UK Professional Development

Academy

Module - Equipment Planning

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Construction Equipment
The selection of the appropriate type and size of construction equipment often affects
the required amount of time and effort and thus the job-site productivity of a project. It
is therefore important for site managers and construction planners to be familiar with
the characteristics of the major types of equipment most commonly used in
construction. Equipment being a necessity of any construction project still needs major
research to improve pre estimation accuracy for productivity and costs related to
equipment.

Excavation and Loading

One family of construction machines used for excavation is broadly classified as a crane-
shovel as indicated by the variety of machines in Figure. The crane-shovel consists of
three major components:

• a carrier or mounting which provides mobility and stability for the machine.
• a revolving deck or turntable which contains the power and control units.
• a front end attachment which serves the special functions in an operation.

The type of mounting for all machines in Figure is referred to as crawler mounting,
which is particularly suitable for crawling over relatively rugged surfaces at a job site.
Other types of mounting include truck mounting and wheel mounting which provide
greater mobility between job sites, but require better surfaces for their operation. The
revolving deck includes a cab to house the person operating the mounting and/or the
revolving deck. The types of front end attachments in Figure might include a crane with
hook, claim shell, dragline, backhoe, shovel and pile driver.

A tractor consists of a crawler mounting and a non-revolving cab. When an earth moving
blade is attached to the front end of a tractor, the assembly is called a bulldozer. When
a bucket is attached to its front end, the assembly is known as a loader or bucket loader.
There are different types of loaders designed to handle most efficiently materials of
different weights and moisture contents.

Scrapers are multiple-units of tractor-truck and blade-bucket assemblies with various

combinations to facilitate the loading and hauling of earthwork. Major types of scrapers
include single engine two-axle or three axle scrapers, twin-engine all-wheel-drive
scrapers, elevating scrapers, and push-pull scrapers. Each type has different
characteristics of rolling resistance, maneuverability stability, and speed in operation.

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Compaction and Grading

The function of compaction equipment is to produce higher density in soil mechanically.

The basic forces used in compaction are static weight, kneading, impact and vibration.
The degree of compaction that may be achieved depends on the properties of soil, its
moisture content, the thickness of the soil layer for compaction and the method of
compaction. Some major types of compaction equipment are shown in Figure, which
includes rollers with different operating characteristics.

The function of grading equipment is to bring the earthwork to the desired shape and
elevation. Major types of grading equipment include motor graders and grade trimmers.
The former is an all-purpose machine for grading and surface finishing, while the latter
is used for heavy construction because of its higher operating speed.

Drilling and Blasting

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Rock excavation is an audacious task requiring special equipment and methods. The
degree of difficulty depends on physical characteristics of the rock type to be excavated,
such as grain size, planes of weakness, weathering, brittleness and hardness. The task of
rock excavation includes loosening, loading, hauling and compacting. The loosening
operation is specialised for rock excavation and is performed by drilling, blasting or
ripping. Major types of drilling equipment are percussion drills, rotary drills, and rotary-
percussion drills. A percussion drill penetrates and cuts rock by impact while it rotates
without cutting on the upstroke. Common types of percussion drills include a
jackhammer which is hand-held and others which are mounted on a fixed frame or on a
wagon or crawl for mobility. A rotary drill cuts by turning a bit against the rock surface.
A rotary-percussion drill combines the two cutting movements to provide a faster
penetration in rock.

Blasting requires the use of explosives, the most common of which is dynamite.
Generally, electric blasting caps are connected in a circuit with insulated wires. Power
sources may be power lines or blasting machines designed for firing electric cap circuits.
Also available are nonelectrical blasting systems which combine the precise timing and
flexibility of electric blasting and the safety of non-electrical detonation.

Tractor-mounted rippers are capable of penetrating and prying loose most rock types.
The blade or ripper is connected to an adjustable shank which controls the angle at the
tip of the blade as it is raised or lowered. Automated ripper control may be installed to
control ripping depth and tip angle. In rock tunneling, special tunnel machines equipped
with multiple cutter heads and capable of excavating full diameter of the tunnel are now
available. Their use has increasingly replaced the traditional methods of drilling and
blasting.

