Structure

of the Atom
 Dalton’s Atomic Theory

In 1808, Dalton's atomic theory described matter as

composed of indivisible atoms, forming the basis of
modern chemistry.

However, by the late 19th century, experiments

revealed subatomic particles—electrons, protons,
and neutrons—leading to the revision of his concept.
 Discovery of Electron
J. J. Thomson discovered the existence of electrons by
performing a experiment called Cathode Ray Experiment.

Cathode Ray Tube: A vacuum tube with electrodes (cathode and

anode) used to produce a beam of electrons.

High Voltage: Electricity flows from the negative (cathode) to the

positive (anode) electrode.

The properties of cathode rays are the same,

irrespective of the gas or electrode material used.

Discovery: Proved that atoms are divisible and contain

subatomic particles like electrons.
 Characteristics of an Electron

Electrons are the negatively charged sub-atomic particles of an atom.

Charge on electron = −1.6 × 10⁻¹⁹ C

Mass of electron = 9.1 × 10⁻³¹ kg

The symbol for an electron is e– .

Electrons are extremely small.

They are found outside the nucleus.

 Discovery of Proton
E. Goldstein by his famous anode rays/canal
rays (positively charged radiations) experiment
was able to detect presence of positively
charged particles called protons in the atom.

Characteristics of a Protons
Charge on proton = + 1.6 × 10⁻¹⁹ C

Mass of proton = 1.673 × 10⁻²⁴ gm

i.e., Mass of proton ≅ 2000 × Mass of electron

 Discovery of Neutrons
J. Chadwick bombarded light elements (e.g.,
lithium, boron) with α-particles, discovering
neutral particles with mass equal to protons,
called neutrons.

Since, mass of electrons are negligible

as compared to that of proton and neutrons
hence, sum of masses of protons and
neutrons in an atom will compose its
atomic mass.
Property Electron (e⁻) Proton (p⁺) Neutron (n⁰)

Charge Negative (-1) Positive (+1) Neutral (0)

Negligible (~1/2000 of
Mass 1 unit ~1 unit
proton)

Discoverer J.J. Thomson (1897) E. Goldstein (1886) J. Chadwick (1932)

 Thomson’s Model of an Atom

First model proposed and considered.

Analogy: Atom compared to a

watermelon:
Positive charge = Red edible part.
Electrons = Black seeds embedded in
it.

Alternative Comparison: Known as the

plum pudding model.
 Postulates of Thomson’s atomic model:
Q. What are the two postulates proposed by Thomson?

(i) An atom consists of a positively

charged sphere and the electrons
are embedded in it.

(ii) The negative and positive

charges
are equal in magnitude. So, the
atom as
a whole is electrically neutral.
Q. On the basis of Thomson’s model of an atom, explain how the atomic
neutral as a whole.

Answer: The negatively charged particles are embedded in the positively

charged sphere. These negative and positive charges are equal in magnitude.
Thus, by counterbalancing each other's effect, they make an atom neutral.
 Rutherford’s Model of Atom

Gold Foil Experiment: Used a thin gold

foil, only 1000 atoms thick, to observe
alpha particle behavior.

Alpha Particles:

Doubly charged helium ions.

Mass = 4u, fast-moving, with

significant energy.
Q. Why did Rutherford select a gold foil in his α–ray scattering experiment?

Answer:
Rutherford wanted a metal sheet that could be as thin as possible for the
scattering experiment. Gold is the most malleable of all the metals known to
man. It’s simple to make thin sheets out of it. As a result, for his alpha-ray
scattering experiment, Rutherford used gold foil.
 Observations:

(i) Most of the alpha particles

passed straight through that
gold foil.

(ii) There was a deflection at a

small angle by some of the
alpha particles.

(iii) A very small amount of

alpha particles rebounded.
 Conclusions: Q. What were the observations obtained from
Rutherford’s alpha particle experiment?

1. Mostly Empty Space: Most alpha particles passed through the gold
foil undeflected, indicating atoms are predominantly empty space.
2. Positively Charged Nucleus: Few alpha particles deflected, and
about 1 in 12,000 bounced back, revealing a small, dense, positively
charged nucleus.
3. Nucleus Size: Nucleus is extremely small, about 1/10⁵ the size of the
atom, occupying negligible space compared to the empty space in an
atom.
4. Mass Concentration: Entire atomic mass is concentrated in the
nucleus.
 NUCLEUS:

The following final model was put by Rutherford

after all the observations:

The nucleus is at the centre and is positively

charged and nearly all the mass of the nucleus
resides in the nucleus.

Nucleus of an atom is very dense.

The size of the nucleus is very less as Rutherford’s

compared to the size of the atom.
Model of Atom
 Rutherford’s Model of Atom

Features of Rutherford proposed model of atom:

(i) There is positively placed nucleus in an atom. Nearly all the

mass resides in nucleus (Proton + Neutron).

(ii) Electrons revolves round the nucleus in well defined orbits.

(iii) Size of nucleus is very small compared to the size of atom.

 Drawbacks of Rutherford’s Model:
Q. What were the drawbacks of Rutherford’s model of an atom?

According to Rutherford, electrons revolve round the nucleus in well-

defined orbits, but electrons being charged particles will lose their
energy and finally will fall into the nucleus.

This will make atom highly unstable.

This was the major drawback of Rutherford which was unexplained by

him.

