Biology 20

Unit A: Energy & Matter Exchange in The Biosphere

General Outcome 1: Students will explain the constant flow of energy through the
biosphere and ecosystems.
Ecologists study how organisms interact with their environment at
several levels.

Ecology is the study of the

interaction between organisms
and their environment. It can be
very complex. Organisms are
affected by their environment,
but their very presence also
changes the environment.
Plants, for example, drastically
changed the early environment
of the earth by adding oxygen
to the atmosphere.
Ecologist study environmental
interactions at several levels,
starting with the individual and
its needs. A population is a
group of interbreeding
individuals of the same species
in a particular area at a
particular time. A community
consists of all the different
populations of species that
inhabit a particular area. An
ecosystem includes all the
living (biotic) and non-living
(abiotic) factors in a
geographic area.

The biosphere is the total

of all of Earth’s
ecosystems.

The biosphere is the global

ecosystem – the sum of all the planet’s ecosystems and the most complex level in
ecology. It includes portions of the atmosphere, lithosphere and hydrosphere.
Isolated in space on the planet Earth, the biosphere is self-contained, or closed.
All of its matter remains on Earth and is cycled and recycled through living
systems. It is dependent upon a constant flow of energy from the sun for warmth
and energy for the photosynthesizers at the beginning of the food chain.

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The biosphere, or life, is not distributed
evenly over the entire Earth. In fact it’s
rather patchy. Some areas have an
abundance of life, such as the tropical
rain forests, whereas others, such as the
deserts, have less. The biosphere can be
divided into several major biomes which
include tropical rain forests, prairies,
deserts, etc. Each habitat has a
characteristic community of organisms.
Abiotic factors, especially water and
climate largely determine the kinds of
organisms that live there. Think of
yourself as living on “Spaceship Earth”.
There is not an endless supply of raw
materials; there is no outside garbage dump.

Environmental problems reveal the limits of the biosphere.

Our current awareness as to the limits of our

biosphere stems from the 1960’s – a time of
growing disillusionment with environmental
practices of the past. In the 1950’s it seemed that
technology was the answer to all of our problems.
New chemical fertilizers and pesticides were
providing near-miraculous results in agricultural
productivity. Industrial productivity (and its
associated pollution) were higher than ever.
In 1962 Rachel Carson in her book Silent Spring
gave us the first warning signs of our
impact upon the biosphere. Today, it’s The “control of nature” is a phrase
conceived in arrogance, born of the
clear that no part of the biosphere is
Neanderthal age of biology and
untouched by human activities, and many philosophy, when it was supposed that
people are concerned about the abusive nature exists for the convenience of
impact of human populations and man.
technology. We are now more skeptical of -Rachel Carson, Silent Spring
the “technological fix” and are trying to
find ways to maintain sustainable development.

The Gaia Hypothesis was proposed by James

Lovelock in 1979. Gaia, or Mother Earth, exists in
a state of equilibrium which we upset at our peril.

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Physical and chemical factors influence life in the biosphere
Solar energy powers nearly all surface terrestrial and shallow water ecosystems.
The availability of light has a significant effect on the growth and distribution of
photosynthetic organisms. Shading by trees can create intense competition for
light. Water is essential for all life. Aquatic and marine organisms have opposite
problems in dealing with osmotic pressure and solute concentrations. Terrestrial
organisms constantly face the threat of drying out and have developed many
adaptations to prevent it. Temperature is an important abiotic factor because of
its effect upon metabolism. Cells can usually only function between 0C and 45C.
(why?) Many organisms have adaptations to survive outside this range.
Amphibians in Canada often freeze in the winter and still survive. Birds and
mammals have elaborate coverings to insulate
them from the cold. Certain bacteria found in
hydrothermal vents and hot springs can survive
boiling temperatures. Wind is another abiotic
factor. Damage from wind creates openings in
forests and also increases water loss from
organisms due to evaporation. This evaporation
also cools us off when we sweat. Wind also
spreads pollen and seeds of plants over great
distances. Soil can be a very complex mixture of
ingredients and have elaborate food chains of
their own that we rarely ever take notice of.
Fires, hurricanes, tornadoes and volcanic
eruptions are other abiotic events that can have
huge effects upon ecosystems.

Organisms are adapted to abiotic and

biotic factors by natural selection
How is the pronghorn adapted to its environment in southern Alberta?

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Regional climate influences the distribution of biological
communities

What determines who lives where is largely due to climate – especially

temperature and rainfall. Climate is primarily determined by the input of solar
energy and the Earth’s movements. Because of its curvature, the distribution of
solar energy is uneven. North and south of the equator, the same amount of solar
radiation is distributed over a
larger area thus affecting how
much heat is absorbed. The
seasons of the year are the
result of the tilting of the
planet on it axis as it orbits
the sun. When the northern
hemisphere tilts toward the
sun, we experience summer
in Canada – but it would be
winter in Australia! The
amount of tilt is currently
23.5 (it hasn’t always been
this amount – can you think
when?) At 23.5 North we have the tropic of Cancer and at 23.5 South we have
the tropic of Capricorn. (On the Zodiac, when are Cancer and Capricorn?). The
areas in between are known as the tropics and experience little fluctuation in
temperature throughout the year (why?).