Lifting and Erecting

Derricks are commonly used to lift equipment of materials in industrial or building

construction. A derrick consists of a vertical mast and an inclined boom sprouting from
the foot of the mast. The mast is held in position by guys or stiff legs connected to a
base while a topping lift links the top of the mast and the top of the inclined boom. A
hook in the road line hanging from the top of the inclined boom is used to lift loads. Guy
derricks may easily be moved from one floor to the next in a building under construction
while stiffleg derricks may be mounted on tracks for movement within a work area.

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Tower cranes are used to lift loads to great heights and to facilitate the erection of steel
building frames. Horizon boom type tower cranes are most common in high rise building
construction. Inclined boom type tower cranes are also used for erecting steel
structures.

Mixing and Paving

Basic types of equipment for paving include machines for dispensing concrete and
bituminous materials for pavement surfaces. Concrete mixers may also be used to mix
Portland cement, sand, gravel and water in batches for other types of construction
other than paving. A truck mixer refers to a concrete mixer mounted on a truck which is
capable of transporting ready mixed concrete from a central batch plant to construction
sites. A paving mixer is a self propelled concrete mixer equipped with a boom and a
bucket to place concrete at any desired point within a roadway. It can be used as a
stationary mixer or used to supply slip form pavers that are capable of spreading,
consolidating and finishing a concrete slab without the use of forms.

A bituminous distributor is a truck-mounted plant for generating liquid bituminous

materials and applying them to road surfaces through a spray bar connected to the end
of the truck. Bituminous materials include both asphalt and tar which have similar
properties except that tar is not soluble in petroleum products. While asphalt is most
frequently used for road surfacing, tar is used when the pavement is likely to be heavily
exposed to petroleum spills.

Construction Tools and Other Equipment

Air compressors and pumps are widely used as the power sources for construction tools
and equipment. Common pneumatic construction tools include drills, hammers,
grinders, saws, wrenches, staple guns, sandblasting guns, and concrete vibrators. Pumps
are used to supply water or to dewater at construction sites and to provide water jets
for some types of construction.

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Automation of Equipment
The introduction of new mechanised equipment in construction has had a profound
effect on the cost and productivity of construction as well as the methods used for
construction itself. An exciting example of innovation in this regard is the introduction of
computer microprocessors on tools and equipment. As a result, the performance and
activity of equipment can be continually monitored and adjusted for improvement. In
many cases, automation of at least part of the construction process is possible and
desirable. For example, wrenches that automatically monitor the elongation of bolts and
the applied torque can be programmed to achieve the best bolt tightness. On grading
projects, laser controlled scrapers can produce desired cuts faster and more precisely
than wholly manual methods.

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Choice of Equipment and Standard Production Rates
Typically, construction equipment is used to perform essentially repetitive operations,
and can be broadly classified according to two basic functions:

(1) operators such as cranes, graders, etc. which stay within the confines of the
construction site, and

(2) haulers such as dump trucks, ready mixed concrete truck, etc. which transport
materials to and from the site.

In both cases, the cycle of a piece of equipment is a sequence of tasks which is repeated
to produce a unit of output. For example, the sequence of tasks for a crane might be to
fit and install a wall panel (or a package of eight wall panels) on the side of a building;
similarly, the sequence of tasks of a ready mixed concrete truck might be to load, haul
and unload two cubic yards (or one truck load) of fresh concrete.

In order to increase job-site productivity, it is beneficial to select equipment with proper

characteristics and a size most suitable for the work conditions at a construction site. In
excavation for building construction, for examples, factors that could affect the
selection include:

1. Size of the job: Larger volumes of excavation will require larger excavators, or smaller
excavators in greater number.

2. Activity time constraints: Shortage of time for excavation may force contractors to
increase the size or numbers of equipment for activities related to excavation.
3. Availability of equipment: Productivity of excavation activities will diminish if the
equipment used to perform them is available but not the most adequate.

4. Cost of transportation of equipment: This cost depends on the size of the job, the
distance of transportation, and the means of transportation.

