WOLDIA UNIVERSITY

DEPATEMENET OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

SCHOOL OF COMPUTING
COURSE TITLE:- Computer Maintenance and Technical
Support(ITec3032)
NAME ID

1.Besufikad Yilma………………………………………………………………………………………….149010

2.Mahlet Seyoum……………………………………………………………………………………………146684

3.Tsiyon Wodaj …………………………………………………………………………………………149322

4.Yeabsera Adane…………………………………………………………………………….147552

5.Eliyas Atilaw ……………………………………………………………………………………………145967

6.Moges Beyene……………………………………………………………………………………………..146903

7.Addisu Atinkut……………………………………………………………………………………………..1200150

Submits to : Temkin T.

Submission date: Jan 25,2017

Contents
1. SERIAL PORT AND PARALLEL PORT......................................................................................................3
1.1 WHAT IS SERIAL PORT?......................................................................................................................3
1.2 WHAT IS PARALLEL PORT?.................................................................................................................3
1.3 What is an I/O Connector Monitor?..................................................................................................4
1.4 INTRIDUCTION TO MONITOR.............................................................................................................6
1.5 Different Types of Monitor................................................................................................................6
1.6 What Are the Safety Rules during Maintenance?..............................................................................8
1.7 Troubleshooting the video subsystem.............................................................................................10
1.8 What is the BIOS?............................................................................................................................10
1.9 What is a printer?............................................................................................................................13
1.10 WHAT IS A FIELD REPLACEABLE UNIT (FRU)?.................................................................................15
2. OPREATING SYSTEM..........................................................................................................................16
2.1 NTLDR, GRUB, LILO AND OTHER BOOT LOADERS............................................................................22
2.3INSTALL HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE..............................................................................................23
2.4 PLUG AND PLAY (PNP) DEVICES.......................................................................................................24
2.5 Installing/Uninstalling Application Software....................................................................................24
2.6 Operating System Installation and Management............................................................................26
2.7 INSTALL LINUX AS SINGLE OR DUAL BOOT.......................................................................................28
2.8 Managing user accounts..................................................................................................................29
Reference

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1. SERIAL PORT AND PARALLEL PORT
Computer ports are like gateways that allow devices to connect and communicate with the
computer system. These ports are physical sockets on the computer where we can plug-in
various peripherals. Each port type is designed for a specific function. For example, USB ports
connect devices like keyboards and mouse, Ethernet ports provide internet access, and display
ports connect monitors. In this article we will see serial port and parallel port in data.

1.1 WHAT IS SERIAL PORT?

A serial port is an interface that is used for connecting the serial lines to attain the serial
communication. These ports can dock a 9-pin D-shaped connector that connects to the
transmission line, is called DB-9 connectors. Serial communication gained by single wire and
only the single stream of data is transferred from one end to other. Therefore, like parallel
transmission, in serial transmission data speed mismatch is not a problem. The length of the wire
can be increased as needed. The transmission speed of serial port is comparatively low as
compared to parallel port transmission speed. Serial ports are typically implemented in the
modems, connecting devices, controllers, mouse and also in security cameras. DB-9 pin
connector diagram is given below.

1.2 WHAT IS PARALLEL PORT?

Unlike serial port, a parallel port can move a set of 8 bits at a time on eight different wires.
That’s why it is faster in comparison to the serial communication. Unlike a serial port It uses the
25 pin connector that is called a DB-25 connector. To eliminate a cross talk and errors all the bit
streams need to transfer a data at the same speed in a parallel communication. But that is
impractical. For this reason the transmission lines are preferred to be short in a parallel
communication. Parallel ports are typically the implemented in zip drives, printers, hard drives,
CD-ROM drives etc.

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1.3 What is an I/O Connector Monitor?
I/O (Input/Output): This refers to the communication channels between a system (like a
computer, microcontroller, or industrial device) and the outside world. Inputs receive data *into*
the system, and outputs send data *out* of the system.

• Connector: This is a physical interface point where wires or cables attach to a device to enable
data or power transfer. Examples include USB ports, Ethernet jacks, HDMI ports, sensor
connectors, power sockets, etc.

• Monitor: In this context, "monitor" implies observation, analysis, and often the reporting of
information. It suggests a system that keeps an eye on the activity happening at or through the
I/O connectors.

What is an I/O Connector Monitor?

An I/O connector monitor is a system or tool designed to observe and analyze the activity
occurring at an I/O connector. Its purpose is generally one or more of the following:

1. Data Monitoring:

2. Connector Status Monitoring:

3. System Performance Monitoring:

4. Security Monitoring:

Forms of I/O Connector Monitors

Hardware Tools:

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  Logic Analyzers: Sophisticated devices used to capture and analyze complex digital
signals, often employed for debugging embedded systems and communication
protocols.
 Protocol Analyzers: Specialized devices for analyzing specific communication
protocols (like USB or Ethernet).
 Oscilloscopes: Instruments used for observing and measuring electrical signals in
detail.
 Power Meters: Devices that measure the electrical power being drawn by connected
devices.
 Custom Circuitry: Purpose-built hardware tailored to monitor specific types of
connectors and signals.

