

2.3 Ideals and Quotient Ring

Definition . A non-void
void sub set I of a ring R is called a left ideal of R if

. , ∈ ⟹ − ∈

. ∈ , ∈ ⟹ ∈

Definition . A non-void
void sub set J of a ring R is called a right ideal of R if

. , ∈ ⟹ − ∈

. ∈ , ∈ ⟹ ∈

Definition:- A non void subset I of a ring R is called an ideal (two sided)of a ring R if

1. I is a sub ring of R
2. For all a ∈ I; r ∈R ar ∈ I and ra ∈ I

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If I is an ideal of R we denote this fact by I ⊲ R.

Example:-In a ring R,(0) and R are trivially ideals of the ring R .Other ideals(if any) are proper
ideals.

Example:-let R be a ring and ∈ . The subset ={ ∈ : = 0} is a right ideal of R.

To see this firstly note that 0 ∈ so X is non void. Further if , ∈ then ax=0 ,ay=0

⟹ ( − )=0⟹ − ∈

Also if r∈ , a(xr) = (ax)r = 0r = 0 hence xr∈

Is X a left ideal? Why?

Example:- Let = + √2 ∶ , ∈ then S is a two sided ideal of (R, +, •) where + is

addition of real numbers and • is multiplication of real numbers.

Example:-show that the set = {2 + 1: ∈ } is not an ideal of (R, +, •)?

0
Example:- In the ring M of 2x2 matrices over integers consider the set = , ∈ Now
0
0 0
∈ and so L is non empty.
0 0

0 0 − 0 0
Also − = ∈ . Again if ∈ then =
0 0 − 0 0
+ 0
∈ This shows that L is a left ideal of M. However L is not a right ideal of M since
+ 0

1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1
∈ ∈ = ∉
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

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Example:- Let again M be the ring of 2x2 matrices over integers .Then = , ∈ is a
0 0
0 1 0 0
right ideal of M .That K is a right ideal , can be checked easily. Now ∈ , ∈ but
0 0 1 0

0 0 0 1 0 0
= ∉ Thus k is not a left ideal.
1 0 0 0 0 1

Remark 1:-By definition every left, right or two sided ideal is a sub ring but the converse is not true .This
can be seen from the following example.

Example:- (Z, +, •) is a sub ring of (Q, +, •) but (Z, +, •) is not an ideal of (Q, +, •). Since 3= ∉

though ∉ and 3∈ .

Remark 2:- Let ⊆ be two ideals of a ring R. It is immediate that if we regard A as a ring itself, then
B is also an ideal of A. We show by an example that the following does not hold:

If ⊆ ⊆ be such that C is an ideal of I and I is an ideal of R then C is an ideal of R.

Example:-Let = / , , , , , , ,ℎ ∈ then R is a ring under matrix addition and

0 0
multiplication

0 0
Let = 0 0 , ∈ A is an ideal of R.(varify)
0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0
= 0 0 0 ∈ then B is an ideal of A, Since 0 0 0 ∈
0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 −
0 0 0 − 0 0 0 = 0 0 0 ∈B
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 = 0 0 0 0 0 = 0 0 0 ∈
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 1
We claim that B is not an ideal of R. To see this , consider 1 0 0 ∈ 0 0 0 ∈ then
0 0 0 0 0 0

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0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 0 0 = 0 0 1 ∉ .Hence B is not an ideal of R.
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Definition:- A ring R is said to be simple ,if

.∃ , ∈ such that ab≠ 0 .R has a proper ideal.

Theorem:- a division ring is a simple ring.

Proof:-Let R be the division ring (it contains the unity).Hence no need to show condition (i).To show the
second condition let A(≠ 0) be an ideal of a division ring R. since A(≠ 0), ∃ (≠ 0) ∈ .

Again as R is a division ring ,is a unit(invertible element) in R.. i.e ∃ ∈ such that ab=1. Hence 1∈ .

Since ∈ and A is an ideal. For any r∈ we get r= r1∈ . Consequently R=A(as ⊆ & ⊆ )

Hence R has no proper ideal.

Remark:- for any ring R with unity 1 , if any ideal I of R contains 1,then I=R.

To see this consider ∈ then x= x1 ∈ as 1 ∈ . This implies that ⊆ . ⊆ .

Hence I=R.

2.3.1. ALGEBRA OF IDEALS

.
Theorem:-Intersection of two left(right) ideals of a ring R is a left(right) ideals of R.

Proof:-Let A and B be two right ideals of a ring R. since 0 ∈ , 0 ∈ implies 0 ∈ ∩ .

⟹ ∩ ≠ 0.

Let x,y ∈ ∩ and r ∈ , hence x,y ∈ ∩ ⟹ ∈ and ∈ , As A is a right ideal of R,

− ∈ ∈ . For the same reason − ∈ ∈ .Thus
, ∈ ∩ ,⟹ − ∈ ∩ and ∈ ∩ .consequently ∩ is a right ideal of R.

Theorem:- Intersection of any non void family of right(left)ideal of a ring R is a right(left) ideal of R.

Proof:-exercise

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Remark:-If A and B are two ideals of a ring R then ∪ my not be an ideal of R..This can be seen in
the following examples.if = {2 : ∈ } and = {3 : ∈ } are two ideals of Z.

Now take 2,3 ∈ ∪ but 3-2=1∉ ∪ .Hence ∪ is not an ideal of Z.

.
Definition:-Let A and B be two ideals of a ring R , then the set A+B={a+ b / ∈ , ∈ } is called the
sum of ideals A and B .

Theorem:-for any two ideal of A and B of a ring R. A+B is an ideal of R containing both A and B(it is
the smallest ideal of R containing R)

Proof:-Exercise

2.4 QUOTIENT RING

We have seen that the condition for a multiplicative structure to exist in the set of cosets
relative to a sub-ring I of R is that I is an ideal, as defined in the last section. Once such a
multiplication is established it is a simple matter to prove that the cosets form a ring. The
complete result is proved below.

Theorem :- If I is an ideal of a ring R the cosets x + I form a ring under the sum
(x + I) + (y + I) = (x + y) + I and product (x+I)(y+I) = xy+I
I is an invariant subgroup of the additive structure of R and hence the cosets certainly form an
Abelian group under the sum defined.
Let x', y' be any elements of x + I, y + I respectively. Then ′ = + , ′ = +
Where , ∈I. Thus x'y' = (x+ ) (y+ )
= xy+x + y+ .
But x and y ∈I since I is an ideal and, since I is a subring, x + y+ ∈I. Hence x'y' ∈ xy+I
and so x'y'+I ⊆ xy+I+I ⊆ xy+I
But x = x' - ∈ x' + I and similarly y ∈ y' + I and so, as above, xy +I ⊆ y' + I. Hence these
cosets are the same.

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Thus the definition of product is independent of choice of members x and y of the given
cosets, and thus is uniquely defined, and is of course a coset. (This is the vital part of the proof:
the rest is easy.)
The Associative Law of multiplication is true, since both {(x + I) (y +I))} (z + I) and
(x+I) {(y+I) (z+I)} are, by the definition and the Associative Law in R, equal to xyz + I.
Similarly for the Distributive Law:
{(x+I) + (y +I))} (z +I) = (x+y) z+I = (xz+yz)+I
= (x+I) (z+I)+(y+I) (z+I) and
(x+I){(y+I)+(z+I)} = x(y+z)+I = (xy+xz)+I
= (x+I) (y+I)+(x+I) (z+I).
Hence the cosets form a ring.
This ring of cosets is called the quotient ring of I in R and is written R/I.
Note that we still use the quotient notation although the cosets, being cosets of the additive
subgroup I, are written in the additive notation. The reason is that we are still in effect `dividing'
R by I. Some writers do use R -I and call the ring the difference ring, but our notation and
terminology is the more common one.
If the order of R is finite and equals n, with the order of I being m, then of course the order
of R/I is n/m, as in the case of quotient groups.
We may naturally wonder what happens to R/I when R is a specialized type of ring.
Notation 1:-we usually denote the element + in R/I by ̅ .thus 0 in this notation we mean
0+I=I which is the zero of R/I.
Notation 2:- for any , ∈ R/I ̅+ = + . = .
Example:-let = {6 / ∈ } I is an ideal of Z .The elements of / are the cosets
,1 + ,2 + ,3+ ,4 + 5 + .which according to our notation we can denote
0, 1, 2, 3, 4 5 respectively.Then 〈 / , +,∙〉 is a ring.
Example . If I = {0, 2, 4} is the ideal generated by 2 in Z6, find the tables for the quotient ring
Z6/I.
Solution. There are two cosets of Z6 by I: namely, I = {0, 2, 4} and I + 1 ={1, 3, 5}. Hence
Z6/I = {I, I + 1}.and the tables are given below

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+ I I+1 . I I+1
I I I+1 I I I
I+1 I+1 I I+1 I I+1
The addition and multiplication tables given above show that the quotient ring Z6/I is isomorphic
to Z2.

Theorem:-If R is commutative so is R/I.

For (x +I)(y+1) = xy+1 = yx+1 = (y +I)(x +I).
Theorem:- If R has a unity 1, R/I has a unity 1 +I.
For (1 +I) (x +I) = lx +I = x +I and (x +I) (1 +I) = xl +I = x +I.
The converses of these theorems are not true. A counterexample of the first is given by the
trivial case where I = R so that R/I = {0} and is certainly commutative, whereas R is arbitrary.
For a counter-example for the second, let I be the ideal of multiples of 6 in the ring R of
multiples of 2. Then R has no unity, but R/I contains 3 elements, 0 + I, the zero, 2 + I and 4 + I,
which is easily seen to be a unity.
If we further restrict R we do not always get the expected results. If R is an integral
domain then R/I need not be: if R is the domain of integers and I the ideal of multiples of 4, then
(2 + I) (2 + I) = 4 + I = I, the zero, but 2 + I is certainly not the zero coset.
If R is a field there are no proper ideals, as is shown in §7.7.
The cases where R/I is an integral domain or a field are
dealt with later. At present all we will say is that these occurrences
depend on the nature of I rather than on R.
Theorem:- If I is an ideal in the ring of integers, I = [n] for some positive integer n, or I = {0}.
Proof:-If I ≠ {0} it contains a non-zero element. If I contains a negative integer - k then it also
contains k, since it is a subgroup. Hence I certainly contains a positive integer. Let n be the
smallest such.
Since I is a subgroup it contains all multiples of n. Suppose it contains an integer m that is
not a multiple of n. Then by the division algorithm m = nq + r where 0 < r < n. But m ∈ I
and nq ∈ I and so m - nq = r ∈ I, contrary to the hypothesis that n is the smallest positive member
of I. Hence I contains no integer that is not a multiple of n and so I = [n].

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The cosets of [n] are the residue classes modulo n hence R/[n] is the ring of residues modulo n.
Note that this is a field if n is prime, otherwise it is not even an integral domain.

Activity2.2.4
1.let = { : ∈ } Then
.show that I is an ideal of ( , + ∙)
.list all the elements of Z/I.
.Give the addition and multiplication table for = 4,5,6,7,8
2.Let I be an ideal of R. Then
. R/I is commutative if and only if − ∈ ,∨ , ∈ .
.If R/I and R/I are commutative then R/I∩ is commutative,

2.5 Prime and Maximal Ideals

2.5.1.Prime ideals
We now come to an investigation of the circumstances under which the quotient ring R/I is an
integral domain. We have already shown that this need not be the case whenever R is an integral
domain, and conversely it is possible for R/I to be an integral domain even when R is not. (For
example if R is the ring of residues modulo 6 and I the ideal of multiples of 3, R/I is the ring of
residues modulo 3 and is an integral domain, although R is not in this case.) The property
depends in fact on the nature of I and its relationship to R rather than on R itself. If R/I is an
integral domain then it must be commutative and have a unity, and this is assured if we assume R
to be commutative and with unity. Since this includes most important cases, we will assume
throughout this section that all our rings are commutative and have a unity. Assuming this
condition, R/I is an integral domain if and only if it has no zero divisors, i.e. if and only if
(x + I) (y + I) = I (the zero in R/I) = x + I = I or y + I = I. But since (x +I) (y +I) = xy +I
this condition merely states that xy ∈ I ⟹ either x ∈ I or y ∈ I.
We are thus led to the following definition and theorem.

Definition:- An ideal of a commutative ring R with unity is said to be a prime ideal if for all
x,y in R, xy ∈ I ⟹ either x ∈ I or y ∈ I .

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Example:- in an integral domain D,(0) is a prime ideal. Since for all a,b in D ∈ (0)
⟹ ab= 0 ⟹ a =0 or b=0 as D is an integral domain.
⟹ a∈ (0) ∈ (0)
Example:-In Z the ideals 〈3〉={3n/n∈ } is prime since ab∈ 〈3〉 ⟹ 3/ab ⟹ 3/a or 3/b
⟹ a ∈ 〈3〉 or b∈ 〈3〉
Infact every ideal 〈 〉 where p is a prime number is prime.
Theorem If P is an ideal in the commutative ring R, then P is a prime ideal if and only if R/P is
an integral domain.
Proof. Suppose P is prime. Since P is a proper ideal, R/P is a ring. We must show that if
(a + P)(b + P) is the zero element P in R/P, then a + P = P or b + P = P, i.e., a ∈ P or
b ∈ P. This is precisely the definition of a prime ideal.
Conversely, if R/P is an integral domain ,then P is a proper ideal. If ab ∈ P,
then (a+P)(b+P) is zero in R/P, so that a+P = P or b+P = P, i.e., a ∈ P or b ∈ P.

2.5.2. Maximal ideals:-

Definition;- An ideal I of a commutative ring R with unity is said to be a maximal ideal if there
exists no ideal J other than I or R such that I ⊆ J ⊆R. (Compare this with the definition of
maximal invariant subgroup).
Theorem :- R/I is a field if and only if I is maximal. (R is assumed commutative and with unity.)
Proof:-Suppose first that R/I is a field: we will prove I maximal.Suppose J is such that I ⊆ J ⊆R.
Then if is the natural homomorphism R → R/I , is an ideal of R/I by a theorem
since is certainly an epimorphism. Hence, since R/I is afield, is either R/I or the trivial
ideal I. In the latter case J = I. We will prove that if = R/I then J = R
.Let r be any element of R. Then since = R/I, ∃ j ∈J such that r = j and so r ∈j + I. But I ⊆J
and so j + I⊆ J since J is an ideal. Hence r ∈J and J = R. Thus J = I or R and so I is maximal.
We now assume I maximal and prove that R/I is a field.We first show that RII is simple.Let
K be an ideal of R/I. Then by a theorem the set of elements of R that map into elements of K
under the natural homomorphism is an ideal of R, and contains I since K contains the zero I
R/I of. Hence since I is maximal, this set is either I or R. In the first case K = I, the zero ideal of
R/I , and in the second K = R/I . Thus R/I is a simple ring. Also, since R is commutative, R/I is
commutative.It remains to be shown that multiplication in R/I is non-trivial.

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If it is trivial then (x+I) (y+I) = I for any cosets and so xy ∈ I for all x, y in R. Putting y = 1, the
unity, which we have assumed to exist in R, we see that x ∈I for all x, i.e. I is the whole ring R.
Thus, except in the trivial case when I = R and R/I has just one element, multiplication in R/I is
non-trivial and so,by a theorem, R/I is a field.