5. Type of excavation: Principal types of excavation in building projects are cut and/or
fill, excavation massive, and excavation for the elements of foundation. The most
adequate equipment to perform one of these activities is not the most adequate to
perform the others.

6. Soil characteristics: The type and condition of the soil is important when choosing the
most adequate equipment since each piece of equipment has different outputs for

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different soils. Moreover, one excavation pit could have different soils at different
stratums.

7. Geometric characteristics of elements to be excavated: Functional characteristics of

different types of equipment makes such considerations necessary.

8. Space constraints: The performance of equipment is influenced by the spatial

limitations for the movement of excavators.

9. Characteristics of haul units: The size of an excavator will depend on the haul units if
there is a constraint on the size and/or number of these units.

10. Location of dumping areas: The distance between the construction site and
dumping areas could be relevant not only for selecting the type and number of haulers,
but also the type of excavators.

11. Weather and temperature: Rain, snow and severe temperature conditions affect
the job-site productivity of Labour and equipment.

By comparing various types of machines for excavation, for example, power shovels are
generally found to be the most suitable for excavating from a level surface and for
attacking an existing digging surface or one created by the power shovel; furthermore,
they have the capability of placing the excavated material directly onto the haulers.
Another alternative is to use bulldozers for excavation.

The choice of the type and size of haulers is based on the consideration that the number
of haulers selected must be capable of disposing of the excavated materials
expeditiously. Factors which affect this selection include:

1. Output of excavators: The size and characteristics of the excavators selected will
determine the output volume excavated per day.

2. Distance to dump site: Sometimes part of the excavated materials may be piled up in
a corner at the job-site for use as backfill.

3. Probable average speed: The average speed of the haulers to and from the dumping
site will determine the cycle time for each hauling trip.

4. Volume of excavated materials: The volume of excavated materials including the part
to be piled up should be hauled away as soon as possible.

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5. Spatial and weight constraints: The size and weight of the haulers must be feasible at
the job site and over the route from the construction site to the dumping area. Dump
trucks are usually used as haulers for excavated materials as they can move freely with
relatively high speeds on city streets as well as on highways.

The five categories of resource planning techniques

1. Resource Loading
2. Resource Aggregation
3. Resource Availability Analysis
4. Resource-Constrained Scheduling
5. Resource Leveling

Resource Loading

• Resource loading allows the planner to assign resources such as Labour,

equipment and materials to each activity in the project schedule.
• These units might be craftsmen, pieces of equipment or quantities of
construction materials.
• Craftsmen or equipment the norm.

Resource Aggregation

• Resource aggregation totals each type of resource used in the schedule for each
time unit between scheduled project start and finish.
• Look at the early and late start and finish dates.
• Remember your resource requirements for the critical path doesn’t change only
the float activities
• You like to see a bell curve on your resource aggregation always keeping in mind
the early and late dates on the items with float.

Resource Availability Analysis

Simply compares the amount of resources required to the maximum amount of

resources that are available for use. In the real world can we get more resources?

Time-and-Resource-Constrained Scheduling

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Schedules can be time constrained or resource constrained but not both.
– Time use an end date

– Resource schedules the project on available resources

• Time- get more resources

• Resource- a shortage extend the time

Resource Leveling

• Attempts to keep the requirements for a construction resource as constant as

possible over the duration of the project.
• Non-critical activities are shifted within the schedule using the available total
float in order to level resource usage and the planned project completion date is
unchanged as a result of the leveling process.
• These techniques are used when the project duration is fixed.
• Maximising the effects of resource leveling requires performing both a backward
and forward pass again through the network.
• The primary objective is to reduce the peaks and valleys without increasing the
duration.

Construction Equipment Selection

There are many factors to consider when selecting appropriate equipment for
construction projects. A simulation system is developed by integrating a knowledge
automation system with popular construction simulation software. It assists users in:
Selecting a suitable piece of earth moving equipment (scraper versus truck, shovel
versus bulldozer) user a given set of job conditions Selecting an appropriate simulation
file Performing simulation analysis and output costs and production rates.
Two knowledge automation system routines are developed. The first routine is a system
that helps to select the most appropriate loading and hauling systems based on project
conditions. The second routine allows the user to choose a specific equipment model.
Both modules are placed in a batch fileand are activated sequentially.