Software Tools:

 Driver-Level Monitoring: Software embedded within the operating system that

monitors device connections and data transfers at a low level.
 Operating System Utilities: Tools like Device Manager (Windows) or lsusb (Linux)
provide basic information about connected devices.
 Application-Level Monitoring: Software applications designed to monitor specific
types of I/O (e.g., network monitoring tools for Ethernet).
 Custom Software: Bespoke applications developed to analyze data from a particular
connector or system.

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1.4 INTRIDUCTION TO MONITOR
A monitor is an electronic output device used to display information being entered and processed
on a computer. The primary use of a monitor is to display images, text, video, and graphics
information generated by the computer via a computer’s video card. It can be referred to as the
main output device of a computer device. The monitor is a very useful device as it helps display
the information being processed inside the CPU of the computer. It is also known as the VDU
i.e. Visual display unit.

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1.5 Different Types of Monitor
1. CRT (Cathode Ray Tube ) Monitor:
It is a technology used in early monitors. Today's Flat Panel Monitors i.e. LCD and LED display
monitors have replaced the CRT monitors.

2. Flat Panel Monitor:

These types of monitors consist of a flat display panel. These monitors are portable and
take up less room. They use less energy than CRT monitors do. Due to the fact that they
do not emit hazardous radiation, these monitors are more efficient.

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3. LED Monitor:
It is a flat-screen computer monitor, also referred to as an LED display. It is
very slim and shallow in size along with being very lightweight. It makes use
of a panel of LEDs as its light source.

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1.6 What Are the Safety Rules during Maintenance?
Three rules to follow to ensure workplace safety for your maintenance technicians are:

1. Provide Appropriate Equipment and Tools

them against exposure to hazardous substances like asbestos or pesticides.

The equipment should have instructions to minimize the risk of injury from improper
operation. Lockout Tagout instructions are an excellent example. Lockout Tagout is a safety
procedure that ensures maintenance technicians completely shut down hazardous equipment
while completing repair work.

The maintenance team should be trained to determine if the equipment is suitable for a specific
environment. For example, your team should never use a sparking tool in a flammable
environment.

Also, always consider the technician’s health when providing a piece of equipment. Finally,
ensure the equipment is ergonomic and fits the technician well with the proper adjustments.

2. Provide Access to Complete Information

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Making sure critical information and safety guidelines are visible across the shop floor is critical
to ensure worker safety. Placing barriers and signs to mark hazardous areas and prevent
unauthorized access to those work areas is a good starting point.

The areas on the shopfloor must be clean, and technicians should have a safe route to enter and
exit the site wherever they need to perform maintenance. In addition, repair locations should
have temporary ventilation and a proper lockout to protect the machinery.

Work orders should include photos and diagram labels explaining all safety procedures necessary
to perform maintenance. For example, pressing the wrong switch can lead to an accident that
could’ve been easily avoided with a safety label.

Technicians should also have access to maintenance and repair history to identify potential issues
and previous accidents. While these health and safety measures may seem complicated,
a computerized maintenance management system (CMMS) can help ensure technicians have all
the information at their fingertips.

3. Provide Thorough Safety Instructions

Ensure technicians access maintenance health and safety instructions for all maintenance tasks.
When creating work orders, include safety instructions for each task and be specific. Add
instructions to handle each machine part and high-risk activity required to complete the
maintenance task.

Each task should have an expected duration. Each procedure should end with a test confirming
the machine is safe for others to use. If the technician has questions about a maintenance task,
they should be able to reach out to you or a relevant person for help. Using a CMMS with in-app
chat capabilities ensures the safety of maintenance workers

1.7 Troubleshooting the video subsystem

1. Check the system and power connections to the monitor.
2. Check the video interface cabling from the system to the monitor.
3. Run the appropriate diagnostic test.

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1.8 What is the BIOS?
The BIOS is a firmware program stored on a small chip on the motherboard of a computer. It's
the very first software that runs when you power on your machine. Think of it as the initial
conductor of the orchestra, setting the stage for the rest of the system to come to life.

1. Power-On Self Test (POST): This is the first thing the BIOS does. It performs a series of
diagnostic tests to check the basic functionality of the hardware components, including:

• CPU (Central Processing Unit)

• Memory (RAM)

• Graphics card

• Keyboard

• Storage devices (hard drives, SSDs)

• Other essential hardware

2. Boot Process Initialization: Once POST is complete, the BIOS's primary task is to locate and
load the operating system (OS). This process involves:

• Boot Device Selection: The BIOS checks the configured boot order to determine which device
(hard drive, SSD, USB drive, network, etc.) should be used to start the OS.