Theorem :-If I is maximal then it is prime. For R/I is a field, and hence is an integral domain.
Definition. A principal ideal domain is an integral domain in which every ideal is a principal
ideal

2.6 Ring Homomorphisms and Ideals

In the study of groups, a homomorphism is a map that preserves the operation of the group.
Similarly,a homomorphism between rings preserves the operations of addition and multiplication
in the ring. More specifically,if R and S are rings, then a ring homomorphism is a map

φ :( R,∆,∗) → (S,∇,⊗) satisfying

φ(a∆ b) = φ(a) ∇ φ(b)
φ(a∗b) = φ(a) ⊗φ(b)
for all a, b ∈ R. If φ : R → S is a one-to-one and onto homomorphism, then φ is called an
isomorphism of rings.
The set of elements that a ring homomorphism maps to 0 plays a fundamental role in the theory
of rings. For any ring homomorphism φ : R → S,
we define the kernel of a ring homomorphism to be the set
ker φ = {r ∈ R : φ(r) = 0}.

Example . For any integer n we can define a ring homomorphism

φ : Z → Zn by a 7→ a (mod n). This is indeed a ring homomorphism,since

φ(a + b) = (a + b) (mod n)
= a (mod n) + b (mod n)
= φ(a) + φ(b) and

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φ(ab) = ab (mod n)
= a (mod n) · b (mod n)
= φ(a)φ(b).
The kernel of the homomorphism φ is nZ.
Example . Let C[a, b] be the ring of continuous real-valued functions on an interval [a, b] . For a
fixed α ∈ [a, b], we can define a ring homomorphism

φα : C[a, b] → R by φα(f) = f(α). This is a ring

homomorphism since
φα(f + g) = (f + g)(α) = f(α) + g(α) = φα(f) + φα(g)
φα(fg) = (fg)(α) = f(α)g(α) = φα(f)φα(g).
Ring homomorphisms of the type φα are called evaluation homomorphisms.

Example 8.15. If X is a one element set, show that f : P(X) → Z2 is a ring isomorphism between
(P(X), △, ∩) and (Z2, +, ·), where f (Ø) = [0] and f (X) = [1].
Solution. We can check that f is a morphism by testing all the possibilities
for f (A△B) and f (A ∩ B). Since the rings are commutative, they are
f (Ø△Ø) = f (Ø) = [0] = f (Ø) + f (Ø)
f (Ø△X) = f (X) = [1] = f (Ø) + f (X)
f (X△X) = f (Ø) = [0] = f (X) + f (X)
f (Ø ∩ Ø) = f (Ø) = [0] = f (Ø) · f (Ø)
f (Ø ∩ X) = f (Ø) = [0] = f (Ø) · f (X)
f (X ∩ X) = f (X) = [1] = f (X) · f (X).
Both rings contain only two elements, and f is a bijection; therefore, f is an
isomorphism.

Example . Show that f : Z24 → Z4, defined by f ([x]24) = [x]4 is a ring morphism.
Proof. Since the function is defined in terms of representatives of equivalence classes, we first
check that it is well defined. If [x]24 = [y]24,
then x ≡ y mod 24 and 24|(x − y). Hence 4|(x − y) and [x]4 = [y]4, which shows that f is well
defined.
We now check the conditions for f to be a ring morphism.
(i) f ([x]24 + [y]24) = f ([x + y]24) = [x + y]4 = [x]4 + [y]4.
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(ii) f ([x]24 · [y]24) = f ([xy]24) = [xy]4 = [x]4 · [y]4.

(iii) f ([1]24) = [1]4.

Proposition Let φ : R → S be a ring homomorphism.

1. If R is a commutative ring, then φ(R) is a commutative ring.
2. φ(0) = 0.
3. Let 1R and 1S be the identities for R and S, respectively. If φ is onto,
then φ(1R) = 1S.

Proposition The kernel of any ring homomorphism φ : R → S is an ideal in R.

Proof. We know from group theory that ker φ is an additive subgroup of R. Suppose that r ∈ R
and a ∈ ker φ. Then we must show that ar and ra are in ker φ. However,
φ(ar) = φ(a)φ(r) = 0φ(r) = 0 and φ(ra) = φ(r)φ(a) = φ(r)0 = 0.

Proposition Every proper ideal I is the kernel of a ring homomorphism.

Proof. Define the natural or canonical map π : R → R/I by π(r) = r + I. We already know
that π is a homomorphism of abelian groups and its kernel is I (see (1.3.12)). To verify that
π preserves multiplication,note that
π(rs) = rs + I = (r + I)(s + I) = π(r)π(s);
since π(1R) = 1R + I = 1R/I, π is a ring homomorphism. ♣
Proposition If f : R → S is a ring homomorphism and the only ideals of R are {0} and R,then f is
injective. (In particular,if R is a division ring,then R satisfies this hypothesis.)
Proof. Let I = kerf,an ideal of R (see (2.2.3)). If I = R then f is identically zero,and is therefore
not a legal ring homomorphism since f(1R) = 1S ≠0S. Thus I = {0},so that f is injective.
If R is a division ring,then in fact R has no nontrivial left or right ideals. For suppose

that I is a left ideal of R and a ∈ I, a = 0. Since R is a division ring,there is an elementb ∈ R such

that ba = 1,and since I is a left ideal,we have 1 ∈ I,which implies that I = R. If I is a right ideal,we

choose the element b such that ab = 1.

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2.7 Isomorphism Theorems

Theorem (First Isomorphism Theorem) Let φ : R → S be a ring homomorphism. Then ker φ is

an ideal of R. If ψ : R → R/ kerφ is the canonical homomorphism, then there exists a unique
isomorphism η : R/ kerφ → φ(R) such that φ = ηψ.OR

If f : R → S is a ring morphism, then R/Kerf is isomorphic to Imf .

Proof. Let K = ker φ. By the First Isomorphism Theorem for groups, there exists a well-defined
group homomorphism η : R/K → ψ(R) defined by η(r+K) = ψ(r) for the additive abelian groups R
and R/K. To show that this is a ring homomorphism, we need only show that

η((r + K)(s + K)) =η(r + K)η(s + K); but

η((r + K)(s + K)) = η(rs + K)
= ψ(rs)
= ψ(r)ψ(s)
= η(r + K)η(s + K)

Example . Prove that Q[x]/(x2 − 2) ≌ Q(√2).

Solution. Consider the ring morphism ψ: Q[x] → R defined by ψ(f (x)) =f (√2) in . The kernel is
the set of polynomials containing x2 – 2 as a factor, that is, the principal ideal (x2 − 2). The image

of ψ is Q(√2) so by the morphism theorem for rings, Q[x]/(x2 − 2) ≌ Q(√2). In this isomorphism,

the element a0 + a1x ∈Q[x]/(x2 − 2) is mapped to a0 + a1√2 ∈Q(√2). Addition and

multiplication of the elements a0 + a1x and b0 + b1x in Q[x]/(x2 − 2) correspond to the addition
and multiplication of the real numbers a0 + a1√2 and b0 + b1√2.

Example . Prove that R[x]/(x2 + 1) ≌C.

Solution. Define the ring morphism ψ: R[x] → C by ψ(f (x)) = f (i), where
i = √−1. Any polynomial in Kerψ has i as a root, and therefore, by the above theorem, also has −i
as a root and contains the factor x2 + 1. Hence Kerψ =(x2 + 1).Now ψ(a + bx) = a + ib; thus ψ is

surjective. By the morphism theorem for rings, R[x]/(x2 + 1) ≌ C.

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Theorem (Second Isomorphism Theorem) Let I be a subring of a ring R and J an ideal of R.

Then I ∩ J is an ideal of I and I/I ∩ J ∼ = (I + J)/J.

Theorem( Third Isomorphism Theorem For Rings )

Let I and J be ideals of the ring R, with I ⊆ J. Then J/I is an ideal of R/I,and R/J ∼ = (R/I)/(J/I).
Proof. Define f : R/I → R/J by f(a + I) = a + J. To check that f is well-defined,suppose that

a + I = b + I. Then a − b ∈ I ⊆ J,so a + J = b + J. By definition of addition and multiplication of

cosets in a quotient ring, f is a ring homomorphism.

Now kerf = {a + I : a + J = J} = {a + I : a ∈ J} = J/I and imf = {a + J : a ∈ R} = R/J ⊂I.

Theorem (Correspondence Theorem For Rings )If I is an ideal of the ring R,then the map
S → S/I sets up a one-to-one correspondence between the set of all subrings of R containing
I and the set of all subrings of R/I,as well as a one-to-one correspondence between the set
of all ideals of R containing I and the set of all ideals of R/I. The inverse of the map is
Q → π−1(Q),where π is the canonical map: R → R/I.
Proof. The correspondence theorem for groups yields a one-to-one correspondence between
additive subgroups or R containing I and additive subgroups of R/I. We must check that subrings
correspond to subrings and ideals to ideals. If S is a subring of R then S/I is closed under
addition,subtraction and multiplication. For example,if s and s belong to S,

we have (s + I)(s + I) = ss + I ∈ S/I. Since 1R ∈ S we have 1R + I ∈ S/I,proving

that S/I is a subring of R/I. Conversely,if S/I is a subring of R/I,then S is closed under
addition,subtraction and multiplication,and contains the identity,hence is a subring or R.
For example,if s, s ∈ S then (s + I)(s + I) ∈ S/I,so that ss + I = t + I for some t ∈ S,
and therefore ss − t ∈ I. But I ⊆ S,so ss ∈ S.Now if J is an ideal of R containing I,then J/I is an
ideal of R/I by the third isomorphism theorem for rings. Conversely,let J/I be an ideal of R/I. If r
∈ R and x ∈ J then (r+I)(x+I) ∈ J/I,that is, rx+I ∈ J/I. Thus for some j ∈ J we have rx−j ∈ I ⊆ J,
so rx ∈ J. A similar argument shows that xr ∈ J,and that J is an additive subgroup of R.
It follows that J is an ideal of R.

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Exercises2. 2.1
1. Which of the following sets are rings with respect to the usual operations of
addition and multiplication? If the set is a ring?
(a) 7Z (b) Z18 (c) Q(√2 ) = {a + b√2 : a, b ∈ Q}
(d) Q(√2, √3 ) = {a + b√2 + c√3 + d√6 : a, b, c, d ∈ Q}
(e) Z[√3 ] = {a + b√3 : a, b ∈ Z}
(f) R = {a + b √3 : a, b ∈ Q}
(g) Z[i] = {a + bi : a, b ∈ Z and i2 = −1 }.
2. List or characterize all of the units in each of the following rings.
(a) Z10
(b) Z12
(c) Z7
(d) M2(Z), the 2 × 2 matrices with entries in Z
(e) M2(Z2), the 2 × 2 matrices with entries in Z2
3. Find all of the ideals in each of the following rings. Which of these ideals are
maximal and which are prime?
(a) Z18
(b) Z25
(c) M2(R), the 2 × 2 matrices with entries in R
(d) M2(Z), the 2 × 2 matrices with entries in Z
(e) Q
5. For each of the following rings R with ideal I, give an addition table and a
multiplication table for R/I.
(a) R = Z and I = 6Z
(b) R = Z12 and I = {0, 3, 6, 9}
4. Find all homomorphisms φ : Z/6Z → Z/15Z.
5. Prove that R is not isomorphic to C.
6. Prove or disprove: The ring Q(√2 ) = {a + b√2 : a, b ∈ Q} is isomorphic to the ring

7. Let a be any element in a ring R with identity. Show that (−1)a = −a.
8. Prove that (−a)(−b) = ab for any elements a and b in a ring R.

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9. Let φ : R → S be a ring homomorphism. Prove each of the following statements.

(a) If R is a commutative ring, then φ(R) is a commutative ring.
(b) φ(0) = 0.
(c) Let 1R and 1S be the identities for R and S, respectively. If φ is onto, then φ(1R) = 1S.
(d) If R is a field and φ(R) 6= 0, then φ(R) is a field.
10. Prove that the associative law for multiplication and the distributive laws hold in R/I.
11. Prove the Second Isomorphism Theorem for rings: Let I be a subring of a
ring R and J an ideal in R. Then I ∩ J is an ideal in I and I/I ∩ J ∼ = I + J/J.

12. Prove the Third Isomorphism Theorem for rings: Let R be a ring and I and J be ideals of R,
where J ⊂ I. Then R/I ∼ = R/J/I/J .
13. Prove the Correspondence Theorem: Let I be a ideal of a ring R. Then S →S/I is a one-to-one
correspondence between the set of subrings S containing I and the set of subrings of R/I.
Furthermore, the ideals of R correspond to ideals of R/I.
14. Let R be a ring and S a subset of R. Show that S is a subring of R if and
only if each of the following conditions is satisfied.
(a) S ≠ ∅.
(b) rs ∈ S for all r, s ∈ S.
(c) r − s ∈ S for all r, s ∈ S.
15. Let R be a ring with a collection of subrings {Rα}. Prove that ∩ Rα is a subring of R. Give an
example to show that the union of two subrings cannot be a subring.
16. Let {Iα}α∈A be a collection of ideals in a ring R. Prove that ∩α∈A Iα is also an ideal in R.
Give an example to show that if I1 and I2 are ideals in R, then I1 ∪ I2 may not be an ideal.
17. Let R be an integral domain. Show that if the only ideals in R are {0} and R itself, R must be
a field.
18. Let R be a commutative ring. An element a in R is nilpotent if an = 0 for some positive
integer n. Show that the set of all nilpotent elements forms an ideal in R.
19. A ring R is a Boolean ring if for every a ∈ R, a2 = a. Show that every Boolean ring is a
commutative ring.
20. Let R be a ring, where a3 = a for all a ∈ R. Prove that R must be a commutative ring.
21. Let R be a ring with identity 1R and S a subring of R with identity 1S.

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Prove or disprove that 1R = 1S.

22. If we do not require the identity of a ring to be distinct from 0, we will not have a very
interesting mathematical structure. Let R be a ring such that 1 = 0. Prove that R = {0}.
23. Let S be a subset of a ring R. Prove that there is a subring R0 of R that
contains S

24. Let R be a ring. Define the center of R to be Z(R) = {a ∈ R : ar = ra for all r ∈ R }.

Prove that Z(R) is a commutative subring of R.
25. Let p be prime. Prove that Z(p) = {a/b : a, b ∈ Z and gcd(b, p) = 1} is a ring. The ring Z(p) is
called the ring of integers localized at p.
26. Prove or disprove: Every finite integral domain is isomorphic to Zp.
27. Let R be a ring.
(a) Let u be a unit in R. Define a map iu : R → R by r → uru−1. Prove that iu is an automorphism
of R. Such an automorphism of R is called an inner automorphism of R. Denote the set of all
inner automorphisms of R by Inn(R).
(b) Denote the set of all automorphisms of R by Aut(R). Prove that Inn(R) is a normal subgroup
of Aut(R).
(c) Let U(R) be the group of units in R. Prove that the map φ : U(R) → Inn(R) defined by u → iu
is a homomorphism. Determine the kernel of φ.
(d) Compute Aut(Z), Inn(Z), and U(Z).
28. Let R and S be arbitrary rings. Show that their Cartesian product is a ring
if we define addition and multiplication in R × S by
(a) (r, s) + (r0, s0) = (r + r0, s + s0)
(b) (r, s)(r0, s0) = (rr0, ss0)
29. An element a in a ring is called an idempotent if x2 = x. Prove that the only idempotents in
an integral domain are 0 and 1. Find a ring with a idempotent x not equal to 0 or 1.
30. Let gcd(a, n) = d and gcd(b, d) = 1. Prove that ax ≡ b (mod n) does not have a solution

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2.8.Polynomial Rings

Throughout this chapter we shall assume that R is a commutative ring with identity. Any
expression of the form f(x) =∑ = a0 + a1x + a2x2 + · · · + anxn,
where ai ∈ R and an ≠0, is called a polynomial over R with indeterminate x. The elements

a0, a1, . . . , an are called the coefficients of f. The coefficient an is called the leading coefficient.
A polynomial is called monic if the leading coefficient is 1. If n is the largest nonnegative
number for which an ≠0, we say that the degree of f is n and write deg f(x) = n.
If no such n exists—that is, if f = 0 is the zero polynomial—then the degree of f is defined to be
−∞. We will denote the set of all polynomials with coefficients in a ring R by R[x].