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Air, being a fluid, is subject to convection currents caused by warm air rising and
cooler air descending. This produces global patterns of wind and rainfall. At the
equator, warm air heated by
the sun rise vertically
creating an area of calm
known to sailors as the
doldrums. Eventually this
warm, moist air mass cools as
it rises due to expansion. This
cooling results in lots of
condensation and consequent
rainfall in the tropics. At
about latitudes 30 north and
south of the equator, the
cooler air descents and
absorbs moisture from the
land. Thus, many deserts are found at these latitudes (eg: the Sahara). Some of the
descending air returns back to the equator creating the cooling trade winds. (how
do you think they got this name?)

Latitudes between the tropics and the Arctic and Antarctic Circles are called the
temperate zones. Generally, these regions have seasonal variations in climate and
more moderate temperatures than the topics or the polar regions.
These large cells of moving convection currents are on a rotating globe – don’t
forget. Friction with the Earth results in an angular twist to these convection cells
resulting in a pattern of prevailing winds. The Trade Winds, already mentioned
are one example. Here in Alberta, we
experience the Westerlies – winds that
blow from the west to the east.
More than 70% of the Earth’s surface is
covered in water, which is a fluid too.
The prevailing winds, the planet’s
rotation, the unequal heating of surface
waters and the shapes of the continents
creates a pattern of ocean currents.
Water has a huge heat capacity and can
therefore have a profound effect upon
the climate of land masses in contact
with it. England is a northern country,
much like Canada, yet gardeners in
England can grow plants that we could
only dream of. And what’s with all that
London fog? The profound effects of
living near a large body of water can be studied by comparing the climates of
Vancouver and Winnipeg.

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Warm and cold ocean currents on Earth.

The spinning of the Earth also imparts a rotational movement to large bodies of
air and water. In the northern hemisphere, ocean currents and weather systems
rotate in a clockwise direction. In the southern hemisphere it’s just the opposite.
Note: this effect can usually only be observed in large systems – you could
probably influence the water to drain from your sink any way you wanted. On the
Earth, this usually results in cold currents contacting the western side of
continents and warm currents contacting the eastern side. Why are most deserts
found on the western side of continents? (eg: the
Sahara, the Western Desert of Australia, the Kalahari desert in Africa, the arid
slopes of Chile)

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The Coriolis Effect in the northern hemisphere.

The shape of land can also have an effect upon climate. The west coast of British
Columbia is very wet, but the Okanogan valley is dry. This is called orographic
rainfall and is caused by rising moist air cooling, condensing and falling as rain
on the windward side of the mountain. The lee side of the mountain is
considerably dryer.

Orographic rainfall in Washington state.

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The source of energy in the biosphere is the sun and is either stored
or re-radiated back into space.
Radiation of energy from earth requires constant replenishment from the sun.
Solar energy is temporarily stored in water (high heat capacity), living tissue, and
fossil fuels.
Solar radiation, which includes visible light, infrared (heat) and ultraviolet (UV,)
is required for photosynthesis by green plants. The amount of radiation that
reaches the earth is considerably less than that which enters the outermost layers
of the earth's atmosphere - 6 - 8% never reaches the surface - it is absorbed by the
atmosphere. Variations on the amount of insolation (sol=sun) that reaches the
ground by be caused by:
1. The cloud cover can reflect large amounts of radiant energy (albedo). On an
average cloudy day, 40% of insolation is reflected by clouds.
2. The distance of the sun from the earth varies throughout the year for any
point on earth; the earth being some 3 million miles closer to the sun at the
winter solstice (Dec 21) than at the summer solstice (June 21). Yes, we’re
closer in the winter!
3. The duration of daily radiation varies as a result of the tilt of the earth's
axis. For example, the north pole is tilted toward the sun on June 21 (the
longest day-summer solstice) and tilted away on Dec 21 (the longest night-
winter solstice). The days and nights are equal on the spring equinox (Mar
21) and fall equinox (Sept 21)
4. The angle of the sun's rays with the earth's surface changes throughout each
day and also throughout the year. The greater the angle, the greater the
amount of atmosphere the rays must pass through.

This means that

the total
insolation on a
particular region
at the earth's
surface is much
less in the
morning and
evening than it
is at midday;
also, the daily
insolation is less
in the winter
than in the
summer.