• Master Boot Record (MBR) or EFI System Partition (ESP) Loading: The BIOS reads the
initial boot code from the selected device. This boot code typically resides in the MBR on older
BIOS systems or the ESP on newer UEFI systems.

• Handing Off Control: Once the boot loader is loaded, the BIOS relinquishes control to the
boot loader, which then takes over the process of loading the actual operating system.

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3. Low-Level Hardware Access: The BIOS provides a set of basic routines (or "services") that
the operating system can use to communicate with and control the hardware. This includes
functions for:

• Reading and writing data to the hard drive

• Displaying text on the screen

• Controlling the keyboard

• Managing other essential hardware components

4. Setup Configuration: The BIOS also includes a setup utility, usually accessible by pressing a
specific key during startup (often Del, F2, F10, F12, or Esc), allowing users to:

• Configure boot order: Change the sequence in which devices are checked for a bootable
operating system.

• Adjust system time and date.

• Enable or disable certain hardware features.

• Set passwords to control access to the system or the BIOS.

• Configure hardware settings for overclocking or other performance modifications.

Error messages, while often frustrating, are crucial for diagnosing problems.
A good error message usually provides:

1. Identification of the problem: A general description of what went wrong.

2. Location of the problem: Which component, application, or system area is

experiencing the issue.

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3. Severity of the problem: Whether it's a minor warning, a serious error, or a
complete system failure.

4. Potential cause: Sometimes the message hints at the cause of the error
(e.g., "File not found," "Network connection error").

5. Possible solutions or next steps: Sometimes a suggested fix or

troubleshooting direction is provided.

General Strategies for Troubleshooting Error Messages

1. Read Carefully: Take a moment to read the entire error message. Often,
the most helpful information is hidden within the details.

2. Note Key Words/Phrases: Identify the important keywords and phrases in

the message. These will be useful for further research.

3. Google/Search Online: Copy the entire error message or key parts into a
search engine (Google, Bing, etc.). Often, someone else has encountered the
same issue, and solutions may be readily available on forums, blogs, or
support websites.

4. Check the Error Logs: Both operating systems and applications maintain
log files that record detailed information about events, including errors.

5. Restart/Reboot: A simple restart can often resolve temporary issues or

glitches.

6. Check Basic Connections: Verify basic connections such as:

• Power cables

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 • Network cables

• Peripherals (mouse, keyboard, etc.)

• Internal connectors

7. Update Software/Drivers: Outdated software or drivers are often the

source of errors. Ensure that your operating system, drivers, and applications
are up to date.

8. Isolate the Problem: Try to identify if the issue is related to a specific

application, hardware component, or system process. For example, try
running other applications, using different devices, or checking hardware
individually.

9. Roll Back Changes: If the error appeared after a recent change (e.g.,
software installation, driver update, hardware modification), try reverting to
the previous state.

10. Seek Expert Help: If the problem persists, consult with a professional or
seek help from support forums or online communities.

Advanced BIOS Features Printers

Advanced BIOS features can include options to configure hardware components and features,
such as printing levels:

 Misc Configuration: Controls the system printing level and the printing level during DDR
initialization

 PCI Express Configuration: Provides PCIe parameter configurations

1.9 What is a printer?

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A printer is a device that accepts text and graphic output from a computer and transfers the
information to paper, usually to standard-size, 8.5" by 11" sheets of paper. Printers vary in size,
speed, sophistication and cost. In general, more expensive printers are used for more frequent
printing or high-resolution color printing

DIFFERENT TYPES OF PRINTERS

There are many different printer manufacturers available today, including Canon,
Epson, Hewlett-Packard, Xerox and Lexmark, among many others. There are also several types
of printers to choose from, which we'll explore below.

 Inkjet printers recreate a digital image by spraying ink onto paper. These are the most
common type of personal printer.

 Laser printers are used to create high-quality prints by passing a laser beam at a high speed
over a negatively charged drum to define an image. Color laser printers are more often found
in professional settings.

 3D printers are a relatively new printer technology. 3D printing creates a physical object
from a digital file. It works by adding layer upon layer of material until the print job is
complete and the object is whole.

 Thermal printers produce an image on paper by passing paper with a thermochromic coating
over a print head comprised of electrically heated elements and produces an image in the
area where the heated coating turns black. A dye-sublimation printer is a form of thermal
printing technology that uses heat to transfer dye onto materials.

 All-in-one printers are multifunction devices that combine printing with other technologies
such as a copier, scanner and/or fax machine.

 LED printers are similar to laser printers but use a light-emitting diode array in the print head
instead of a laser.