Two polynomials are equal exactly when

their corresponding coefficients are equal; that is, if we let
p(x) = a0 + a1x + · · · + anxn
q(x) = b0 + b1x + · · · + bmxm,then p(x) = q(x) if and only if ai = bi for all i ≥ 0.
To show that the set of all polynomials forms a ring, we must first define addition and
multiplication. We define the sum of two polynomials as follows. Let

p(x) = a0 + a1x + · · · + anxn

q(x) = b0 + b1x + · · · + bmxm
Then the sum of p(x) and q(x) is p(x) + q(x) = c0 + c1x + · · · + ckxk,
where ci = ai + bi for each i. We define the product of p(x) and q(x) to be
p(x)q(x) = c0 + c1x + · · · + cm+n xm+n ,
where ci = ∑ = a0bi + a1bi−1 + · · · + ai−1b1 + aib0 for each i. Notice that in each case
some of the coefficients may be zero.

Example 1. Suppose that

p(x) = 3 + 0x + 0x2 + 2x3 + 0x4
and q(x) = 2 + 0x − x2 + 0x3 + 4x4
are polynomials in Z[x]. If the coefficient of some term in a polynomial is zero, then we usually
just omit that term. In this case we would write
p(x) = 3 + 2x3 and q(x) = 2 − x2 + 4x4. The sum of these two polynomials is

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p(x) + q(x) = 5 − x2 + 2x3 + 4x4.

The product,
p(x)q(x) = (3 + 2x3)(2 − x2 + 4x4) = 6 − 3x2 + 4x3 + 12x4 − 2x5 + 8x7, can be calculated
either by determining the ci’s in the definition or by simply multiplying polynomials in the same
way as we have always done.

Example 2. Let
p(x) = 3 + 3x3
and q(x) = 4 + 4x2 + 4x4
be polynomials in Z12[x]. The sum of p(x) and q(x) is 7 + 4x2 + 3x3 + 4x4.
The product of the two polynomials is the zero polynomial. This example
tells us that R[x] cannot be an integral domain if R is not an integral domain.

Theorem 15.1 Let R be a commutative ring with identity. Then R[x] is a commutative ring with
identity.
Proof. Our first task is to show that R[x] is an abelian group under polynomial addition. The zero
polynomial, f(x) = 0, is the additive identity.
Given a, polynomial p(x) =∑ the inverse of p(x) is easily verified to be

-p(x) =∑ (− ) . =-∑

Commutativity and associativity follow immediately from the definition of polynomial addition
and from the fact that addition in R is both commutative and associative.

Proposition Let p(x) and q(x) be polynomials in R[x], where R is an integral domain.

Then deg p(x) + deg q(x) = deg(p(x)q(x)). Furthermore, R[x] is an integral domain

Proof. Suppose that we have two nonzero polynomials

p(x) = amxm + · · · + a1x + a0
and q(x) = bnxn + · · · + b1x + b0
with am ≠0 and bn ≠0. The degrees of p and q are m and n, respectively.The leading term of
p(x)q(x) is ambnxm+n, which cannot be zero since R is an integral domain; hence, the degree of
p(x)q(x) is m+n, and p(x)q(x) ≠0.
Since p(x) ≠0 and q(x) ≠0 imply that p(x)q(x) ≠0, we know that R[x] must also be an integral
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domain. We also want to consider polynomials in two or more variables, such as x2 − 3xy + 2y3.
Let R be a ring and suppose that we are given two indeterminates x and y. Certainly we can form
the ring (R[x])[y]. It is
straightforward but perhaps tedious to show that (R[x])[y] ≌ R([y])[x]. We shall identify these
two rings by this isomorphism and simply write R[x, y].
The ring R[x, y] is called the ring of polynomials in two indeterminates x and y with coefficients
in R. We can define the ring of polynomials in n indeterminates with coefficients in R similarly.
We shall denote this ring by R[x1, x2, . . . , xn].

2.9.Roots of polynomials, factorization of polynomials

2.9.1.EUCLIDEAN RINGS
Long division of integers gives a method for dividing one integer by another to
obtain a quotient and a remainder. The fact that this is always possible is stated
formally in the division algorithm.
Theorem Division Algorithm for Integers. If a and b are integers and b is nonzero, then there
exist unique integers q and r such that a = qb + r and 0 r < |b|.
Proof. If b > 0, then |b| = b, If b <0, then −b > 0, so the same theorem gives a = q(−b) + r, where
0≤ r < (−b). Since |b| = −b in this case, this gives a = (−q)b + r, where 0 ≤ r < |b|.

The integer r is called the remainder in the division of a by b, and q is called the quotient.
What other rings, besides the integers, have a division algorithm? In a field, we can always
divide any element exactly by a nonzero element. If a ring contains zero divisors,the cancellation
property does not hold, and we cannot expect to obtain a unique quotient. This leaves integral
domains, and the following kinds contain a useful generalization of the division algorithm.
An integral domain R is called a euclidean ring if for each nonzero element a ∈ R, there exists a
nonnegative integer δ(a) such that:
(i) If a and b are nonzero elements of R, then δ(a)≤δ(ab).
(ii) For every pair of elements a,b ∈ R with b≠0, there exist elements q,r ∈ R such that
a = qb + r where r = 0 or δ(r) < δ(b). (division algorithm)
The above theorem shows that the ring Z of integers is a Euclidean ring if we take δ(b) = |b|, the

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absolute value of b, for all b ∈ Z. A field is trivially a Euclidean ring when δ(a) = 1 for all
nonzero elements a of the field. We now show that the ring of polynomials, with coefficients in a
field, is a Euclidean ring when we take δ(g(x)) to be the degree of the polynomial g(x).

Theorem Division Algorithm for Polynomials. Let f(x), g(x) be elements of the polynomial
ring F[x], with coefficients in the field F. If g(x) is not the zero polynomial, there exist unique
polynomials q(x),r(x) ∈ F[x] such that f(x) = q(x) · g(x) + r(x)
where either r(x) is the zero polynomial or deg r(x) < deg g(x).
Proof. If f(x) is the zero polynomial or deg f(x) < deg g(x), then writing f(x) = 0 · g(x) + f(x), we
see that the requirements of the algorithm are fulfilled.If deg f(x) = deg g(x) = 0, then f(x) and
g(x) are nonzero constant polynomials a0 and b0, respectively. Now f(x) = (a0b0 −1)g(x), and the
algorithm holds.We prove the other cases by induction on the degree of f(x). Suppose that,
when we divide by a fixed polynomial g(x), the division algorithm holds for polynomials of
degree less than n. Let f(x) = a0 + · · · + anxn and

g(x) = b0 +· · · + bmxm where an ≠0,bm ≠ 0. If n < m, we have already

shown that the algorithm holds.
Suppose that n≥ m and put f1(x) = f(x) − anbm −1 xn−mg(x).

so that deg f1(x) < n. By the induction hypothesis f1(x) = q1(x) · g(x) + r(x) where either r(x) = 0
or deg r(x) < deg g(x).
Hence f (x) = anbm −1xn−mg(x) + f1(x) = {anbm −1xn−m + q1(x)} · g(x) + r(x),
which is a representation of the required form. The algorithm now follows by induction, starting
with n = m − 1 if m ≠ 0, or with n = 0 if m = 0.
The uniqueness of the quotient, g(x), and of the remainder, r(x), follows in a similar way to the
uniqueness of the quotient and remainder in the division algorithm for integers .
The quotient and remainder polynomials can be calculated by long division
of polynomials.

Example 2.9.3. Divide x3 + 2x2 + x + 2 by x2 + 2 in Z3[x].

Solution. Write Z3 = {0,1,2} for convenience.
x+2
x + 2 ∕ x3+2x2+ x+2
2

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x3 +2x
2x2+2x+2
2x2 +1
2x+1
Hence x3 + 2x2 + x + 2 = (x + 2)(x
)(x2 + 2) + (2x + 1).
If we divide by a polynomial of degree 1, the remainder must be a constant.
This constant can be found as follows.

er Theorem. The remainder when the polynomial f (x)

Theorem . Remainder
is divided by (x − α) in F[x] is f (α).
(α)
Proof. By the division algorithm, there exist q(x), r(x) ∈ F[x] with

f (x) =q(x)(x − α) + r(x), where r(x) = 0 or deg r(x) < 1. The remainder is therefore
a constant r0 ∈ F and f (x) = q(x)(x − α) + r0. Substituting α for x, we obtain
the result f (α) = r0.
Theorem. Factor Theorem The polynomial (x − α) is a factor of f (x) in F[x]] ifff (α) = 0.
Proof. We can write f (x) = q(x)(x − α) for some q(x) ∈ F[x] if and only
if f (x) has remainder 0 when divided by (x − α). By the remainder theorem,
this happens if and only if f (α) = 0.

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An element α is called a root of a polynomial f (x) if f (α) = 0. The factor theorem shows that

(x − α) is a factor of f (x) if and only if α is a root of f (x).

Theorem . A polynomial of degree n over a field F has at most n roots in F.

Proof. We prove the theorem by induction on the degree n. A polynomial of degree 0 consists of
only a nonzero constant and therefore has no roots. Assume that the theorem is true for
polynomials of degree n − 1 and let f (x) ∈ F[x] be a polynomial of degree n. If f (x) has no roots,
the theorem holds. If f (x) does have roots, let α be one such root. By the factor theorem, we can
write f (x) = (x − α)g(x),by a theorem deg g(x) = n − 1.Since the field F has no zero divisors,

f (β) = 0 if and only if (β − α) = 0 or g(β) = 0. Therefore, any root of f (x) is either equal to α or is
a root of g(x).By the induction hypothesis, g(x) has, at most, n − 1 roots, so f (x) has, at most,n
roots.

2.9.2. EUCLIDEAN ALGORITHM

The division algorithm allows us to generalize the concepts of divisors and greatest common
divisors to any euclidean ring. Furthermore, we can produce a euclidean algorithm that will
enable us to calculate greatest common divisors.If a, b, q are three elements in an integral
domain such that a = qb, we say that b divides a or that b is a factor of a and write b|a. For
example, (2 + i)/(7 + i) in the gaussian integers, Z[i], because 7 + i = (3 − i)(2 + i).

Proposition Let a, b, c be elements in an integral domain R.

(i) If a|b and a|c, then a|(b + c).
(ii) If a|b, then a|br for any r ∈ R.
(iii) If a|b and b|c, then a|c.
Proof. These results follow immediately from the definition of divisibility. By analogy with Z, if
a and b are elements in an integral domain R, then the element g ∈ R is called a greatest
common divisor of a and b, and is written g = gcd(a, b), if the following hold:
(i) g|a and g|b.
(ii) If c|a and c|b, then c|g.
The element l ∈ R is called a least common multiple of a and b, and is written l = lcm(a, b),

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if the following hold:

(i) a|l and b|l.
(ii) If a|k and b|k, then l|k.
For example, 4 and −4 are greatest common divisors, and 60 and −60 are least common
multiples, of 12 and 20 in Z. Note that in Z it is customary to choose the positive value in each
case to make it unique .

Theorem Let R be a euclidean ring. Any two elements a and b in R have a greatest common
divisor g. Moreover, there exist s, t ∈ R such that g = sa + tb.
Proof. If a and b are both zero, their greatest common divisor is zero, because r|0 for any r ∈ R.

Suppose that at least one of a and b is nonzero. By the well-ordering axiom,let g be a nonzero
element for which δ(g) is minimal in the set I = {xa + yb: x, y ∈ R}. We can write g = sa + tb for
some s, t ∈ R.Since R is a euclidean ring, a = hg + r, where r = 0 or δ(r) < δ(g).

Therefore, r = a − hg = a − h(sa + tb) = (1 − hs)a − htb ∈ I. Since g was an element for which
δ(g) was minimal in I, it follows that r must be zero, and g|a. Similarly, g|b.
If c|a and c|b, so that a = kc and b = lc, then g = sa + tb = skc + tlc =(sk + tl)c and c|g. Therefore,
g = gcd(a, b). The above theorem shows that greatest common divisors exist in any euclidean
ring,but does not give a method for finding them. In fact, they can be computed using
the following general euclidean algorithm.

Theorem . Euclidean Algorithm. Let a, b be elements of a euclidean ringR and let b be

nonzero. By repeated use of the division algorithm, we can write
a = bq1 + r1 where δ(r1) < δ(b)
b = r1q2 + r2 where δ(r2) < δ(r1)
r1 = r2q3 + r3 where δ(r3) < δ(r2)
...
...
rk−2 = rk−1qk + rk where δ(rk) < δ(rk−1)
rk−1 = rkqk+1 + 0.
If r1 = 0, then b = gcd(a, b); otherwise, rk = gcd(a, b).
Furthermore, elements s, t ∈ R such that gcd(a, b) = sa + tb can be found by starting with the

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equation rk = rk−2 − rk−1 qk and successively working up the sequence of equations above, each
time replacing ri in terms of ri−1 and ri−2.
Proof. This algorithm must terminate, because δ(b), δ(r1), δ(r2), . . . is a decreasing sequence of
nonnegative integers; thus, rk+1 = 0 for some k + 1. The proof of the algorithm follows as in the
above theorem.

Example . Find the greatest common divisor of 713 and 253 in Z and find two integers s and t
such that 713s + 253t = gcd(713, 253).
Solution. By the division algorithm, we have
(i) 713 = 2 · 253 + 207 a = 713, b = 253, r1 = 207
(ii) 253 = 1 · 207 + 46 r2 = 46
(iii) 207 = 4 · 46 + 23 r3 = 23
46 = 2 · 23 + 0. r4 = 0
The last nonzero remainder is the greatest common divisor. Hence gcd(713, 253) = 23.
We can find the integers s and t by using equations (i)–(iii). We have 23 = 207 − 4 · 46 from
equation (iii)
= 207 − 4(253 − 207) from equation (ii)
= 5 · 207 − 4 · 253
= 5 · (713 − 2 · 253) − 4 · 253 from equation (i)
= 5 · 713 − 14 · 253.
Therefore, s = 5 and t = −14.

Example. Find a greatest common divisor, g(x), of a(x) = 2x4 + 2 and

b(x) = x5 + 2 in Z3[x], and find s(x), t(x) ∈ Z3[x], so that g(x) = s(x) · (2x4 + 2) + t(x) · (x5 + 2).
Solution. By repeated use of the division algorithm (see below), we have:
(i) x5 + 2 = (2x)(2x4 + 2) + (2x + 2).
(ii) 2x4 + 2 = (x3 + 2x2 + x + 2)(2x + 2) + 1.
(iii) 2x + 2 = (2x + 2) · 1 + 0.
Hence gcd(a(x), b(x)) = 1. From equation (ii) we have 1 = 2x4 + 2 − (x3 + 2x2 + x + 2)(2x + 2)
= 2x4 + 2 − (x3 + 2x2 + x + 2){x5 + 2 − (2x)(2x4 + 2)}
from equation (i)
= (2x4 + x3 + 2x2 + x + 1)(2x4 + 2) + (2x3 + x2 + 2x + 1)(x5 + 2).