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The earth is dependent on energy from the sun.
The sun’s energy is distributed by the earth’s atmosphere
Atmosphere Organization:
 Mixture of gases held by gravity
 71% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, the rest is a mix of CO2, H2, and other trace gases
 Also contains solids eg: dust and pollen
 Also contains varying
amounts of water vapour

Level 1: Troposphere
 15 km at equator, 8 km at
poles
 Contains 80% of the
atmosphere’s total mass
plus water vapour and dust
 All weather occurs here

Level 2: Stratosphere
 50 km
 stable weather
 contains the ozone layer
(ozone block UV
radiation)

Level 3: Mesosphere (meso

= “middle”)
 Extremely low density;
few gases present
 Temperature -113°C

Level 4: Ionosphere
 Contains ions – charged
atomic particles
 Absorbs dangerous x-rays and gamma rays
 The interaction of the ions with incoming
solar radiation (solar wind) cause the aurora
borealis (northern lights)

Level 5: Magnetosphere
 Magnetic field generated by the earth’s iron-
nickel core
 Deflects the solar wind
 Van Allen Belts

Ozone

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 Three atoms of oxygen (O3 instead of O2) bonded together in a molecule
 Blocks UV radiation. (UV radiation causes us to tan and to get sunburnt)
 Rarely found at ground level except after a rain (sweet smell)
 Interacts with other industrial pollutants to form smog
 High concentrations are lethal

Ozone “Holes”:
 Found over arctic and Antarctic regions due
to the Polar Vortex bringing chlorine
radicals down to a lower altitude.
 Depletion caused by CFC’s –
chlorofluorocarbons
 CFC’s are broken down by UV radiation
releasing a chlorine molecule which reacts
with ozone
 CFC molecule is regenerated allowing it to
break up more ozone molecules
 CFC’s are now banned

Energy Flow in Ecosystems

Energy flows; matter cycles

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1st Law of Thermodynamics: Energy is neither created nor destroyed, but it may
be converted from one form into another.
Eg:
Chemical bond energy
solar (glucose)
energy photosynthesis

2nd Law of Thermodynamics: No energy conversion is 100% efficient. During

any energy conversion, some energy is lost from the
energy system as waste heat (entropy). Energy can’t be
recycled.
Implications for ecosystems: so long as the sun
matter shines, there will always be a constant supply of
energy into the system to allowing life to counteract
the effects of entropy.
Waste Waste
Heat Heat
Producers Consumers

Decomposer
Bio-geo-chemical
Waste cycles
Waste
Heat
Heat

Roles of Organisms
Ecological Niche: a population's complete role in the ecosystem
- the complete limits of its existence
- as long as the niche is available, the organism will survive
Competitive Exclusion Principle: When species compete to occupy a niche, the
more qualified species will displace the less qualified.

Three Basic Niches:

Producers: Autotrophs

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 - able to transform light into chemical bond energy – photosynthesis &
chemosynthesis
Consumers: Heterotrophs
- depend on producers directly or indirectly for chemical bond energy
- 1st Order consumers: eg: herbivores
- 2nd Order consumers: eg: carnivores
- 3rd Order consumer -- etc.
Omnivores: eats producers and/or consumers eg: bears, humans
Decomposers: Saprophytes
- includes bacteria and fungi
- unlock nutrients from dead organisms and make them available for use
by
other organisms.

Food Chains and Food Webs - who eats who

Grazing Food Chain:
eg: grass pronghorn wolf
1 2 3 3 trophic (feeding)
levels
producer 1st order 2nd order
consumer consumer
(herbivore) (carnivore)

eg: grass beetle bird snake eagle

1 2 3 4 5 5 trophic
levels
producer 1st order 2nd order 3rd order 4th order
consumer consumer consumer consumer
(herbivore) (  carnivores  )

Detritus Food Chain: Organisms which recycle detritus – usually in the soil. Not
so easy to classify trophically as grazers, but extremely important in the recycling
of organic matter.

Food Web: a more complex

(and realistic) description of
who eats who in a
community.

Pyramids

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Food webs and food chains tell us what eats what, but they tell us nothing about
the numbers of individuals involved. It takes many plants to feed a few
herbivores. Similarly there must be far more prey than there are predators.

Pyramid of Numbers: The number of individuals in each trophic level.

Producers placed at bottom, others on top, in order. Doesn’t always result in a
proper pyramid if some individuals are especially large or small in size.

hawk bacteria
sparrow ladybug
caterpillars aphid
leaves tree

Pyramid of Biomass: The dry mass of organic material at each trophic level.
More accurate than numbers because it reflects the energy needed to create the
biomass.

Pyramid of
Energy: Most
accurate, but hardest
to measure.

Biomagnification:
Certain synthetic

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organic compounds that cannot be broken down by most organisms accumulate in
fatty tissue and persist up the food chain. Eg: DDT
Result: DDT interferes with calcium metabolism of raptors (birds of prey)
resulting in thin egg shells that break before chick can develop.

Productivity
Gross Primary Productivity: The total mass of all carbohydrate produced by
primary producers (plants) from the process of photosynthesis. Some of this
production will be used by the producers in cellular respiration resulting in Net
Primary Productivity.

Carrying capacity: The maximum number of individuals that an ecosystem is

capable of supporting. As population numbers increase, certain factors in the
environment become limits to growth. All living things need a certain amount of
space in which to live, food, water, and oxygen.

Sustainable Development: United Nations 1987: “Development which meets the

needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of future
generations to meet their own needs.”

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