 Photo printers are similar to inkjet printers but are designed specifically to print high-quality
photos, which require a lot of ink and special paper to ensure the ink doesn't smear.

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 1.10 WHAT IS A FIELD REPLACEABLE UNIT (FRU)?
An FRU is a component or module in a system that is designed to be easily replaced in the field,
without requiring extensive technical expertise or specialized equipment. FRUs are commonly
used in various electronic and mechanical systems, such as computers, servers, and networking
devices. Examples of FRUs include power supplies, memory modules, hard drives, and other
components that may need replacement due to wear, malfunction, or upgrades. The ease of
replacing FRUs helps minimize downtime and simplifies maintenance, making it feasible for on-
site technicians or end-users to perform replacements without sending the entire system for
repair.

WHY ARE FRUS IMPORTANT IN TECHNOLOGY?

FRUs play a crucial role in technology because they simplify maintenance and repair processes.
By having easily replaceable units, technicians can swiftly address hardware failures or
malfunctions, minimizing disruptions and ensuring smooth operations. This reduces the need for
expensive repairs or replacement of entire systems, saving time and money.

Printer Maintenance Techniques

 Clean: Regularly clean the printer's exterior, paper tray, and print head. You can use a small
vacuum to remove dust, and then wipe with a cloth or duster. Avoid using harsh cleaning
chemicals.
 Use quality supplies: Use genuine ink or toner cartridges, and printer paper that's specified for
your printer model. Avoid using low-quality paper, or paper that's wrinkled or damaged.
 Update software: Regularly update your printer's software and drivers. Out-of-date software can
cause glitches, lower-quality prints, and slow down your printer.
 Use regularly: Print at least once a week to prevent ink clogs.
 Store properly: Store your printer in a cool, dry place, away from direct sunlight and dust.
 Unplug when not in use: Turning off your printer when you're not using it can help extend its
lifespan and reduce wear and tear. However, turning it on and off frequently can damage the
printer.
 Have it serviced: Have a qualified technician regularly service your printer.

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2. OPREATING SYSTEM
An operating system (OS) is a program that acts as an interface between the system hardware and the
user. Moreover, it handles all the interactions between the software and the hardware. All the
working of a computer system depends on the OS at the base level. Further, it performs all the
functions like handling memory, processes, the interaction between hardware and software, etc.
Now, let us look at the functions of operating system.

HISTORY OF OPREATING SYSTEM

1940s: the earliest electronic digital computers did not include operating system. Machines of the
time were so primitive (ancient).

 1950s: These computers were called single-stream batch-processing systems.

 1960s: It is also called the batch processing systems but using resources more efficiently by
running several jobs at once. The systems improved resource utilization, Multiprogramming,
Interactive users, Timesharing, Real-time systems, and reduce Turnaround time.

 1970s: Personal computers posted by early and continuing developments in microprocessor

technology and using LAN with more problem in security.

 1980s: It was the decade of the personnel computers, Software such as spreadsheet programs,
word processors, database packages and graphics packages and develop GUI, Distributed
computing became wide spread under client/server model.

 1990s: Object technology: each software object encapsulates a set of attributes and methods.
This allows applications to be built with components that can be reused in many applications.
Open-source movement: open-source software is distributed with the source code, allowing
individuals to examine and modify (Linux operating system). Operating system became

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increasingly user friendly (GUI features). Operating system designers developed techniques to
protect computers from attacks and Microsoft became the dominant.

 2000 and beyond: Middleware: is a software that links two separate applications to
communicate and exchange data via the internet, Massive parallelism, Computing on mobile
devices which are used for e-mail, web browsing.

Types of Operating System

The operating system can be of different types. They are as follows:

1. Batch OS In this system, the OS does not forward the jobs/tasks directly to the CPU. It works
by grouping together similar types of jobs under one category. Further, we name this group as a
‘batch’. Hence, the name batch OS. Examples are the payroll system, bank statement, etc.

2. Time-Shared OS When more than one task takes place on the system it is called time-
shared OS. As multiple tasks can run at the system at a time as per requirement. Hence, they all
share the CPU time one by one. Therefore, we also name it multitasking. The time that each task
gets is called quantum.A fixed interval of time is decided for each task. When the first task executes
for that period of time, the second task executes, and so on. Examples are UNIX etc.

3. Distributed OS In this system, there is more than one CPU present. The OS distributes the
tasks among all the processors. The processors do not share any memory or clock time. OS handles
all communication between them through various communication lines. Examples are LOCUS etc.

4. Network OS In these OS various systems are connected to a server. It allows the system to
share resources such as files, printers, applications, etc. Moreover, it gives the capability to serve to
manage these resources. Examples are UNIX, LINUX, Microsoft Windows Server 2008, etc.