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Therefore, s(x) = 2x4 + x3 + 2x2 + x + 1

and t(x) = 2x3 + x2 + 2x + 1.

Example . Find a greatest common divisor of a(x) = x4 + x3 + 3x − 9 and

b(x) = 2x3 − x2 + 6x − 3 in Q[x].
Solution. By the division algorithm we have (computation below)
a(x) = [ (1 /2)x + 3/ 4 ] b(x) – (9 /4)x2 – 27/ 4
and
b(x) =[ − (8/ 9)x + 4 /9 ] [− (9/ 4)x2 − 27 /4] .
Hence gcd(a(x), b(x)) = −( 9 /4)x2 – 27/ 4 .

2.9.3.UNIQUE FACTORIZATION(UF)
One important property of the integers, commonly known as the fundamental theorem of
arithmetic, states that every integer greater than 1 can be written as a finite product of prime
numbers, and furthermore, this product is unique up to the ordering of the primes. In this section,
we prove a similar result for any Euclidean ring.
Let R be a commutative ring. An element u is called an invertible element(or unit) of R if there
exists an element v ∈ R such that uv = 1. The invertible elements in a ring R are those elements
with multiplicative inverses in R. Denote the set of invertible elements of R by R*. If R is a field,
every nonzero element is invertible and R* = R − {0}.
The invertible elements in the integers are ±1. If F is a field, the invertible polynomials in F [x]
are the nonzero constant polynomials, that is, the polynomials of degree 0. The set of invertible
elements in the gaussian integers is Z[i]* = {±1, ±i}.

Proposition For any commutative ring R, the invertible elements form an abelian group, (R*, ·),
under multiplication.
Proof. Let u1, u2 ∈ R* and let u1v1 = u2v2 = 1. Then (u1u2)(v1v2) = 1; thus u1u2 ∈ R*. The group
axioms follow immediately. Two elements in a Euclidean ring may have many greatest common
divisors.For example, in Q[x], x + 1, 2x + 2, and 1/ 3x + 1/ 3 are all greatest common divisors
of x2 + 2x + 1 and x2 − 1. However, they can all be obtained from one another by multiplying by
invertible elements.

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Lemma . If a|b and b|a in an integral domain R, then a = ub, where u is an invertible element.
Proof. Since a|b, b = va for v ∈ R so if a = 0, then b = 0 and a = b. If a ≠0, then a = ub for u ∈ R
since b|a. Therefore, a = ub = uva; thus a(uv − 1) = 0. As a ≠ 0 and R has no zero divisors, uv = 1
and u is invertible.
Lemma. If g2 is a greatest common divisor of a and b in the Euclidean ring R, then g1 is also a
greatest common divisor of a and b if and only if g1 = ug2,where u is invertible.
Proof. If g1 = ug2 where uv = 1, then g2 = vg1. Hence g2|g1 and g1|g2 if and only if g1 = ug2. The
result now follows from the definition of a greatest common divisor.
Lemma. If a and b are elements in a Euclidean ring R, then δ(a) = δ(ab) if and only if b is
invertible. Otherwise, δ(a) < δ(ab).
Proof. If b is invertible and bc = 1, then δ(a) ≤ δ(ab)≤ δ(abc) = δ(a).
Hence δ(a) = δ(ab).
If b is not invertible, ab does not divide a and a = qab + r, where δ(r) <δ(ab). Now r = a(1 − qb);
thus δ(a)≤ δ(r). Therefore, δ(a) < δ(ab).

A noninvertible element p in a Euclidean ring R is said to be irreducible if,whenever p = ab,

either a or b is invertible in R. The irreducible elements in the integers are the prime numbers
together with their negatives.

Proposition. If p is irreducible in the Euclidean ring R and p|ab, then p|a or p|b.
Proof. For any a ∈ R, write d = gcd(a, p). Then d|p, say p = d · h. Since p is irreducible, either d
or h is invertible, and so either d = 1 or p. Hence if p does not divide a, then d = 1, and it follows
from the above Lemma that p|b.

Theorem. Unique Factorization Theorem. Every nonzero element in a Euclidean ring R is

either an invertible element or can be written as the product of a finite number of irreducibles. In
such a product, the irreducibles are uniquely determined up to the order of the factors and up to
multiplication by invertible elements.
Proof. We proceed by induction on δ(a) for a ∈ R. The least value of δ(a) for nonzero a is δ(1),
because 1 divides any other element. Suppose that δ(a) = δ(1).Then δ(1 · a) = δ(1) and, by the
above Lemma, a is invertible.By the induction hypothesis, suppose that all elements x ∈ R, with
δ(x) <δ(a), are either invertible or can be written as a product of irreducibles. We now prove this
for the element a.If a is irreducible, there is nothing to prove. If not, we can write a = bc,
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where neither b nor c is invertible. By Lemma 9.17, δ(b) < δ(bc) = δ(a) and
δ(c) < δ(bc) = δ(a). By the induction hypothesis, b and c can each be written as a product of
irreducibles, and hence a can also be written as a product of irreducibles.
To prove the uniqueness, suppose that a = p1p2 · · · pn = q1q2 · · · qm, where each pi and qj is
irreducible. Now p1|a and so p1|q1q2 · · · qm. By an extension of the above proposition to m
factors, p1 divides some qi. Rearrange the qi,if necessary, so that p1|q1. Therefore, q1 = u1p1 where
u1 is invertible, because p1 and q1 are both irreducible.Now a = p1p2 · · · pn = u1p1q2 · · · qm; thus
p2 · · · pn = u1q2 · · · qm. Proceed inductively to show that pi = uiqi for all i, where each ui is
invertible. If m < n, we would obtain the relation pm+1 · · · pn = u1u2 · · · um, which is
impossible because irreducibles cannot divide an invertible element. If m > n,we would obtain
1 = u1u2 · · · unqn+1 · · · qm,
which is again impossible because an irreducible cannot divide 1. Hence m = n, and the primes
p1, p2, . . . , pn are the same as q1, q2, . . . , qm up to a rearrangement and up to multiplication by
invertible elements

2.10.ED, UFD and PID

i.Euclidean domain (ED)

Definition Let R be an integral domain. R is said to be a Euclidean domain (ED)
if there is a function Ψ from R \ {0} to the nonnegative integers satisfying the following
property:
If a and b are elements of R,with b = 0,then a can be expressed as bq +r where either
r = 0 or Ψ(r) < Ψ(b).
We can replace“r = 0 or Ψ(r) < Ψ(b)” by simply “Ψ(r) < Ψ(b)” if we define Ψ(0) to
be −∞.
In any Euclidean domain,we may use the Euclidean algorithm to find the greatest
common divisor of two elements; see the Problems in Section 2.5 for a discussion of the
procedure in Z and in F[X],where F is a field.
A Euclidean domain is automatically a principal ideal domain,as we now prove.
2.7.4 Theorem If R is a Euclidean domain,then R is a principal ideal domain. For short,
ED implies PID.

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Proof. Let I be an ideal of R. If I = {0} then I is principal,so assume I = {0}. Then

{Ψ(b) : b ∈ I, b = 0} is a nonempty set of nonnegative integers,and therefore has a smallest

element n. Let b be any element of I such that Ψ(b) = n; we claim that I =< b >. For if

a belongs to I then we have a = bq + r where r = 0 or Ψ(r) < Ψ(b). Now r = a − bq ∈ I

(because a and b belong to I),so if r = 0 then Ψ(r) < Ψ(b) is impossible by minimality of
Ψ(b). Thus b is a generator of I. ♣
The most familiar Euclidean domains are Z and F[X],with F a field. We now examine
some less familiar cases.

ii.Unique factorization domain (UFD)

Definition A unique factorization domain (UFD) is an integral domain R satisfying the
following properties:
(UF1) Every nonzero element a in R can be expressed as a = up1 · · ·pn,where u is a unit
and the pi are irreducible.
(UF2): If a has another factorization,say a = vq1 · · ·qm,where v is a unit and the qi are
irreducible,then n = m and,after reordering if necessary, pi and qi are associates for each
i.
Property UF1 asserts the existence of a factorization into irreducibles,and UF2 asserts
uniqueness.
Proposition In a unique factorization domain, a is irreducible if and only if a is
prime.
Proof. prime implies irreducible,so assume a irreducible,and let a divide bc.

Then we have ad = bc for some d ∈ R. We factor d, b and c into irreducibles to obtain

aud1 · · ·dr = vb1 · · ·bswc1 · · · ct

where u, v and w are units and the di, bi and ci are irreducible. By uniqueness of factorization,
a,which is irreducible,must be an associate of some bi or ci. Thus a divides b or a divides c. ♣
Theorem Let R be an integral domain. Then:
(1) If R is a UFD then R satisfies the ascending chain condition (acc) on principal ideals,

in other words,if a1, a2, . . . belong to R and < a1 >⊆< a2 >⊆ . . .,then the sequence

eventually stabilizes,that is,for some n we have < an >=< an+1 >=< an+2 >= . . ..

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(2) If R satisfies the ascending chain condition on principal ideals,then R satisfies UF1,
that is,every nonzero element of R can be factored into irreducibles.
(3) If R satisfies UF1 and in addition,every irreducible element of R is prime,then R is a UFD.
Thus R is a UFD if and only if R satisfies the ascending chain condition on principal ideals
and every irreducible element of R is prime.
Proof.

(1) If < a1 >⊆< a2 >⊆ . . . then ai+1|ai for all i. Therefore the prime factors of ai+1

consist of some (or all) of the prime factors of ai. Multiplicity is taken into account here;

for example,if p3 is a factor of ai,then pk will be a factor of ai+1 for some k ∈ {0, 1, 2, 3}.

Since a1 has only finitely many prime factors,there will come a time when the prime factors
are the same from that point on,that is, < an >=< an+1 >= . . ..
(2) Let a1 be any nonzero element. If a1 is irreducible,we are finished,so let a1 = a2b2
where neither a2 nor b2 is a unit. If both a2 and b2 are irreducible,we are finished,so
we can assume that one of them,say a2,is not irreducible. Since a2 divides a1 we have

< a1 >⊆< a2 >,and in fact the inclusion is proper because a2 ∉ < a1 >. (If a2 = ca1 then

a1 = a2b2 = ca1b2,so b2 is a unit,a contradiction.) Continuing,we have a2 = a3b3 where

neither a3 nor b3 is a unit,and if,say, a3 is not irreducible,we find that < a2 >⊂< a3 >.
If a1 cannot be factored into irreducibles,we obtain,by an inductive argument,a strictly
increasing chain < a1 >⊂< a2 >⊂. . . of principal ideals.
(3) Suppose that a = up1p2 · · ·pn = vq1q2 · · ·qm where the pi and qi are irreducible and
u and v are units. Then p1 is a prime divisor of vq1 · · ·qm,so p1 divides one of the qi,
say q1. But q1 is irreducible,and therefore p1 and q1 are associates. Thus we have,up
to multiplication by units, p2 . . . pn = q2 · · ·qm. By an inductive argument,we must have
m = n,and after reordering, pi and qi are associates for each i. ♣
We now give a basic sufficient condition for an integral domain to be a UFD.

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iii. principal ideal domain (PID)

Definition A principal ideal domain (PID) is an integral domain in which every ideal is
principal,that is,generated by a single element.
Theorem Every principal ideal domain is a unique factorization domain. For short,
PID implies UFD.

Proof. If< a1 >⊆< a2 >⊆ . . .,let I = ∪i < ai >. Then I is an ideal, necessarily principal

by hypothesis. If I =< b > then b belongs to some < an >,so I ⊆< an >. Thus if i ≥ n

we have < ai >⊆ I ⊆< an >⊆< ai >. Therefore < ai >=< an > for all i ≥ n,so that R

satisfies the acc on principal ideals.

Now suppose that a is irreducible. Then < a > is a proper ideal, for if < a >= R

then 1 ∈< a >,so that a is a unit. By the acc on principal ideals, < a > is contained in

a maximal ideal I. (Note that we need not appeal to the general result above which uses
Zorn’s lemma.) If I =< b > then b divides the irreducible element a,and b is not a unit
since I is proper. Thus a and b are associates,so < a >=< b >= I. But I,a maximal ideal,
is prime hence a is prime. The result follows from ♣
The following result gives a criterion for a UFD to be a PID. (Terminology: the zero
ideal is {0}; a nonzero ideal is one that is not {0}.)

Theorem R is a PID iff R is a UFD and every nonzero prime ideal of R is maximal.
Proof. Assume R is a PID; then R is a UFD by .If < p > is a nonzero prime idealof R,then < p >
is contained in the maximal ideal < q >,so that q divides the prime p.Since a maximal ideal must
be proper, q cannot be a unit,so that p and q are associates.But then < p >=< q > and < p > is
maximal.The proof of the converse is given in the exercises. ♣

Example Let Z[√d] be the ring of all elements a + b√d,where a, b ∈ Z.

If d =−2, −1, 2 or 3,we claim that Z[√d] is a Euclidean domain with

Ψ(a + b√d) = |a2 − db2|.

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Since the a + b√d are real or complex numbers,there are no zero divisors,and Z[√d] is an

integral domain. Let α, β ∈ Z[√d], β = 0,and divide α by β to get x+y√d. Unfortunately,

x and y need not be integers,but at least they are rational numbers. We can find integers
reasonably close to x and y; let x0 and y0 be integers such that |x − x0| and |y − y0| are at
most 1/2. Let
q = x0 + y0√d, r = β((x − x0) + (y − y0)√d); then βq + r = β(x + y√d) = α.
We must show that Ψ(r) < Ψ(β). Now
Ψ(a + b√d) = |(a + b√d)(a − b√d)|,
and it follows that for all γ, δ ∈Z[√d] we have Ψ(γδ) = Ψ(γ)Ψ(δ).
(When d = −1,this says that the magnitude of the product of two complex numbers is the
product of the magnitudes.) Thus Ψ(r) = Ψ(β)[(x − x0)2 − d(y − y0)2],and the factor in
brackets is at most 1/4 + |d|(1/ 4) ≤ 1/ 4 + 3/ 4 = 1. The only possibility for equality occurs when
d = 3 (d = −3 is excluded by hypothesis) and |x − x0| = |y − y0| = 1/ 2. But in this case,the
factor in brackets is |1/ 4 − 3(1/ 4)| = 1/ 2 < 1. We have shown that Ψ(r) < Ψ(β),so that Z[√d]
is a Euclidean domain.
When d = −1,we obtain the Gaussian integers a + bi, a, b ∈Z, i = √−1.

Activities2.10.1
1. Let A = {a1, . . . , an} be a finite subset of the PID R. Show that m is a least common
multiple of A iff m is a generator of the ideal ⋂ < >.
2. Find the gcd of 11 + 3i and 8 − i in the ring of Gaussian integers.
3. Suppose that R is a Euclidean domain in which Ψ(a) ≤ Ψ(ab) for all nonzero elements

a, b ∈ R. Show that Ψ(a) ≥ Ψ(1),with equality if and only if a is a unit in R.

4. Let R = Z[√d],where d is any integer,and define Ψ(a + b√d) = |a2 − db2|. Show
that for all nonzero α and β, Ψ(αβ) = Ψ(α)Ψ(β),and if d is not a perfect square,thenΨ(α) ≤ Ψ(αβ).
5. Let R = Z[√d] where d is not a perfect square. Show that 2 is not prime in R. (Show
that 2 divides d2 − d.)
6. If d is a negative integer with d ≤ −3,show that 2 is irreducible in Z[√d].
7. Let R = Z[√d] where d is a negative integer. We know (see (2.7.5)) that R is an ED,
hence a PID and a UFD,for d = −1 and d = −2. Show that for d ≤ −3, R is not a UFD.