To overcome drawbacks of Rutherford’s Model, Neil Bohr in 1912 proposed

modified model of structure of atom.
 Bohr’s Model of Atom
Q. List the postulates stated by Niels Bohr to
overcome the drawbacks of Rutherford's model.
Niels
Bohr’s postulates:
Bohr in
1913
Electrons revolve around the nucleus in stable
orbits without the emission of radiant energy.
Each orbit has a definite energy and is called
an energy shell or energy level.

An orbit or energy level is designated as K, L, M,

and N shells. When the electron is in the lowest
energy level, it is said to be in the ground state.
 Bohr’s Model of Atom
An electron emits or absorbs
energy when it jumps from
one orbit or energy level to
another.

When it jumps from a higher

energy level to a lower energy
level, it emits energy, while it
absorbs energy when it jumps
from a lower energy level to a
higher energy level. Electrons absorbs enegry and
jump to other level of energy.
 Atomic Number
The total number of proton lying in
the nucleus of any atom is called the
atomic number.

An atomic number is the identity

of an atom, changing atomic
number means changing the atom.

Atomic number is denoted by ‘Z’.

Atomic number = no. of protons or

a neutral atom, no. of protons and
electrons are equal.
How are Electrons Distributed in Different Orbits?

The distribution of electrons in various shells is done in accordance to

‘Bohr-Bury Scheme’.
(i) The filling of electrons in an atom is done in accordance to ‘2n²’, where
‘n’ is the number of shell and ‘2n²’ represents the total number of electrons
that can be accommodated in that particular shell.

Maximum number of electrons that can be filled in particular shell:

If n = 1, i.e., K = shell, 2n² = 2×1² = 2 electrons
If n = 2, i.e., L = shell, 2n² = 2×2² = 8 electrons
If n = 3, i.e., M = shell, 2n²2 = 2×3² = 18 electrons
If n = 4, i.e., N = shell, 2n² = 2×4² = 32 electrons
(ii) The outermost shell can’t hold more than 8 electrons, while second last
shell can’t have more than 18 electrons, even though they may have
capacity to hold more electrons.

Example: ‘Ca₂₀’, the electron distribution will be :

Ca₂₀ = 2(K), 8(L), 8(M), 2(N)
→ But Ca₂₀ = 2, 8, 10 is wrong although ‘M’ shell can contain upto 18 electrons.

(iii) The outermost shell can’t hold more than 2 electrons and the
penultimate shell can’t hold more than 8 electrons unless the preceding
inner shell (antepenultimate shell) is filled completely obeying ‘2n² ’ rule.
Some examples: (i) Ka₁₉ = 2, 8, 8, 1
(ii) Al₁₃ = 2, 8, 3
(iii) F₉ = 2, 7
(iv) Ne₁₀ = 2, 8
(v) Na₁₁ = 2, 8, 1
Checkpoint!!!
 Why do Atoms Combine?

“The atoms combine to attain a noble or inert gas electronic

configuration, in order to complete their octet by formation of a
chemical bond either by sharing, losing or gaining electrons.”
 Valency
The electrons present in the outermost shell of an atom are known
as the valence electrons.

The combining capacity of the atoms or their tendency to react and

form molecules with atoms of the same or different elements is
known as the valency of the atom.

Atoms of elements, having a completely filled outermost shell, show

little chemical activity.

Their combining capacity or valency is zero.

 Valence Shell and Valence Electrons
Outer Shell Limit: Max 8 electrons can occupy the outermost shell.

Octet Rule: Atoms strive for 8 electrons in their outermost shell by

gaining or losing electrons.

Valency: The number of electrons lost or gained to achieve stability.

Exceptions: Elements like H, He, Li, Be, B aim for 2 electrons (duplet

rule) and adjust valency accordingly.

 Mass Number
It is the sum of total number of protons and no. of neutrons lying in the
nucleus of an atom.

It is denoted by ‘A’.

Mass number = no. of protons + no.

] neutrons

Relationship
between Mass
number & Atomic
number:
Representation of an Element:
 ISOTOPES
Isotopes are the atoms in which the number of neutrons differs and
the number of protons is the same.
Isotopes are those elements having the same atomic number and
different mass numbers.

Isotopes of Hydrogen:
In protium the number of
neutrons is zero.
In deuterium, the number of
neutrons is one.
In tritium, the number of
neutrons is two.
 Fractional Atomic Mass
Fractional atomic mass/ Average atomic mass is when the atomic mass of an
element is a fraction instead of a whole number.
If the element exists in isotopic forms, the average atomic mass is determined
by considering the relative abundances of each isotope. This is done by
calculating the weighted average based on the percentage of each isotope.
35
e.g. 17 Cl with an abundance of 75%
37
17
Cl with an abundance of 25%
 Chemical Properties: Isotopes have the same atomic number and valence
electrons, leading to identical chemical behavior.
Physical Properties: Isotopes differ in mass numbers due to varying
neutrons, affecting physical properties (e.g., protium, deuterium, tritium).

Application of Isotopes:

(i) Uranium isotope is used as fuel in nuclear reactor.

(ii) Isotope of cobalt is useful in treatment of cancer.

(iii) An isotope of iodine is used in the treatment of goiter.

 ISOBARS
Isobars are atoms (nuclides) of different chemical elements which differs in the
chemical property but has the same physical property.
Isobars are those elements which have a different atomic number but the same
mass number.
Isobars have the same atomic mass but different atomic numbers, resulting in
different numbers of electrons and distinct chemical properties.