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5. Real-Time OS (RTOS) In these systems, the time interval for processing and responding to
inputs is very small. Therefore, due to this quality, these are used in real-time situations. For
example in missile systems, robots, etc

Disk use, booting, and file systems are all related to how a computer stores and accesses data:
 Dual booting

The process of installing and running two different operating systems on a single
computer. This allows you to choose which operating system to use when you start your
computer.

 File systems
A structure that organizes and manages files on a storage device, such as a hard drive, solid
state drive (SSD), or USB flash drive. File systems define how data is stored, accessed, and
organized on the storage device.

 Boot partition

A partition on which you can install an operating system. When the computer starts to load the
OS, it uses the primary partition with the operating system installed on it.

 BIOS and UEFI

Firmware that acts as an interpreter between the OS and the computer firmware. They are used
at the start-up of the computer to initialize.
Some common file systems include:

FAT

FAT is by far the most simplistic of the file systems supported by Windows NT. The FAT file
system is characterized by the file allocation table (FAT), which is really a table that resides at
the very "top" of the volume. To protect the volume, two copies of the FAT are kept in case one
becomes damaged. In addition, the FAT tables and the root directory must be stored in a fixed
location so that the system's boot files can be correctly located.

A disk formatted with FAT is allocated in clusters, whose size is determined by the size of the
volume. When a file is created, an entry is created in the directory and the first cluster number

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containing data is established. This entry in the FAT table either indicates that this is the last
cluster of the file, or points to the next cluster.

Updating the FAT table is very important as well as time consuming. If the FAT table is not
regularly updated, it can lead to data loss. It is time consuming because the disk read heads must
be repositioned to the drive's logical track zero each time the FAT table is updated.

There is no organization to the FAT directory structure, and files are given the first open location
on the drive. In addition, FAT supports only read-only, hidden, system, and archive file
attributes.

Advantages of FAT

It is not possible to perform an undelete under Windows NT on any of the supported file
systems. Undelete utilities try to directly access the hardware, which cannot be done under
Windows NT. However, if the file was located on a FAT partition, and the system is restarted
under MS-DOS, the file can be undeleted. The FAT file system is best for drives and/or
partitions under approximately 200 MB, because FAT starts out with very little overhead. For
further discussion of FAT advantages, see the following:

 Windows NT Server "Concepts and Planning Guide," Chapter 5, section titled "Choosing a
File System"
 Windows NT Workstation 4.0 Resource Kit, Chapter 18, "Choosing a File System"
 Windows NT Server 4.0 Resource Kit "Resource Guide," Chapter 3, section titled "Which
File System to Use on Which Volumes"

Disadvantages of FAT

Preferably, when using drives or partitions of over 200 MB the FAT file system should not be
used. This is because as the size of the volume increases, performance with FAT will quickly
decrease. It is not possible to set permissions on files that are FAT partitions.

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FAT partitions are limited in size to a maximum of 4 Gigabytes (GB) under Windows NT and 2
GB in MS-DOS.

For further discussion of other disadvantages of FAT, see the following:

 Windows NT Server "Concepts and Planning Guide," Chapter 5, section titled "Choosing a
File System"
 Windows NT Workstation 4.0 Resource Kit, Chapter 18, "Choosing a File System"
 Microsoft Windows NT Server 4.0 Resource Kit "Resource Guide," Chapter 3, section
titled "Which File System to Use on Which Volumes"

HPFS

The HPFS file system was first introduced with OS/2 1.2 to allow for greater access to the larger
hard drives that were then appearing on the market. Additionally, it was necessary for a new file
system to extend the naming system, organization, and security for the growing demands of the
network server market. HPFS maintains the directory organization of FAT, but adds automatic
sorting of the directory based on filenames. Filenames are extended to up to 254 double byte
characters. HPFS also allows a file to be composed of "data" and special attributes to allow for
increased flexibility in terms of supporting other naming conventions and security. In addition,
the unit of allocation is changed from clusters to physical sectors (512 bytes), which reduces lost
disk space.

Under HPFS, directory entries hold more information than under FAT. As well as the attribute
file, this includes information about the modification, creation, and access date and times.
Instead of pointing to the first cluster of the file, the directory entries under HPFS point to the
FNODE. The FNODE can contain the file's data, or pointers that may point to the file's data or to
other structures that will eventually point to the file's data.

HPFS attempts to allocate as much of a file in contiguous sectors as possible. This is done in
order to increase speed when doing sequential processing of a file.

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HPFS organizes a drive into a series of 8-MB bands, and whenever possible a file is contained
within one of these bands. Between each of these bands are 2K allocation bitmaps, which keep
track of which sectors within a band have and have not been allocated. Banding increases
performance because the drive head does not have to return to the logical top (typically cylinder
0) of the disk, but to the nearest band allocation bitmap to determine where a file is to be stored..