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Exercise 2.10
The problems in this section form a project designed to prove that if R is a UFD and
every nonzero prime ideal of R is maximal,then R is a PID.
1. Let I be an ideal of R; since {0} is principal,we can assume that I = {0}. Since R is a
UFD,every nonzero element of I can be written as up1 · · ·pt where u is a unit and the pi
are irreducible,hence prime. Let r = r(I) be the minimum such t. We are going to prove
by induction on r that I is principal.If r = 0,show that I =< 1 >= R.

2. If the result holds for all r < n,let r = n,with up1 · · ·pn ∈ I,hence p1 · · ·pn ∈ I.

Since p1 is prime, < p1 > is a prime ideal,necessarily maximal by hypothesis. By (2.4.3),

R/ < p > is a field. If b belongs to I but not to < p1 >,show that for some c ∈ R we have

bc − 1 ∈< p1 >.

3. By Problem 2, bc − dp1 = 1 for some d ∈ R. Show that this implies that p2 · · ·pn ∈ I,

which contradicts the minimality of n. Thus if b belongs to I,it must also belong to < p1 >,

that is, I ⊆< p1 >.

4. Define J = {x ∈ R : xp1 ∈I},and show that J is an ideal.

5. Show that Jp1 = I.

6. Since p1 · · ·pn = (p2 · · ·pn)p1 ∈I,we have p2 · · ·pn ∈J. Use the induction hypothesis to
conclude that I is principal.
7. Let p and q be prime elements in the integral domain R,and let P =< p > and
Q =< q > be the corresponding prime ideals. Show that it is not possible for P to be aproper
subset of Q.
8. If R is a UFD and P is a nonzero prime ideal of R,show that P contains a nonzero
principal prime ideal.

IV. FACTORING REAL AND COMPLEX POLYNOMIALS

A polynomial f (x) of positive degree is said to be reducible over the field F if it can be
factored into two polynomials of positive degree in F[x]. If it cannot be so factored, f (x) is called
irreducible over F, and f (x) is an irreducible element of the ring F[x]. It is important to note that
reducibility depends on the field F. The polynomial x2 + 1 is irreducible over R but reducible
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over C.The following basic theorem, first proved by Gauss in his doctoral thesis in 1799, enables
us to determine which polynomials are irreducible in C[x] and inR[x].

Example . The polynomial x2 − 2 ∈ Q[x] is irreducible since it cannot be

factored any further over the rational numbers.

Example . The polynomial p(x) = x3 + x2 + 2 is irreducible over Z3[x].Suppose that this
polynomial was reducible over Z3[x]. By the division algorithm there would have to be a factor
of the form x − a, where a is some element in Z3[x]. Hence, it would have to be true that

p(a) = 0. However, p(0) = 2

p(1) = 1 p(2) = 2.
Therefore, p(x) has no zeros in Z3 and must be irreducible.

Theorem. Let p(x) = xn + an−1 xn−1 +· · · + a0 be a polynomial with coefficients in Z and a0 ≠0. If
p(x) has a zero in Q, then p(x) also has a zero α in Z. Furthermore, α divides a0.

Proof. Let p(x) have a zero a ∈ Q. Then p(x) must have a linear factor x − a. By Gauss’s Lemma,

p(x) has a factorization with a linear factor in Z[x]. Hence, for some α ∈ Z

p(x) = (x − α)(xn−1 + · · · − a0/α).Thus a0/α ∈ Z and so α | a0

Example . Let p(x) = x4 − 2x3 + x + 1. We shall show that p(x) is irreducible over Q[x]. Assume
that p(x) is reducible. Then either p(x) has a linear factor, say p(x) = (x − α)q(x), where q(x) is a
polynomial of degree three, or p(x) has two quadratic factors.
If p(x) has a linear factor in Q[x], then it has a zero in Z. any zero must divide 1 and therefore
must be ±1; however, p(1) = 1 and p(−1) = 3. Consequently, we have eliminated the possibility
that p(x) has any linear factors.Therefore, if p(x) is reducible it must factor into two quadratic
polynomials, say p(x) = (x2 + ax + b)(x2 + cx + d)
= x4 + (a + c)x3 + (ac + b + d)x2 + (ad + bc)x + bd,

where each factor is in Z[x] by Gauss’s Lemma. Hence

a + c = −2
ac + b + d = 0
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ad + bc = 1
bd = 1.
Since bd = 1, either b = d = 1 or b = d = −1. In either case b = d and so
ad + bc = b(a + c) = 1.
Since a + c = −2, we know that −2b = 1. This is impossible since b is an
integer. Therefore, p(x) must be irreducible over Q.

Theorem (Eisenstein’s Criterion) Let p be a prime and suppose

that f(x) = anxn + · · · + a0 ∈ Z[x].If p | ai for i = 0, 1, . . . , an−1, but p†an and p2†a0, then f(x) is

irreducible over Q.
Proof. By Gauss’s Lemma, we need only show that f(x) does not factor into polynomials of
lower degree in Z[x]. Let
f(x) = (brxr + · · · + b0)(csxs + · · · + c0)
be a factorization in Z[x], with br and cs not equal to zero and r, s < n.
Since p2 does not divide a0 = b0c0, either b0 or c0 is not divisible by p.Suppose that p† b0 and

p | c0. Since p†an and an = brcs, neither br nor cs is divisible by p. Let m be the smallest value of
k such that p† ck. Then am = b0cm + b1cm−1 + · · · + bmc0 is not divisible by p, since each term on
the right-hand side of the equation is divisible by p except for b0cm. Therefore, m = n since ai is
divisible by p for m < n. Hence, f(x) cannot be factored into polynomials of lower degree
and therefore must be irreducible.

Example . The polynomial

p(x) = 16x5 − 9x4 + 3x2 + 6x – 21 is easily seen to be irreducible over Q by Eisenstein’s Criterion
if we let p = 3.

Eisenstein’s Criterion is more useful in constructing irreducible polynomials of a certain

degree over Q than in determining the irreducibility ofan arbitrary polynomial in Q[x]: given an

a rbitrary polynomial, it is not very likely that we can apply Eisenstein’s Criterion. The real value
of Theorem 15.11 is that we now have an easy method of generating irreducible polynomials of
any degree

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Theorem. Fundamental Theorem of Algebra. If f (x) is a polynomial in C[x] of positive

degree, then f (x) has a root in C.

Proof:Exercice

V. FACTORING RATIONAL AND INTEGRAL POLYNOMIALS

A rational polynomial can always be reduced to an integer polynomial by multiplying it by the
least common multiple of the denominators of its coefficients.We now give various methods for
determining whether an integer polynomial has rational roots or is irreducible over Q.
Theorem. Rational Roots Theorem. Let p(x) = a0 + a1x + · · · + anxn ∈ Z[x]. If r/s is a rational
root of p(x) and gcd(r, s) = 1, then:
(i) r|a0.
(ii) s|an.

Proof. If p(r/s) = 0, then a0 + a1(r/s) + · · · + an−1(r/s)n−1 + an(r/s)n =0, whence a0sn + a1(r/s)n−1 +
· · · + an−1(r/s)n−1 + anrn = 0. Therefore, a0sn =−r(a1sn−1 + · · · + an−1( r/s)n−2 + anrn−1); thus r|a0sn.
Since gcd(r, s) = 1, it follows from above Lemma that r|a0. Similarly, s|an.
Example. Factor p(x) = 2x3 + 3x2 − 1 in Q[x].
Solution. If p(r/s) = 0, then, by, r|(−1) and s|2. Hence r = ±1 and s = ±1 or ±2, and the only
possible values of r/s are ±1, ±1/2. Instead of testing all these values, we sketch the graph of p(x)
to find approximate roots. Differentiating, we have p(x) = 6x2 + 6x = 6x(x + 1), so p(x) has
turning values at 0 and −1.

Exercises.2

1. Compute each of the following.

(a) (5x2 + 3x − 4) + (4x2 − x + 9) in Z12
(b) (5x2 + 3x − 4)(4x2 − x + 9) in Z12
(c) (7x3 + 3x2 − x) + (6x2 − 8x + 4) in Z9
(d) (3x2 + 2x − 4) + (4x2 + 2) in Z5
(e) (3x2 + 2x − 4)(4x2 + 2) in Z5
(f) (5x2 + 3x − 2)2 in Z12
2. Use the division algorithm to find q(x) and r(x) such that a(x) = q(x)b(x) +r(x) with

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deg r(x) < deg b(x) for each of the following pairs of polynomials.
(a) p(x) = 5x3 + 6x2 − 3x + 4 and q(x) = x − 2 in Z7[x]
(b) p(x) = 6x4 − 2x3 + x2 − 3x + 1 and q(x) = x2 + x − 2 in Z7[x
(c) p(x) = 4x5 − x3 + x2 + 4 and q(x) = x3 − 2 in Z5[x]
(d) p(x) = x5 + x3 − x2 − x and q(x) = x3 + x in Z2[x]
3. Find the greatest common divisor of each of the following pairs p(x) and q(x)
of polynomials. If d(x) = gcd(p(x), q(x)), find two polynomials a(x) and b(x)
such that a(x)p(x) + b(x)q(x) = d(x).
(a) p(x) = 7x3 +6x2 −8x+4 and q(x) = x3 +x−2, where p(x), q(x) ∈ Q[x]
(b) p(x) = x3 + x2 − x + 1 and q(x) = x3 + x − 1, where p(x), q(x) ∈ Z2[x]
(c) p(x) = x3 +x2 −4x+4 and q(x) = x3 +3x−2, where p(x), q(x) ∈ Z5[x]
(d) p(x) = x3 − 2x + 4 and q(x) = 4x3 + x + 3, where p(x), q(x) ∈ Q[x]
4. Find all of the zeros for each of the following polynomials.
(a) 5x3 + 4x2 − x + 9 in Z12
(b) 3x3 − 4x2 − x + 4 in Z5
(c) 5x4 + 2x2 − 3 in Z7
(d) x3 + x + 1 in Z2
5. Find all of the units in Z[x].
6. Find a unit p(x) in Z4[x] such that deg p(x) > 1.
7. Which of the following polynomials are irreducible over Q[x]?
(a) x4 − 2x3 + 2x2 + x + 4
(b) x4 − 5x3 + 3x − 2
(c) 3x5 − 4x3 − 6x2 + 6
(d) 5x5 − 6x4 − 3x2 + 9x − 15
8. Find all of the irreducible polynomials of degrees 2 and 3 in Z2[x].
10. Give two different factorizations of x2 + x + 8 in Z10[x].
11. Prove or disprove: There exists a polynomial p(x) in Z6[x] of degree n with
more than n distinct zeros.
12. If F is a field, show that F [x1, . . . , xn] is an integral domain.
13. Show that the division algorithm does not hold for Z[x]. Why does it fail?
14. Prove or disprove: xp + a is irreducible for any a ∈ Zp, where p is prime.

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15. Let f(x) be irreducible. If f(x) | p(x)q(x), prove that either f(x) | p(x) or
f(x) | q(x).

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2.11. Summery
 . let R be any non- empty set with two binary operations, “+” and “” Then ( , + , ) is
said to be a ring if and only if

. ( , + , ) is an Abelian group.

.  is associative in R

. is distributive over “+” . for all , ,

) ( + ) =  +  (right distributive law)

) ( + ) =  +  (left distributive law)

OR

( , + , ) is said to be a ring if it satisfies the following Ring Axioms

Rl For any two elements x and y, x + y = y + x.

R 2 For any three elements x, y and z, (x+y)+z = x + (y + z).
R 3 There is an element called the zero and denoted by 0 which has the property that
x + 0 = 0 + x = x for all elements x.
R 4 Corresponding to each element x there is an element – x called the negative of x
which has the property that x+ -x = -x+x = 0.
R5 For any three elements x, y and z, (xy) z = x(yz).
R6 For any three elements x, y and z, (x + y) z = xz + yz, x(y + z) = xy + xz.
 . A ring R in which = for all , in R is called a commutative ring.
 if a commutative ring has the unity e we call R a commutative ring with unity otherwise
it is a commutative ring without unity.
 In general a ring may or may not have a unity .

 .Let (R, +, .) be a ring, let ∈ and ∈ ℕ, then

a+ a + ⋯ a
1) = if n is positive integer.
−
(− a ) + (− a) + ⋯ ( − a )
2) (− ) = if n is a negative integer.
−

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3)if n is a positive integer, by we mean x.x.x.x.x.x….. n-factors

4) 0 ∙ =0
 .An element a of a commutative ring R is called a left zero divisor if there is a nonzero
element b ∈ R such that ab = 0.
 .An element a of a commutative ring R is called a right zero divisor if there is a nonzero
element b ∈ R such that ba = 0 .
 An element a∈ R that is not a zero divisor is called a non zero divisor .Trivially if a ring
R contains at least two elements ,then 0 is a left as well as right zero divisors of R.0 is
called a trivial zero devisor
 .A non zero element of R which is a left(right) zero-divisor is called a proper
left(right)zero divisor. if R contains no such zero divisor then R is a ring without zero
divisor.
 .If all nonzero elements of a commutative ring are non zero divisors, then R is called
an integral domain. i.e a commutative ring R is called an integral domain if for all a ,b

in R = 0 implies =0 =0

 .in a ring R with unity 1 units form a sub group of the semi group 〈 , . 〉

 .Let (R, +, •) be a ring with unity. An element u of R is called a unit of R if it has a

multiplicative inverse in R. (i.e if it has an inverse with respect to •). If every non - zero
element of R is a unit of R, then R is called a division ring(Field).
OR
Let (R, +, •) be a ring .Then(R, +, •) is said to be
.commutative ring iff for all a,b inR , =
.a division ring iff for all a,b in − {0},there exists in R such that . = = 1.
.a field iff (R, +, •) is a commutative division ring.
 .let (R, +, •) be a commutative ring with unity. Then (R, +, •) is an integral domain iff for
all , , ∈ • = • = .
 .A subset S of a ring R is called a sub ring of R if S itself is a ring with respect to the
laws of composition of R. Or

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Let R be a ring and S be a non empty subset of R . (S, +, •) is said to be a sub ring of R if
and only if

. + ,

. ,

. (S, +, •) is a ring by itself.

 .A non-empty subset S of a ring R is a sub ring of R if and only

. − ∈
. ∈ ℎ ; ∈
 .Let S and T be sub rings of a ring R. Then ∩ .But ∪ may not be a
sub ring of R.
 . A non-void sub set I of a ring R is called a left ideal of R if

. , ∈ ⟹ − ∈

. ∈ , ∈ ⟹ ∈

 . A non-void sub set J of a ring R is called a right ideal of R if

. , ∈ ⟹ − ∈

. ∈ , ∈ ⟹ ∈

 . A non void subset I of a ring R is called an ideal (two sided)of a ring R if

1. I is a sub ring of R
2. For all a ∈ I; r ∈R ar ∈ I and ra ∈ I
If I is an ideal of R we denote this fact by I ⊲ R.

 .By definition every left ,right or two sided ideal is a sub ring but the converse is not true .
 Let ⊆ be two ideals of a ring R. It is immediate that if we regard A as a ring itself, then B is
also an ideal of A. But the following does not hold:

If ⊆ ⊆ be such that C is an ideal of I and I is an ideal of R then C is an ideal of R.

 . a division ring is a simple ring.