For example, if the first knowledge automation system suggests a conventional scraper
for the job, the second module allows the user to choose a specific model such as a CAT
657G. It then provides the simulation program with cycle time, capacity, and the cost
information for this model. The knowledge automation system provides a simplified

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front-end to the simulation package that enables the user (i.e. construction engineer) to
perform simulation analysis without having to be an expert in simulation modeling.

Framework for Productivity Improvement in Construction

Productivity improvement in construction is best understood when the construction
process is visualised as a complete system. The system is made up of the construction
project to which material, personnel, equipment, management, and money are inputs.
They are consumed by the system in the process of producing the construction unit.
Control of the system is achieved by collecting and processing information about the
rates at which production is attained.

To measure input/output, the parameter defined as productivity, two types of input to

the system are used: the person-hour/unit and the cost/unit. The first focuses only on
labour and is used for labour-intensive operations. The second, cost/unit, combines all
effects.

The productivity of an operation is measured and compared to the values in the

estimate or budget. If the actual productivity does not compare favourably with the
estimated values, the input categories affecting productivity in the system- namely
material timeliness, labour effectiveness, and management practices need to be
examined.

To improve labour effectiveness, various factors can be addressed, including motivation,

job safety, environmental factors, and physical limitations. Management practices
include scheduling, planning, data collection, job analysis, and control. Material
timeliness is ensured by proper procurement scheduling, site layout, and other issues.

Estimating equipment production rates is both an art and a science. An accurate

prediction of the productivity of earthmoving equipment is critical for accurate
construction planning and project control. Owing to the unique work requirements and
changeable environment of each construction project, the influences of job and
management factors on operation productivity are often very complex. Hence,
construction productivity estimation, even for an operation with well‐known equipment
and work methods, can be challenging.

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Structuring the procurement process
One of the final but crucial elements in the procurement strategy is deciding on the
process that will be followed for the procurement. For example, project owners need to
determine whether they will issue a Request for Quotation (RFQ), Request for
Tender(RFT), Expression of Interest (EOI) or Request for Proposal (RFP); whether they
will use an open tender or selective tender process; whether the procurement will be
single-or multi-stage; and how to structure the evaluation criteria and process.

The most appropriate procurement process for any particular project is one that
complements the delivery model and form of contract and is most likely to identify a
preferred tendered/respondent that has the financial capacity, technical capability and
other attributes required to deliver the particular works or services.

The importance of tailoring the procurement process to meet the project requirements
cannot be overstated. In particular, given the unique characteristics of the various
delivery models and contract forms, a ‘one size fits all’ approach to procurement is
simply impractical. As explained by Bremen(2002):

The traditional tendering process is designed to produce a set of circumstances to

enable price competition followed by direct comparison. A valuation based solely on
price (although a natural and ‘safe’ tendency) does not necessarily deliver project value
nor provide the necessary information to enable an owner to properly evaluate a whole
of life project cost.

Queues and Resource Bottlenecks

A construction manager needs to insure that resources required for and/or shared by
numerous activities are adequate. Problems in this area can be indicated in part by the
existence of queues of resource demands during construction operations. A queue can
be a waiting line for service. One can imagine a queue as an orderly line of customers
waiting for a stationary server such as a ticket seller. However, the demands for service
might not be so neatly arranged. For example, we can speak of the queue of welds on a
building site waiting for inspection. In this case, demands do not come to the server, but
a roving inspector travels among the waiting service points. Waiting for resources such
as a particular piece of equipment or a particular individual is an endemic problem on
construction sites. If workers spend appreciable portions of time waiting for particular
tools, materials or an inspector, costs increase and productivity declines. Insuring

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adequate resources to serve expected demands is an important problem during
construction planning and field management.

In general, there is a trade-off between waiting times and utilisation of resources.