Advantages of HPFS

HPFS is best for drives in the 200-400 MB range. For more discussion of the advantages of
HPFS, see the following:

 Windows NT Server "Concepts and Planning Guide," Chapter 5, section titled "Choosing a
File System"
 Windows NT Workstation 4.0 Resource Kit, Chapter 18, "Choosing a File System"
 Windows NT Server 4.0 Resource Kit "Resource Guide," Chapter 3, section titled "Which
File System to Use on Which Volumes"

Disadvantages of HPFS

Because of the overhead involved in HPFS, it is not a very efficient choice for a volume of under
approximately 200 MB. In addition, with volumes larger than about 400 MB, there will be some
performance degradation. You cannot set security on HPFS under Windows NT.

HPFS is only supported under Windows NT versions 3.1, 3.5, and 3.51. Windows NT 4.0 cannot
access HPFS partitions.

For additional disadvantages of HPFS, see the following:

 Windows NT Server "Concepts and Planning Guide," Chapter 5, section titled "Choosing a
File System"
 Windows NT Workstation 4.0 Resource Kit, Chapter 18, "Choosing a File System"
 Windows NT Server 4.0 Resource Kit "Resource Guide," Chapter 3, section titled "Which
File System to Use on Which Volumes"

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In computing, sectors and clusters are units of disk space, and fragmentation is a problem that
occurs when a file is written to multiple locations on a disk:
 Sectors
The smallest addressable unit of data storage on a disk, usually 512 bytes in size. Sectors are
the basic unit for reading and writing data by operating systems.
 Clusters
The smallest logical amount of disk space that can be allocated to a file. Clusters can span
multiple tracks or be discontinuous within a track. Typical cluster sizes range from 1 sector to
128 sectors.
 Fragmentation
Occurs when a file is written to multiple locations on a disk, making it difficult for the file
system to find all the pieces of the file. Fragmentation can slow down system performance.
The boot sector is the first sector on a hard disk or floppy disk that contains instructions for
starting a computer. It's also known as the Master Boot Record (MBR). The boot sector is
important because it's the gateway to the operating system and without it, the computer wouldn't
know how to start up.

Here are some other areas of a disk:

 Partition table

Located in the MBR, this table stores information about the primary partitions on the hard
disk. The computer uses this information to understand how the hard disk is organized before
starting the operating system.

 Tracks

These are the concentric circles on the magnetic media of a disk. A magnetic head moves over
the tracks to read and write data.

 GPT
A disk that uses GPT (GUID Partition Table) instead of MBR can have larger partition sizes
and store multiple copies of the same data across the hard drive. This makes it easier to repair
corrupted data.

2.1 NTLDR, GRUB, LILO AND OTHER BOOT LOADERS

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 NTLDR, GRUB, and LILO are all considered "boot loaders," which are small programs stored
on a computer's hard disk that are responsible for initiating the process of loading an operating
system when the computer starts up; essentially, they act as the bridge between the BIOS and the
operating system itself.

Explanation of each term:

 NTLDR (New Technology Loader):

This is the primary boot loader used in older versions of Microsoft Windows, responsible for
loading the Windows kernel into memory to start the operating system.

 GRUB (Grand Unified Bootloader):

A widely used, versatile boot loader often found on Linux systems, allowing users to choose
between multiple operating systems installed on a single computer (multiboot functionality).

 LILO (Linux Loader):

Another boot loader primarily used with Linux, considered a bit older than GRUB and known
for its simplicity.
Other notable boot loaders:

 PXE (Preboot Execution Environment):

Used for network booting, where the operating system is loaded from a network server instead
of the local hard drive.

 UEFI (Unified Extensible Firmware Interface):

A newer standard for booting systems, often with its own built-in boot loader functionality,
providing a more advanced boot process than traditional BIOS.

2.3INSTALL HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE

To install hardware and software on a computer, you can follow these steps:
Prepare
Gather the tools and hardware components you need, read the documentation, and plan the
installation layout. You should also back up your data and ensure you have a safe environment
with power and ventilation.
Install hardware

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 Check the hardware's compatibility and requirements, open the computer case, install the
component, close the case, and connect the component. Then, turn on the computer and
configure the new component.

Install software
Download the software installation file, double-click it to start the installation, and follow the
on-screen instructions. You can specify installation options like destination folders and
shortcuts
Install drivers :

Using the device's installation CD or DVD

Downloading the driver from the manufacturer's website

Using Windows Update

Using the Device Manager tool

Updating a driver in Device Manager: Right-click the device, select Update driver, and then
click Search automatically for drivers
You can also use the Device Manager to install legacy hardware:

1. Open Device Manager

2. Click Add Legacy Hardware on the Action tab

3. Click Next on the Welcome To The Add Hardware Wizard page

4. Follow the wizard prompts to finish configuring the hardware and provide the driver
when requested

A driver, or device driver, is a set of files that communicates with a computer's operating system
to tell a piece of hardware how to function.