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 . A ring R is said to be simple ,if

.∃ , ∈ such that ab≠ 0
.R has a proper ideal.
 . Intersection of two left(right) ideals of a ring R is a left(right) ideals of R.
 . Intersection of any non void family of right(left)ideal of a ring R is a right(left) ideal of R.
 .If A and B are two ideals of a ring R then ∪ my not be an ideal of R
 .Let A and B be two ideals of a ring R , then the set A+B={a+ b / ∈ , ∈ } is called the
sum of ideals A and B
 .for any two ideal of A and B of a ring R. A+B is an ideal of R containing both A and B(it is the
smallest ideal of R containing R)
 . If I is an ideal of a ring R the cosets x + I form a ring under the sum
(x + I) + (y + I) = (x + y) + I and product (x+I)(y+I) = xy+I
I is an invariant subgroup of the additive structure of R and hence the cosets
certainly form an Abelian group under the sum defined.
Let x', y' be any elements of x + I, y + I respectively. Then ′ = + , ′ = +
Where , ∈I. Thus x'y' = (x+ ) (y+ )
= xy+x + y+ .
But x and y ∈I since I is an ideal and, since I is a subring, x + y+ ∈I.
Hence x'y' ∈ xy+I and so x'y'+I ⊆ xy+I+I ⊆ xy+I
But x = x' - ∈ x' + I and similarly y ∈ y' + I and so, as above, xy +I ⊆ y' + I.
Hence these cosets are the same.
Thus the definition of product is independent of choice of members x and y of the given
cosets, and thus is uniquely defined, and is of course a coset. (This is the vital part of the proof:
the rest is easy.)
The Associative Law of multiplication is true, since both {(x + I) (y +I))} (z + I) and
(x+I) {(y+I) (z+I)} are, by the definition and the Associative Law in R, equal to xyz + I.
Similarly for the Distributive Law:
{(x+I) + (y +I))} (z +I) = (x+y) z+I = (xz+yz)+I
= (x+I) (z+I)+(y+I) (z+I) and
(x+I){(y+I)+(z+I)} = x(y+z)+I = (xy+xz)+I
= (x+I) (y+I)+(x+I) (z+I).
Hence the cosets form a ring.

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This ring of cosets is called the quotient ring of I in R and is written R/I.
 .we usually denote the element + in R/I by ̅ .thus 0 in this notation we mean 0+I=I
which is the zero of R/I.
 for any , ∈ R/I ̅+ = + . = .
 If R is commutative so is R/I.
For (x +I)(y+1) = xy+1 = yx+1 = (y +I)(x +I).
But the converses of these theorems are not true
 .If R has a unity 1, R/I has a unity 1 +I.
For (1 +I) (x +I) = lx +I = x +I and (x +I) (1 +I) = xl +I = x +I.
 . An ideal of a commutative ring R with unity is said to be a prime ideal if for all
x,y in R, xy ∈ I ⟹ either x ∈ I or y ∈ I .
 .If P is an ideal in the commutative ring R, then P is a prime ideal if and only if R/P is an
integral domain.
 .An ideal I of a commutative ring R with unity is said to be a maximal ideal if there exists
no ideal J other than I or R such that I ⊆ J ⊆R. (Compare this with the definition of
maximal invariant subgroup).
 R/I is a field if and only if I is maximal. (R is assumed commutative and with unity.)
 . A principal ideal domain is an integral domain in which every ideal is a principal ideal
 . ,if R and S are rings, then a ring homomorphism is a map

φ :( R,∆,∗) → (S,∇,⊗) satisfying

φ(a∆ b) = φ(a) ∇ φ(b)
φ(a∗b) = φ(a) ⊗φ(b)
for all a, b ∈ R. If φ : R → S is a one-to-one and onto homomorphism,

then φ is called an isomorphism of rings.

 . For any ring homomorphism φ : R → S,we define the kernel of a ring homomorphism
to be the set ker φ = {r ∈ R : φ(r) = 0}.
 .(First Isomorphism Theorem) Let φ : R → S be a ring homomorphism. Then ker φ is
an ideal of R. If ψ : R → R/ kerφ is the canonical homomorphism, then there exists a
unique isomorphism η : R/ kerφ → φ(R) such that φ = ηψ.OR

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If f : R → S is a ring morphism, then R/Kerf is isomorphic to Imf .

 .(Second Isomorphism Theorem) Let I be a subring of a ring R and J an ideal of R.

Then I ∩ J is an ideal of I and I/I ∩ J ∼ = (I + J)/J.
 . ( Third Isomorphism Theorem For Rings ) Let I and J be ideals of the ring R,
with I ⊆ J. Then J/I is an ideal of R/I,and R/J ∼ = (R/I)/(J/I).

 .(Correspondence Theorem For Rings )If I is an ideal of the ring R,then the map
S → S/I sets up a one-to-one correspondence between the set of all subrings of R
containing I and the set of all subrings of R/I,as well as a one-to-one correspondence
between the set of all ideals of R containing I and the set of all ideals of R/I. The inverse
of the map is Q → π−1(Q),where π is the canonical map: R → R/I.
 . Any expression of the form f(x) =∑ = a0 + a1x + a2x2 + · · · + anxn,
where ai ∈ R and an ≠0, is called a polynomial over R with indeterminate x. The elements

a0, a1, . . . , an are called the coefficients of f.

The coefficient an is called the leading coefficient. A polynomial is called monic if the
leading coefficient is 1. If n is the largest nonnegative number for which an ≠0, we say that the
degree of f is n and write deg f(x) = n.
If no such n exists—that is, if f = 0 is the zero polynomial—then the degree of f is defined to be
−∞. We will denote the set of all polynomials with coefficients in a ring R by R[x].

 .Let p(x) and q(x) be polynomials in R[x], where R is an integral domain.

Then deg p(x) + deg q(x) = deg(p(x)q(x)). Furthermore, R[x] is an integral domain

 Division Algorithm for Integers. If a and b are integers and b is nonzero, then there
exist unique integers q and r such that a = qb + r and 0 r < |b|.

The integer r is called the remainder in the division of a by b, and q is called

the quotient.

 .An integral domain R is called a euclidean ring if for each nonzero element a ∈ R, there
exists a nonnegative integer δ(a) such that:
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(i) If a and b are nonzero elements of R, then δ(a)≤δ(ab).

(ii) For every pair of elements a,b ∈ R with b≠0, there exist elements q,r ∈ R such that
a = qb + r where r = 0 or δ(r) < δ(b). (division algorithm)

 Division Algorithm for Polynomials. Let f(x), g(x) be elements of the polynomial ring
F[x], with coefficients in the field F. If g(x) is not the zero polynomial, there exist unique
polynomials q(x),r(x) ∈ F[x] such that f(x) = q(x) · g(x) + r(x)
where either r(x) is the zero polynomial or deg r(x) < deg g(x).
 Remainder Theorem. The remainder when the polynomial f (x)
is divided by (x − α) in F[x] is f (α).

 . Factor Theorem The polynomial (x − α) is a factor of f (x) in F[x] ifff (α) = 0.

then the element g ∈ R is called a greatest common divisor of a and b, and is written

g = gcd(a, b), if the following hold:

(i) g|a and g|b.
(ii) If c|a and c|b, then c|g.
 The element l ∈ R is called a least common multiple of a and b, and is written
l = lcm(a, b), if the following hold:
(i) a|l and b|l.
(ii) If a|k and b|k, then l|k.
 Let R be a commutative ring. An element u is called an invertible element(or unit) of R
if there exists an element v ∈ R such that uv = 1.
 A noninvertible element p in a euclidean ring R is said to be irreducible if,whenever p =
ab, either a or b is invertible in R.
 Unique Factorization Theorem. Every nonzero element in a Euclidean ring R is either
an invertible element or can be written as the product of a finite number of irreducibles.
In such a product, the irreducibles are uniquely determined up to the order of the factors
and up to multiplication by invertible elements.
 A unique factorization domain (UFD) is an integral domain R satisfying the following
properties:

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(UF1) Every nonzero element a in R can be expressed as a = up1 · · ·pn,where u is a unit

and the pi are irreducible.
(UF2): If a has another factorization, say a = vq1 · · ·qm,where v is a unit and the qi are
irreducible,then n = m and, after reordering if necessary, pi and qi are associates
for each i
 A principal ideal domain (PID) is an integral domain in which every ideal is principal,
that is, generated by a single element.

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CHAPTER 3

3.FIELD
Chapter Contents
3.1 Field extensions
3.2 Finite and algebraic extensions
3.3 Algebraic closure
3.4 Splitting fields and normal extensions
3.5 Separable and inseparable extensions
3.6 Finite fields
3.1.Introduction to Fields
A field is a commutative ring in which each nonzero element has a multiplicative inverse.
Equivalently, a field is a commutative ring R in which the only ideals are (0) and R itself.So if F
is a field, S is a ring, and φ : F → S is a homomorphism of rings,then since the kernel of φ is an
ideal of F, φ is either injective (if its kernel is 0) or identically the zero map (if its kernel is F ).
Moreover, the latter case implies that 1S = φ(1F ) = 0, which happens iff S is the zero ring. So
any homomorphism from a field into a nonzero ring – in particular into any field or integral
domain –is injective. Thus if φ : F → K is a homomorphism between fields, we may equally
well speak of the field embedding φ.
Objectives:-
After completing this chapter students will be able to:
 Define a field.
 Define a sub field.
 Give examples of a field.
 Define what do we mean by field extension.
 Define Finite and algebraic extensions
 Identify Splitting fields and normal extensions
 Differntiat Separable and inseparable extensions
 Define Finite fields

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Definition: A field F is a special type of a ring which satisfies the following conditions:

1. F is commutative ring .
2. F has a unity 1,and 1  0
3. Every nonzero element has a multiplicative inverse. That is a  F there exists a-1 such
that a*a-1 = 1
Example: First of all there is the field of real numbers R. One also encounters the

complex numbers C = {a + bi | a, b ∈ R, i2 = −1} and

the rational numbers Q = { | a ∈ Z, b ∈ Z \ {0}}.

Example : For a prime p, the ring Fp = Z/pZ of integers modulo p is a field. In fact it is
enough to show that it is an integral domain, since any finite integral domain must be a
field: if a is a nonzero element of a finite integral domain, there must exist 0 < i < j such
that ai = aj, and then by cancellation we get 1 = aj−i = aj−i−1 a. To check that Fp is an
integral domain, suppose that x, y are nonzero elements in Fp such that 0 = xy.
Equivalently, we have integers x, y not divisible by p but such that p | xy. This contradicts
the uniqueness of factorization of integers into primes, i.e., the “Fundamental Theorem of
Arithmetic.”
Non example : The ring of integers Z/nZ is not a field unless n is prime: if n = n1 · n2 with
n1, n2 > 1, then (n1 (mod n)) · (n2 (mod n)) = 0 (mod n) exhibits zero divisors.
Theorem: Every field is an integral domain; that is every field has no zero divisors.
Proof: Let a*b=0 in a field F.
We claim: Either a=0 or b=0.
If a  0, there exists an inverse a-1  F and
a*b=0 in a field F  a-1*(a*b)= a-1*0
 ( a-1*a)*b)= 0
 1*b= 0
 b= 0
Similarly, if b  0, there exists b-1  F and
a*b=0 in a field F  (a*b)*b-1 = 0*b-1

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 a*(b*b-1) = 0
 a*1 = 0
 a= 0
This implies if a*b=0 in a field F then either a=0 or b=0, and hence F is an integral
domain
Theorem: A finite integral domain is a field:
Proof: Let D={x0,x1,x2,…,xn} be a finite integral domain with x0 as 0 and x1 as a unity 1.
Claim: Every non-zero element of D has a multiplicative inverse.
If xi is a non-zero, we show that the set xi*D= {xix0,xi*x1,xi*x1,xi*x2,…,xi*xn}is the same
as
the set D. If xi*xj = xi*xk then xj=xk by cancellation law.
Hence all elements xi*x0,xi*x1,xi*x1,xi*x2,…,xi*xn are distinct and xi*D is a subset of D
with the same number of elements . Therefore, xi*D=D. But then there are some
elements,xj such that xi*xj=x1=1.Hence xj=xi-1,and D is a field.

Euclid’s Lemma. Let p denotes a prime.

(i) If p/mn where m,n  Z, Either P/n or p/m.

(i) If p/m1m2 m3…mi where each mi  Z,then p/mi for some mi.

Proof:exercis

Theorem: Zn is a field iff n is a prime.

Proof: () Suppose n is prime and [a]*[b] =0 in Zn

We Claim: Zn is a field

[a]*[b] =0 in Zn  n/a*b

 n/b or n/a (by Euclid’s Lemma)

 [a]=0 or [b] =0

 Zn is an integral domain and Zn is finite

Hence by theorem 2 Zn is a field.

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Proof: ( () Suppose Zn is a field and n is not a prime.

n is not a prime  n=m*s where m,s are integers such that 1<m<n and 1<s<n.

 [m]  [0] and [s]  [0] but

[m]*[s] = [m*s] =0  Zn had zero divisors which contradicts that Field is an integral domain.

This result from the assumption that n is not prime.

Hence n is prime.

Example: Is the set ( Q ( 2 ),,*) where Q 2  {a  b 2 : a, b  Q} a field?

Proof: The set ( Q ( 2 ),,*) is a commutative ring. We need to show that every nonzero element

of Q ( 2 ) is invertible.

Let a  b 2 be nonzero elements of Q ( 2 ) then

1 a  b 
a  b 2 1
  2
a  2b 2
 2 2 
2 Q 2
ab 2  a  2b 

Hence Q ( 2 ) is a field.

3.1.1 SUBFIELD:
A subset S (with at least two elements) is subfield of a field F if S is also a field defined
under the same operations under which F is a is defined.

Q, R are subfields of the field C

Activities

1. Show that Z ,,* is not a field where Z={…,-3,-2,-1,0,1,2,3,…} = the set of

integers.
2. Decide whether the following are fields and which are not.
a. (ZI(2),+,*), ZI(2)={m+n 2 :m,n  ZI}

b. (Q( 3 2 ),+,*), Q( 3 2 )={a+b 3 2 :a,b  Q}

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3. Is the set R= {[0], [2], [6], [8]}  ZI2 a field?

4. Decide whether or not the set of square matrix of order 2 is field or not with the
usual addition and multiplication of matrices.
 x 0
a. S={  , x  IR }
 x 0

a  b 
b. S={  , a, b  ZI }
b a 
a  b 
c. S={  , a, b  IR }
b a 
5. If a  0 in a field F, Prove that for every b  F, the equation ax=b has unique solution
x in F.
6. Suppose S is a subset of a field F that contains at least two elements and satisfies the
following conditions.
a. x  S and y S implies x-y  S
b. x  S and y  0 implies x*y  S
Prove that S is a field.

3.2.FieldExtensions

If F is a field and F[X] is the set of all polynomials over F, that is, polynomials with
coefficients in F, we know that F[X] is a Euclidean domain, and therefore a principal ideal
domain and a unique factorization domain .Thus any nonzero polynomial f in F[X] can be
factored uniquely as a product of irreducible polynomials.
Any root of f must be a root of one of the irreducible factors, but at this point we have
no concrete information about the existence of roots and how they might be found. For
example, X2 + 1 has no real roots, but if we consider the larger field of complex numbers,
we get two roots, +i and −i. It appears that the process of passing to a larger field may help
produce roots, and this turns out to be correct.