Utilisation is the proportion of time a particular resource is in productive use. Higher
amounts of resource utilisation will be beneficial as long as it does not impose undue
costs on the entire operation. For example, a welding inspector might have one hundred
percent utilisation, but workers throughout the jobsite might be wasting inordinate time
waiting for inspections. Providing additional inspectors may be cost effective, even if
they are not utilised at all times. A few conceptual models of queuing systems may be
helpful to construction planners in considering the level of adequate resources to
provide.

Whether to Buy Construction Equipment or Rent

Determining whether to purchase a new piece of construction equipment is a decision
that should be considered carefully, and the overall bottom line must be taken into
consideration.

Analyse Your Construction Equipment Needs

In the construction industry, a general rule of thumb is that if you don't use a piece of
equipment more than 60 to 70 percent of the time, you should consider renting.
However, if your operation rate exceeds that threshold, consider purchasing or leasing
the equipment. Take the long view and think of future needs-if renting a machine costs
as much or more than owning it, then it's time to buy.

Another consideration that weighs in favor of the purchase option is whether there are
significant cost consequences if you don't have the right equipment immediately
available. For example, would your service trucks be unable to perform a field repair
without welding or generator power, thus idling a critical piece of equipment and
disrupting the job schedule? How versatile is the piece of equipment? If the machine is
used throughout your company on numerous types of jobs, odds are it makes sense to
buy.

Conversely, working with an up-to-date rental house or distributor allows you to gain
experience with new equipment and make head-to-head comparisons before purchase.
Upgrading to new technology might enable you to bid a job more competitively (such as
increasing productivity, reducing fuel costs, improving quality, etc.). Renting offers a

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cost-effective way to test it and calculate payback and jobsite efficiencies that will make
it easier to justify an equipment purchase.

If the value of the equipment rental compared to the total project is low, then the "lost"
profits due to renting are almost immaterial. Conversely, if the equipment costs
comprise a large portion of the job's budget, then a contractor who owns his or her
equipment operates at a competitive advantage.

Consider Tax Incentives/Capital Expenditures

There are also financial and bookkeeping factors to consider. Rental expenses can be
billed back to the customer or deducted annually as a business expense. Buying a piece
of equipment, however, is a capital expense that must be treated as such at tax time.
You can't deduct the purchased equipment's entire expense during the year in which it
was purchased. The capital costs are then amortised or depreciated over the useful life
of the piece of equipment.

Examine Interest Rates

Equipment manufacturers and dealers are working to provide business owners with low
financing to make it more attractive to buy equipment. Many dealers/manufacturers are
even offering zero percent financing over specific time periods and on purchases of
certain sizes.

Factor in Depreciation/Resale Value

If you make the decision to purchase a piece of equipment, do your research comparing
different brands and models. Certain machines hold their value much better than other
machines in the same product category and will be worth more when you sell it later.
Especially if you like to cycle in new equipment over a set time period, selecting the
right machine based on annual depreciation and performance might be the financial
difference in the rent/buy decision. Similarly, used equipment available on the market is
typically of a higher quality than it was in the past, especially with dealers and
manufacturers offering certified used equipment.

Weigh Transportation Costs

When considering financial decisions, many contractors overlook the total cost of
equipment management. For example, if you're based in Chicago and successfully bid on

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a job in St. Louis, you have to think about the cost of transporting equipment 300 miles.
The costs of the truck, the driver, loading and unloading time and diesel fuel should be
included. Once on the jobsite, you'll need to hire someone to maintain and fuel the
equipment. Take into account geography-it may make more sense to rent equipment at
a destination than to transport it.

If You Choose Renting Construction Equipment

If renting is the best way to go, you need to decide whether to rent from a distributor or
a rental house. There are considerations for both: Rental houses tend to focus on core
construction equipment. Their staff is knowledgeable about a wide range of equipment
and may serve a greater geographical area (if your work is taking you out-of-state or
across country). Distributors tend to have all of the newest releases and specialise in
certain types of equipment, but service may be limited to a specific geographical area.
Do your homework, and you'll find the right fleet of equipment whether you work
locally or nationally.

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