2.4 PLUG AND PLAY (PNP) DEVICES

Plug and Play is a technology designed to simplify the process of adding and configuring
hardware devices to a computer system. The goal is to make it as easy as plugging in a new
device and having it "just work," without the need for manual configuration, driver installations,
or hardware address settings (common issues with older systems). Plug and Play is a technology
designed to simplify the process of adding and configuring hardware devices to a computer
system. The goal is to make it as easy as plugging in a new device and having it "just work,"

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without the need for manual configuration, driver installations, or hardware address settings
(common issues with older systems).

2.5 Installing/Uninstalling Application Software

Application software refers to programs that perform specific tasks (e.g., word processors, web
browsers, games). Installing and uninstalling them is a common task, and typically follows these
steps:

Installing Software:

1. Acquire Installer: Obtain the installer program, which is usually in the form of an executable
file (.exe on Windows, .dmg on macOS, .deb or .rpm on Linux). This might come from a
website, app store, or a physical disk.

2. Run Installer: Double-click the installer to run it.

3. Follow On-Screen Instructions: Most installers have a user-friendly interface that guides you
through the installation process. This usually involves:

• Accepting terms and conditions.

• Selecting the installation location (folder where the software will be stored).

• Choosing optional components to install.

• Confirming the install.

4. Installation: The installer program copies files to your hard drive and makes necessary
changes to your system (e.g., adding shortcuts, modifying the registry).

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5. Finishing Installation: After installation, the program is usually ready to use.

Uninstalling Software:

1. Use the Uninstaller: Most properly designed applications include an uninstaller progr am. This
is the preferred way to remove software, as it cleans up all the associated files and registry
settings.

• Windows: Often found in the Control Panel under "Programs" or "Apps and Features."

• macOS: Typically found in the "Applications" folder or you may need to use the app's
uninstaller (sometimes provided as a separate utility).

• Linux: Using the distribution's package manager (e.g., apt, yum, pacman) is standard practice
for uninstalling.

2. Follow Uninstallation Instructions: The uninstaller program will guide you through the
process of removing the software. This usually includes confirming that you want to uninstall the
program.

3. Removal: The uninstaller program deletes the program files, registry entries, and shortcuts.

4. Manual Removal (Less Recommended): In rare cases, if an uninstaller isn't available or fails,
you might need to manually delete files and registry entries. This is risky and should be done
cautiously.

2.6 Operating System Installation and Management

Operating system installation and management involves loading an operating system (OS) onto a
computer's hard disk, and then configuring and maintaining it:

 Installation

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The process of copying and configuring OS files so that the computer can boot and run. Some
steps for installing an OS include:

 Choosing the OS
 Backing up data
 Preparing installation media
 Following the installation wizard
 Management

The task of managing an OS, which is usually performed by a system administrator.

 Maintenance

Protecting the OS by installing and updating antivirus or anti-malware software, and scanning
the OS regularly

The main difference between installing Windows as a single boot or dual boot is the number of
operating systems installed on the computer:

 Single boot: A computer that is booted into a single operating system

 Dual boot: A computer that is booted into two or more operating systems, allowing the
user to choose which one to use
Dual booting can be useful for a number of reasons, including:

 Reducing hardware costs

By having multiple systems on a single machine, hardware costs can be reduced

To set up a dual boot, you can:

1. Back up your data
2. Create a bootable USB drive
3. Partition your hard drive
4. Disable fast startup in Windows
5. Boot from the USB drive

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 6. Install the operating system
7. Install the bootloader
8. Complete the installation and reboot

First, it's helpful to categorize the types of failures you might encounter:
1. Minor Issues:
• Symptoms: Slow performance, application crashes, minor errors, startup problems that
resolve after a reboot.
• Cause: Often caused by temporary glitches, corrupted temporary files, driver issues, or
conflicts between applications.
2. Startup Problems:
• Symptoms: Computer fails to boot properly, gets stuck during startup, shows error messages
before reaching the desktop.
• Cause: Often caused by corrupted system files, damaged boot configuration, hardware
failures, driver problems.
3. Blue Screen of Death (BSOD):
• Symptoms: System crashes abruptly and displays a blue screen with an error code.
• Cause: Often caused by driver issues, hardware problems, faulty software, memory issues, or
overheating.
4. Complete System Failure:
• Symptoms: System refuses to boot, no error messages, or cannot access the drive with
Windows installed.
• Cause: Often caused by severe hardware failures, complete hard drive failure, corruption of
the entire operating system.