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3.2.1 Definitions If F and E are fields and F ⊆ E, we say that E is an extension of F,and we write

F ≤ E, or sometimes E/F. If E is an extension of F, then in particular E is an abelian group under

addition, and we may multiply the “vector” x ∈ E by the “scalar” λ ∈ F, and the axioms of a

vector space are satisfied. Thus if F ≤ E, then E is a vector space over F. The dimension of this
vector space is called the degree of the extension, written [E : F]. If [E : F] = n < ∞, we
say that E is a finite extension of F, or that the extension E/F is finite, or that E is of degree n
over F.
Proposition. Let K be an extension field of F . Then K is a vector space over F .
Proof. K is an abelian group under addition. Elements of K can be multiplied by elements of F .
This multiplication satisfies the following properties:
(i) If 1 is the identity element of F then 1k = k for all k ∈K.
(ii) If λ ∈F and k, l ∈K, then λ(k + l) = λk + λl.
(iii) If λ, µ ∈F and k ∈K, then (λ + µ)k = λk + µK.
(iv) If λ, µ ∈F and k ∈K, then (λµ)k = λ(µk).
Hence K is a vector space over F .
The fact that a field extension K is a vector space over F tells us much about the structure of
K. The elements of K can be written uniquely as a linear combination of certain elements called
basis elements. Furthermore, if the vector space K has finite dimension n over the field F , there
will be n basis elements, and the construction of K is particularly simple.The degree of the
extension K of the field F , written [K : F ], is the dimension of K as a vector space over F . The
field K is called a finite extension if [K : F ] is finite.
Example . [C : R] = 2.
Solution. C = {a + ib|a, b ∈R}; therefore, 1 and i span the vector space C over R. Now 1 and i
are linearly independent since, if λ, µ ∈R, then λ1 + µi = 0 implies that λ = µ = 0. Hence {1, i} is
a basis for C over R and [C : R] = 2.
Example . If K = Z5[x]/(x3 + x + 1), then [K: Z5] = 3.
Solution. {1, x, x2} is a basis for K over Z5 because by the above theorem, every element of K
can be written uniquely as the coset containing a0 + a1x + a2x2, where ai ∈Z5. Hence [K: Z5] = 3.
If f is a nonconstant polynomial over the field F, and f has no roots in F, we can
always produce a root of f in an extension field of F. We do this after a preliminary result.

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3.2.2 Lemma Let f : F → E be a homomorphism of fields, i.e., f(a + b) = f(a) +f(b),

f(ab) = f(a)f(b) (all a, b ∈ F), and f(1F) = 1E. Then f is a monomorphism.

Proof. First note that a field F has no ideals except {0} and F. For if a is a nonzero member

of the ideal I, then ab = 1 for some b ∈ F, hence 1 ∈ I, and therefore I = F. Taking I to

be the kernel of f, we see that I cannot be all of F because f(1) = 0. Thus I must be {0}, so that f is
injective. ♣

3.2.3 Theorem Let f be a nonconstant polynomial over the field F. Then there is an

extension E/F and an element α ∈ E such that f(α) = 0.

Proof. Since f can be factored into irreducibles, we may assume without loss of generality
that f itself is irreducible. The ideal I =< f(X) > in F[X] is prime (see (above), in fact maximal .
Thus E = F[X]/I is a field by . We have a problem at this point because F need not be a subset of
E, but we can place an isomorphic copy of F inside E via the homomorphism h : a → a + I; h is
a monomorphism, so we may identify F with a subfield of E. Now let α = X + I;
if f(X) = a0 + a1X + · · · + anXn, then
f(α) = (a0 + I) + a1(X + I) + · · · + an(X + I)n
= (a0 + a1X + · · · + anXn) + I
= f(X) + I which is zero in E. ♣
The extension E is sometimes said to be obtained from F by adjoining a root α of f.
Here is a further connection between roots and extensions.
Proposition Let f and g be polynomials over the field F. Then f and g are relatively
prime if and only if f and g have no common root in any extension of F.
Proof. If f and g are relatively prime, their greatest common divisor is 1, so there are
polynomials a(X) and b(X) over F such that a(X)f(X)+b(X)g(X) = 1. If α is a common root of f
and g, then the substitution of α for X yields 0 = 1, a contradiction. Conversely, if the greatest
common divisor d(X) of f(X) and g(X) is non constant, let E be an extension of F in which d(X)
has a root α (E exists by (3.1.3)). Since d(X) divides both f(X) and g(X), α is a common root of f
and g in E. ♣

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3.2.5 Corollary If f and g are distinct monic irreducible polynomials over F, then f and g have no
common roots in any extension of F.
Proof. If h is a non constant divisor of the irreducible polynomials f and g, then up to
multiplication by constants, h coincides with both f and g, so that f is a constant multiple of g.
This is impossible because f and g are monic and distinct. Thus f and g are relatively prime, and
the result follows from (3.1.4)

3.3. Finite and algebraic extensions

Definitions and Comments If E is an extension of F, the element α ∈ E is said to be algebraic

over F is there is a nonconstant polynomial f ∈ F[X] such that f(α) = 0;if α is not algebraic over

F, it is said to be transcendental over F. If every element of E is algebraic over F, then E is said

to be an algebraic extension of F.Suppose that α ∈ E is algebraic over F, and let I be the set of all

polynomials g overF such that g(α) = 0. If g1 and g2 belong to I, so does g1 ± g2, and if g ∈ I

and c ∈ F[X],then cg ∈ I. Thus I is an ideal of F[X], and since F[X] is a PID, I consists of all

multiples of some m(X) ∈ F[X]. Any two such generators must be multiples of each other, so if

we require that m(X) be monic, then m(X) is unique. The polynomial m(X) has the following
properties:

(1) If g ∈ F[X], then g(α) = 0 if and only if m(X) divides g(X).This follows because g(α) = 0 iff

g(X) ∈ I, and I =< m(X) >, the ideal generated by m(X).

(2) m(X) is the monic polynomial of least degree such that m(α) = 0. This follows from (1).
(3) m(X) is the unique monic irreducible polynomial such that m(α) = 0.
If m(X) = h(X)k(X) with deg h and deg k less than deg m, then either h(α) = 0 or k(α) = 0, so that
by (1), either h(X) or k(X) is a multiple of m(X), which is impossible.Thus m(X) is irreducible,
and uniqueness of m(X) follows fromCorollary3.1.5 .The polynomial m(X) is called the minimal
polynomial of α over F, sometimes written as min(α, F).

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Theorem If α ∈ E is algebraic over F and the minimal polynomial m(X) of α over F has degree

n, then F(α) = F[α], the set of polynomials in α with coefficients in F. Infact, F[α] is the set
Fn−1[α] of all polynomials of degree at most n − 1 with coefficients in F, and 1, α, . . . , αn−1 form
a basis for the vector space F[α] over the field F. Consequently,[F(α) : F] = n.
Proof. Let f(X) be any nonzero polynomial over F of degree n − 1 or less. Then since m(X) is
irreducible and deg f < deg m, f(X) and m(X) are relatively prime, and there are polynomials a(X)
and b(X) over F such that a(X)f(X) + b(X)m(X) = 1. But then a(α)f(α) = 1, so that any nonzero
element of Fn−1[α] has a multiplicative inverse. It follows that Fn−1[α] is a field. (This may not be
obvious, since the product of two polynomials of degree n − 1 or less can have degree greater
than n − 1, but if deg g > n − 1, then divide g by m to get g(X) = q(X)m(X) + r(X) where

deg r(X) < deg m(X) = n. Replace X by α to get g(α) = r(α) ∈ Fn−1[α]. Less abstractly,

if m(α) = α3 + α + 1 = 0, then α3 = −α − 1, α4 = −α2 − α, and so on.) Now any field containing F

and α must contain all polynomials in α, in particular all polynomials of degree at most n − 1.

Therefore Fn−1[α] ⊆ F[α] ⊆ F(α). But F(α) is the smallest field containing F and α,

so F(α) ⊆ Fn−1[α], and we conclude that F(α) = F[α] =Fn−1[α]. Finally, the elements 1, α, . . . ,

αn−1 certainly span Fn−1[α], and they are linearly independent because if a nontrivial linear
combination of these elements were zero, we would have a nonzero polynomial of degree less
than that of m(X) with α as a root, contradicting (2) of (3.1.6).

Lemma Suppose that F ≤ K ≤ E, the elements αi, i ∈ I, form a basis for E over K, and the

elements βj, j ∈ J, form a basis for K over F. (I and J need not be finite.)Then the products αiβj,

i ∈ I, j ∈ J, form a basis for E over F.

Proof. If γ ∈ E, then γ is a linear combination of the αi with coefficients ai ∈ K, and each

ai is a linear combination of the βj with coefficients bij ∈ F. It follows that the αiβj span

E over F. Now if ∑ , =0, then ∑ =0 for all j, and consequently λij = 0

for all i, j, and the αiβj are linearly independent. ♣
The Degree is Multiplicative If F ≤ K ≤ E, then [E : F] = [E : K][K : F]. In particular, [E : F] is

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finite if and only if [E : K] and [K : F] are both finite.

Proof. In the above lemma, we have [E : K] = |I|, [K : F] = |J|, and [E : F] = |I||J|. ♣
We close this section by proving that every finite extension is algebraic.
Theorem If E is a finite extension of F, then E is an algebraic extension of F.
Proof. Let α ∈E, and let n = [E : F]. Then 1, α, α2, . . . , αn are n + 1 vectors in an n dimensional
vector space, so they must be linearly dependent. Thus α is a root of a nonzero polynomial with
coefficients in F, which means that α is algebraic over F. ♣

Problems For this Section

1. Let E be an extension of F, and let S be a subset of E. If F(S) is the subfield of E generated by
S over F, in other words, the smallest subfield of E containing F and S,describe F(S) explicitly,
and justify your characterization.
2. If for each i ∈I, Ki is a subfield of the field E, the composite of the Ki (notation i Ki )
is the smallest subfield of E containing every Ki. As in Problem 1, describe the composite
explicitly.
3. Assume that α is algebraic over F, with [F[α] : F] = n. If β ∈F[α], show that
[F[β] : F] ≤ n, in fact F[β] divides n..
4. The minimal polynomial of √2over the rationals Q is X2 − 2, by (3) of (3.1.6). Thus Q[√2]
consists of all numbers of the form a0 + a1√2, where a0 and a1 are rational. By Problem 3, we
know that −1 + √2has a minimal polynomial over Q of degree at most 2.
Find this minimal polynomial.
5. If α is algebraic over F and β belongs to F[α], describe a systematic procedure for finding
the minimal polynomial of β over F.

3.4.Algebraic closure

If f is a polynomial of degree n over the rationales or the reals, or more generally over the
complex numbers, then f need not have any rational roots, or even real roots, but we know that f
always has n complex roots, counting multiplicity. This favorable situation can be duplicated for
any field F, that is, we can construct an algebraic extension C of F with the property that any
polynomial in C[X] splits over C. There are many ways to express this idea.
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3.4.1 Proposition If C is a field, the following conditions are equivalent.

(1) Every non-constant polynomial f ∈ C[X] has at least one root in C.

(2) Every non-constant polynomial f ∈ C[X] splits over C.

(3) Every irreducible polynomial f ∈ C[X] is linear.

(4) C has no proper algebraic extensions.

If any (and hence all) of these conditions are satisfied, we say that C is algebraically closed.
Proof.
(1) implies (2): By (1) we may write f = (X − α1)g. Proceed inductively to show that any non-
constant polynomial is a product of linear factors.
(2) implies (3): If f is an irreducible polynomial in C[X], then by (2.9.1), f is non-constant.
By (2), f is a product of linear factors. But f is irreducible, so there can be only one such factor.

(3) implies (4): Let E be an algebraic extension of C. If α ∈ E, let f be the minimal polynomial of

α over C. Then f is irreducible and by (3), f is of the form X − α. But then α ∈ C, so E = C.

(4) implies (1): Let f be a non-constant polynomial in C[X], and adjoin a root α of f to obtain

C(α), as in (3.1.3). But then C(α) is an algebraic extension of C, so by (4), α ∈ C.♣

3.4.2 Definitions and Comments An extension C of F is an algebraic closure of F if C

is algebraic over F and C is algebraically closed.

Note that C is minimal among algebraically closed extensions of F. For if F ≤ K ≤ C and α ∈ C, α

∉K, then since α is algebraic over F it is algebraic over K. But since α ∉K ,

the minimal polynomial of α over K is a nonlinear irreducible polynomial in K[X]. By (3)

of (3.3.1), K cannot be algebraically closed. If C is an algebraic extension of F, then in order for
C to be an algebraic closure of F it is sufficient that every polynomial in F[X] (rather than C[X])
splits over C. To prove this, we will need the following result.
3.4.3 Proposition If E is generated over F by finitely many elements α1, . . . , αn algebraic
over F (so that E = F(α1, . . . , αn)), then E is a finite extension of F.
Proof. Set E0 = F and Ek = F(α1, . . . , αk), 1 ≤ k ≤ n (so En = E). Then Ek = Ek−1(αk),

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where αk is algebraic over F and hence over Ek−1. But by (3.1.7), [Ek : Ek−1] is the degree of the
minimal polynomial of αk over Ek−1, which is finite. By (3.1.9),[E : F] =∏ [ : ] ] < ∞. ♣
3.4.4 Corollary If E is an extension of F and A is the set of all elements in E that are algebraic
over F (the algebraic closure of F in E), then A is a subfield of E.
Proof. If α, β ∈A, then the sum, difference, product and quotient (if β = 0) of α and β belong to
F(α, β), which is a finite extension of F by (3.3.3), and therefore an algebraic extension of F by
(3.1.10). But then α + β, α − β, αβ and α/β belong to A, proving that A is a field. ♣
3.4.5 Corollary (Transitivity of Algebraic Extensions) If E is algebraic over K (in other words,
every element of E is algebraic over K), and K is algebraic over F, then E is algebraic over F.
Proof. Let α ∈E, and let m(X) = b0 + b1X + . . . + bn−1 Xn−1 + Xn be the minimal polynomial of α
over K. The bi belong to K and are therefore algebraic over F. If L =F(b0, b1, . . . , bn−1), then by
(3.3.3), L is a finite extension of F. Since the coefficients of m(X) belong to L, α is algebraic over
L, so by (3.1.7), L(α) is a finite extension of L. By (3.1.9), L(α) is a finite extension of F. By
(3.1.10), α is algebraic over F. ♣
Now we can add another condition to (3.3.1).
3.4.6 Proposition Let C be an algebraic extension of F. Then C is an algebraic closure of F if
and only if every non-constant polynomial in F[X] splits over C.
Proof. The ”only if” part follows from (2) of (3.3.1), since F ⊆C. Thus assume that every
non-constant polynomial in F[X] splits over C. If f is a non-constant polynomial in C[X], we will
show that f has at least one root in C, and it will follow from (1) of (3.3.1) that C is algebraically
closed. Adjoin a root α of f to obtain the extension C(α). Then C(α) is algebraic over C by
(3.1.7), and C is algebraic over F by hypothesis. By (3.3.5), C(α) is algebraic over F, so α is
algebraic over F. But then α is a root of some polynomial g ∈F[X], and by hypothesis, g splits
over C. By definition of ”splits” (see (3.2.1)), all roots of g lie in C, in particular α ∈C. Thus f
has at least one root in C. ♣
3.4.7 Theorem Every field F has an algebraic closure.
Informal argument. Well-order F[X] and use transfinite induction, beginning with the field
F0= F. At stage f we adjoin all roots of the polynomial f by constructing a splitting field for f
over the field F<f that has been generated so far by the recursive procedure. When we reach the
end of the process, we will have a field C such that every polynomial f in F[X] splits over C. By
(3.3.6), C is an algebraic closure of F. ♣

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3.4.8 Theorem Any two algebraic closures C and of F are F-isomorphic.