General Steps for Windows OS Recovery

1. Restart the Computer: The first and simplest step. Sometimes, a basic restart can resolve minor
glitches.
2. Boot into Safe Mode:

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 Restart the computer and repeatedly press the F8 key (or Shift + F8) during startup (this might
vary slightly depending on your system and Windows version). This will show a boot menu.
Choose "Safe Mode" or "Safe Mode with Networking", Safe Mode starts Windows with a
minimal set of drivers and services. If the system works correctly in Safe Mode, the problem is
likely caused by a non-essential driver or program.
3. Check Hardware Connections: Make sure all cables are securely connected (power, hard drive,
display, etc.).
4. Remove Recently Added Hardware: If the issue started after adding new hardware, remove it
and restart the system.
5. Run Antivirus Scan: Scan for viruses and malware using an updated antivirus program. Use an
offline scanner if you cannot boot into windows..

2.7 INSTALL LINUX AS SINGLE OR DUAL BOOT

Single boot

A computer boots into a single operating system when it's turned on. To install Linux as a
single boot, you can download a Linux distribution image file, create a bootable USB drive,
boot your device from the USB drive, and follow the installation prompts.

Dual boot
A computer boots into two operating systems and allows the user to choose which one to
use. To install Linux as a dual boot, you can:
1. Create a partition on your hard drive for Linux
2. Download the Linux distribution and create a bootable USB drive or DVD
3. Restart your computer and boot from the Linux installation media
4. Follow the installation prompts and select the partition you created for Linux
5. Install the bootloader, such as GRUB, to manage the dual boot process
6. Complete the Linux installation and restart your computer
7. After restarting, you'll see a bootloader menu where you can choose between the
operating systems

2.8 Managing user accounts

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The Access Manager perspective contains the User Management view. This view enables you to
create and manage user accounts and assign them to data stores. In order to work in the Access
Manager perspective, you must have a System Administrator role and be enabled to manage user
accounts and datastores.

Use the Access Manager view to:

Add, modify, delete, or copy user accounts

Adding a user account is necessary to provide users with the ability to connect to Access
Server and log into Management Console. When adding a user account, you must specify
a unique user name. When setting a password for the user, it must meet any complex
password requirements you may have set in Management Console.
Assign a datastore to a user
Assigning a datastore provides the user access to an instance of CDC Replication and the
ability to connect to the datastore that you have made available for replication on the
server.
Change the security role of a user
Changing the security role on a user account determines the level of access a user has
in Management Console. Users can work in either a System Administrator account,
Administrator account, Operator account, or Monitor account.
Generate a report on selected user accounts
Generating a report on a specific user account can help you keep track of which
datastores the user has access to, the role of the user, the date of user account creation,
and the last time it was modified. You can also track account status settings such as if the
account is locked, disabled, if the user is required to change their password at next login,
or if the account has a password expiry policy set on it.
Understanding user roles
There are four user role types available in the Management Console, each with varying degrees
of access and control:
System Administrator
Specifies that users assigned to this role can perform all available operations
in Management Console. Only users that require full operational access to
the Monitoring, Configuration and Access Manager perspectives should be assigned to
this role. System Administrators can also modify system parameters to calibrate their
replication environment.
Enable user account and datastore administration
Enables a user assigned the System Administrator role access to the Access
Manager perspective. If you enable this option for a user, then they can create users and

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 datastores, as well as define Access Server password settings. This option is available
only to the System Administrator role.
Administrator
Specifies that users assigned to this role can access both
the Monitoring and Configuration perspectives in Management Console. Administrators
can create new subscriptions, can add, import and export projects, but are not able to
access the Access Manager perspective, and cannot add or edit users or data stores.
Administrators can start and end replication.
Operator
Specifies that users assigned to this role can access both
the Monitoring and Configuration perspectives in Management Console. Operators can
add, import and export projects, but they cannot create new subscriptions. Users assigned
to the Operator role can start, stop, and monitor replication activities. They can also view
the tables selected for refresh and start a refresh on a subscription. Operators can view
notifications sent by subscriptions or datastores. However, users assigned to this role
cannot configure replication and select or remove tables from a refresh.
Monitor
Specifies that users assigned to this role only have access to the Monitoring perspective
in Management Console. Users assigned to the Monitor role can view events and
statistics. Monitors can view the replication state and status of a subscription and can
view latency threshold information. However, users assigned to this role cannot start or
stop replication, configure replication, refresh tables, or view notifications sent by
subscriptions and data stores.

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 Reference
Books:
 The Practice of System and Network Administration" by Thomas A. Limoncelli, Christina
J. Hogan, and Strata R. Chalup:
"Software Maintenance:
 Concepts and Practice" by Penny Grubb and Armstrong
Websites:
 Equipment Manufacturer Websites: Check for support resources and information about
maintenance software tools.
 Software Review Websites: Sites like G2 or Capterra may provide reviews of different
CMMS software.

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