Informal argument. Carry out the recursive procedure described in (3.3.7) in both C and . At
each stage we may use the fact that any two splitting fields of the same polynomial are
F-isomorphic; see (3.2.5). When we finish, we have F-isomorphic algebraic closures of
F, say D ⊆C and ⊆ . But an algebraic closure is a minimal algebraically closed
extension by (3.3.2), and therefore D = C and = .♣
3.4.9 Theorem If E is an algebraic extension of F, C is an algebraic closure of F, and i is an
embedding (that is, a monomorphism) of F into C, then i can be extended to an embedding of E
into C.
Informal argument. Each α ∈E is a root of some polynomial in F[X], so if we allow α to range
over all of E, we get a collection S of polynomials in F[X]. Within C, carry out the recursive
procedure of (3.3.7) on the polynomials in S. The resulting field lies inside C and contains an F-
isomorphic copy of E. ♣
Problems For Section 3.4
1. Show that the converse of (3.3.3) holds, that is, if E is a finite extension of F, then E is
generated over F by finitely many elements that are algebraic over F.
2 . An algebraic number is a complex number that is algebraic over the rational field Q. A
transcendental number is a complex number that is not algebraic over Q. Show that there
only countably many algebraic numbers, and consequently there are uncountably many
transcendental numbers.
3. Give an example of an extension C/F such that C is algebraically closed but C is not an
algebraic extension of F.
4. Give an example of an extension E/F such that E is an algebraic but not a finite
extension of F.
5. In the proof of (3.3.7), why is C algebraic over F?
6. Show that the set A of algebraic numbers is an algebraic closure of Q.
7. If E is an algebraic extension of the infinite field F, show that |E| = |F|.
8. Show that any set S of non-constant polynomials in F[X] has a splitting field over F.
9. Show that an algebraically closed field must be infinite.

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3.5.Splitting fields and normal extensions

If f is a polynomial over the field F, then by (3.1.3) we can find an extension E1 of F

containing a root α1 of f. If not all roots of f lie in E1, we can find an extension E2 of E1
containing another root α2 of f. If we continue the process, eventually we reach a complete
factorization of f. In this section we examine this idea in detail.

If E is an extension of F and α1, . . . , αk ∈ E, we will use the notation F(α1, . . . , αk)

for the subfield of E generated by F and the αi. Thus F(α1, . . . , αk) is the smallest subfield
of E (that is, the intersection of all subfields of E) containing all elements of F along with
the αi. Explicitly, F(α1, . . . , αk) is the collection of all rational functions in the αi with
nonzero denominators.

3.5.1 Definitions and Comments If E is an extension of F and f ∈ F[X], we say that f splits over

E if f can be written as λ(X − α1) · · ·(X − αk) for some α1, . . . , αk ∈ E and λ ∈ F.

[There is a subtle point that should be mentioned. We would like to refer to the αi as“the” roots
of f, but in doing so we are implicitly assuming that if β is an element of some extension E of E
and f(β) = 0, then β must be one of the αi. This follows upon substituting β into the equation
f(X) = λ(X − α1) · · ·(X − αk) = 0.]
If K is an extension of F and f ∈F[X], we say that K is a splitting field for f over F if f splits
over K but not over any proper subfield of K containing F.
Equivalently, K is a splitting field for f over F if f splits over K and K is generated over
F by the roots α1, . . . , αk of f, in other words, F(α1, . . . , αk) = K. For if K is a splitting field for f,
then since f splits over K we have all αj ∈K, so F(α1, . . . , αk) ⊆K. But f splits over
F(α1, . . . , αk), and it follows that F(α1, . . . , αk) cannot be a proper subfield; it must coincide with
K. Conversely, if f splits over K and F(α1, . . . , αk) = K, let L be a subfield of K containing F. If f
splits over L then all αi belong to L, so K = F(α1, . . . , αk) ⊆L ⊆K,
so L = K.
If f ∈F[X] and f splits over the extension E of F, then E contains a unique splitting
field for f, namely F(α1, . . . , αk).

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3.5.2 Proposition If f ∈ F[X] and deg f = n, then f has a splitting field K over F with [K : F] ≤ n!.

Proof. By (3.1.3), F has an extension E1 containing a root α1 of f, and the extension F(α1)/F has
degree at most n. (Since f(α1) = 0, the minimal polynomial of α1 divides f;see (3.1.6) and
(3.1.7).) We may then write f(X) = λ(X −α1)r1g(X), where α1 is not a root of g and deg g ≤ n − 1.
If g is nonconstant, we can find an extension of F(α1) containing a root α2 of g, and the extension
F(α1, α2) will have degree at most n − 1 over F(α1).Continue inductively and use (3.1.9) to reach
an extension of degree at most n! containing all the roots of f. ♣

3.5.6 Example Find a splitting field for f(X) = X3 − 2over the rationals Q.
If α is the positive cube root of 2, then the roots of f are α, α(− + i √3) and α(− + i √3) .The

polynomial f is irreducible, either by Eisenstein’s criterion or by the observation hat if f were

factorable, it would have a linear factor, and there is no rational number whose cube is 2. Thus f
is the minimal polynomial of α, so [Q(α) : Q] = 3. Now since α and i√3 generate all the roots of f,
the splitting field is K = Q(α, i√3). (We regard all fields in this example as subfields of the
complex numbers C.) Since i√3 ∉ Q(α)(because Q(α) is a subfield of the reals),[Q(α, i√3) : Q(α)]
is at least 2. But i√3 is a root of X2 + 3 ∈Q(α)[X], so the degree of Q(α, i√3) over Q(α) is a most
2, and therefore is exactly 2. Thus
[K : Q] = [Q(α, i√3) : Q] = [Q(α, i√3) : Q(α)][Q(α) : Q] = 2 × 3 = 6.
Problems For Section 3.5
1. Find a splitting field for f(X) = X2 − 4X + 4 over Q.
2. Find a splitting field K for f(X) = X2 − 2X + 4 over Q, and determine the degree of K over Q.
3. Find a splitting field K for f(X) = X4 − 2over Q, and determine [K : Q].

3.6.Separable and inseparable extensions

If f is a polynomial in F[X], we can construct a splitting field K for f over F, and all roots of f
must lie in K. In this section we investigate the multiplicity of the roots.

3.6.1 Definitions and Comments An irreducible polynomial f ∈ F[X] is separable if f has no

repeated roots in a splitting field; otherwise f is inseparable. If f is an arbitrary polynomial, not

necessarily irreducible, then we call f separable if each of its irreducible factors is separable.

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Thus if f(X) = (X − 1)2(X − 3) over Q, then f is separable, because the irreducible factors (X − 1)
and (X − 3) do not have repeated roots. We will see shortly that over a field of characteristic 0
(for example, the rationals), every polynomial is separable. Here is a method for testing for
multiple roots.

3.6.2 Proposition If f(X) = a0 + a1X + · · · + anXn ∈ F[X], let f be the derivative of f, defined by

f(X) = a1 + 2a2X + · · · + nanXn−1.

[Note that the derivative is a purely formal expression; we completely ignore questions about
existence of limits. One can check by brute force that the usual rules for differentiating a
sum and product apply].
If g is the greatest common divisor of f and f, then f has a repeated root in a splitting field if and
only if the degree of g is at least 1.
Proof. If f has a repeated root, we can write f(X) = (X −α)rh(X) where r ≥ 2. Applying the product
rule for derivatives, we see that (X − α) is a factor of both f and f, and consequently deg g ≥ 1.
Conversely, if deg g ≥ 1, let α be a root of g in some splitting field. Then (X − α) is a factor of
both f and f. We will show that α is a repeated root of f. If not, we may write f(X) = (X − α)h(X)
where h(α) = 0. Differentiate to obtain f(X) = (X − α)h(X) + h(X), hence f(α) = h(α) = 0. This
contradicts the fact that (X − α) is a factor of f. ♣
3.6.3 Corollary
(1) Over a field of characteristic zero, every polynomial is separable.
(2) Over a field F of prime characteristic p, the irreducible polynomial f is inseparable if
and only if f is the zero polynomial. Equivalently, f is a polynomial in Xp; we abbreviate

this as f ∈ F[Xp].

Proof:-Exercise
3.6.5 Proposition Over a finite field, every polynomial is separable.
Proof :-Exercise

3.6.6 Definitions and Comments If E is an extension of F and α ∈ E, then α is separable over F

if α is algebraic over F and min(α, F) is a separable polynomial. If every element of E is

separable over F, we say that E is a separable extension of F or the extension E/F
is separable or E is separable over F. By (3.5.3) and (3.5.5), every algebraic extension of a
field of characteristic zero or a finite field is separable.
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3.6.7 Lemma If F ≤ K ≤ E and E is separable over F, then K is separable over F and E is

separable over K.

Proof. Since K is a subfield of E, K/F is separable. If α ∈ E, then since α is a root of min(α, F), it

follows from (1) of (3.1.6) that min(α, K) divides min(α, F). By hypothesis, min(α, F) has no
repeated roots in a splitting field, so neither does min(α, K). Thus E/K is separable. ♣
The converse of (3.5.7) is also true: If K/F and E/K are separable, then E/F is separable. Thus we
have transitivity of separable extensions.

3.7 Finite Fields

3.7.1 Structure of finite fields

We remember that in a field F has a characteristic p if p is the smallest positive integer such that
for every nonzero element  in F p  =0. If no such integer exists, then F has characteristic 0.
We know that p must be prime. Suppose that F is a finite field with n elements. Then n  =0 for
all  in F. Consequently, the characteristic of F must be p, where p is a prime dividing n. This
concept is summarized by the following proposition.
Proposition 3.6.1 If F is a finite field, then the characteristic of F is p, where p is prime.
Proposition 3.6.2 If F is a finite field of characteristic p, then the order of F is p n for some

Proof: Let  : ZI  F be the ring homomorphism defined by  n   n *1. since the

characteristics of F is P, the kernel of  must be pZI and the image of  must be a subfield of F
isomorphic to ZIp. We will denote this subfield by K. Since F is a finite field, it must be a finite
extension of K and, therefore, an algebraic extension of K. Suppose that [F: K] = n is the finite
dimension of F, where F is the K vector of space. There must exist elements  1 , ....,  n  F such

that any  in F can be written uniquely in the form of   a1  1  ...  a n  n where the ai ‘s are in

K. Since there are p elements in K, there are pn possible linear combinations of the. Therefore,
Order of F must be pn.
Lemma 3.7.1 Let F be a field and f(x)  F[x]. Then f(x) is separable if and only if f(x) and f’(x)
are relatively prime.

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Proof: Let f(x) be separable .Then f(x) factors over some extension field of F as f(x) =
x   1 x   2 ... x   n  where  i   j for some i  j . Taking the derivative of f(x) we see that

f '  x    x   2 ...  x   n    x   1  x   3 ... x   n   ...  x   1 ...  x   n 1  .

Hence f(x) and f’(x) can have no common factor.

To prove the converse, we will show that the contra positive of the statement is true. Suppose
that f  x    x    g  x  ,where k>1.Differentiating we have
k

f ' x   k x   
k 1
g  x   g '  x  x    .Therefore, f(x) and f’(x) have common factor.
k

Theorem3.6.1 For every prime p and every positive integer n, there exists a finite field F with pn
n
elements. Furthermore, any field of order pn is isomorphic to the splitting field of x p  x over
Zp.

n
Proof:Let f(x)= x p  x over ZIp. and let F be splitting field of f(x). Then f(x) has pn distinct
n
zeros in F ,since f '  x   p n x p  1  1 is relatively prime to f(x) . We claim that the roots of
f(x) form a subfield of F. Certainly o and 1 are zeros of f(x). If  and  are zeros of f(x) then
n n n n pn
   and  are also zeros of f(x), since  p   p      and  p  p    . We also
need to show that the additive inverse and the multiplicative inverse of each of the root of f(x)
are roots of f(x). For any zero  of f(x),     p  1 is also a zero f(x). If   0 then

 1 p n  
 p
n 1
  1 .

Since the zeros of f(x) form a subfield of F and f(x) splits in the subfield, the subfield must be all
of F.Let E be any other field of order pn. To show that E is isomorphic to F, we must show that
every element in E is the root of f(x).Certainly 0 is the root of f(x). Let  be a nonzero element
n
of E. The order of the multiplicative group of nonzero elements of E is pn -1; hence  p 1
 1 or
n
 p    0 . Since E contains pn elements, E must be a splitting field of f(x) .

However the splitting field of any polynomial is unique up to isomorphism.

Corollary 3.7.1 The multiplicative group of all nonzero elements of a finite field is cyclic.

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Corollary 3.7.2 Every finite extension E of a finite field F is a simple extension of F.

Proof: Let  be a generator for the cyclic group be E* non zero elements of E. Then E=f (  ).

Example:

Exercise 3

1.

2.

3.

4.

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5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.
11.

12.

13.

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14.

15.

16.

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3.8.Summery
 A field F is a special type of a ring which satisfies the following conditions:
1.F is commutative ring .
2.F has a unity 1,and 1  0
3.Every nonzero element has a multiplicative inverse. That is a  F there exists a-1 such
that a*a-1 = 1
 A subset S (with at least two elements) is subfield of a field F if S is also a field
defined under the same operations under which F is a is defined.

 .If F and E are fields and F ⊆ E, we say that E is an extension of F,and we write F ≤ E, or

sometimes E/F. If E is an extension of F, then in particular E is an abelian group under

addition, and we may multiply the “vector” x ∈ E by the “scalar” λ ∈ F, and the axioms of

a vector space are satisfied. Thus if F ≤ E, then E is a vector space over F. The dimension
of this
vector space is called the degree of the extension, written [E : F]. If [E : F] = n < ∞, we
say that E is a finite extension of F, or that the extension E/F is finite, or that E is of
degree n over F.
 .The degree of the extension K of the field F , written [K : F ], is the dimension of K as a
vector space over F . The field K is called a finite extension if [K : F ] is finite.

 . If E is an extension of F, the element α ∈ E is said to be algebraic over F is there is a

nonconstant polynomial f ∈ F[X] such that f(α) = 0;if α is not algebraic over F, it is said to

be transcendental over F.
 An extension C of F is an algebraic closure of F if C
is algebraic over F and C is algebraically closed.

 If E is an extension of F and f ∈ F[X], we say that f splits over E if f can be written as λ(X

− α1) · · ·(X − αk) for some α1, . . . , αk ∈ E and λ ∈ F.

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 An irreducible polynomial f ∈ F[X] is separable if f has no repeated roots in a splitting

field; otherwise f is inseparable. If f is an arbitrary polynomial, not necessarily

irreducible, then we call f separable if each of its irreducible factors is separable.

 If E is an extension of F and α ∈ E, then α is separable over F if α is algebraic over F and

min(α, F) is a separable polynomial. If every element of E is separable over F, we say

that E is a separable extension of F or the extension E/F
is separable or E is separable over F.

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References
1.MODERN ALGEBRAWITH APPLICATIONS Second Edition, WILLIAM J. GILBERT,
Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,Hoboken, New Jersey.Published simultaneously in
Canada.
2. Graduate Texts in Mathematics Pierre Antoine Grillet Abstract Algebra Second Edition
3.Advanced Modern Algebra ,by Joseph J. Rotman,Hardcover: 1040 pages
Publisher: Prentice Hall; 1st edition (2002); 2nd printing (2003)
Language: English
ISBN: 0130878685
4Abstract Algebra: The Basic Graduate Year Robert B. Ash
5.Theory and problems of Abstract Algbra,second Edition.Frank Ayres,Jr;PhD
6. Abstract Algebra Theory and Applications Thomas W. Judson Stephen F. Austin State
University February 14, 2009.

156 Masreshaw Walle(Msc),Bereket Nigatu(Msc),Tikisha Kitawe(Msc)