3.

Particle Model of Matter

1. Changes of State and the Particle Model
Density
o Defined as ‘The mass per unit volume’ of a material.
o Objects made from low density materials typically have a low mass.
o Similarly sized objects made from high density materials typically
have a high mass.
o For example, the air inside a balloon is less dense than a small bar
of lead despite occupying a larger volume.

Solids, Liquids and Gases

o The Particle Model describes arrangement and movement of
particles in a substance.
o It can be used to explain:
- the different states of matter
- physical properties such as differences in density
 o In solids and liquids, molecules are tightly packed together. The
difference is, in a liquid, molecules have enough energy to push past
each other. As a result, the density of solids and liquids are roughly
the same.
o Because molecules are widely separated in a gas, they have
significantly lower densities than solids or liquids.
o At room temperature, the distance between gas molecules is
approximately 10 times larger than in solids or liquids. Thus, the
density of a gas is around one-thousandth (1/1000) of the density of
a solid or liquid.
o For example: The density of water is 1000 kg/m3. The density of air
at sea level and room temperature is 1.3 kg/m3
Required Practical (5): Determining Density
o Equipment List

 Experiment 1: Measuring the Density of Regularly Shaped Objects

o The aim is to determine density by using measurements of an
object’s dimensions.
o IV = Shape of Object (affects Volume)
o DV = Mass of the object
o 1. Place the object on a digital balance and note down its mass.
2. Use either the ruler, Vernier calipers or micrometer to measure
the objects dimensions (width, height, length, radius) – the
apparatus will depend on the size of the object.
3. Repeat these measurements and take an average of these
readings.
4. Calculate the volume of the object depending on whether it is a
cube, sphere, cylinder (or other regular shape)
5. Using the mass and volume obtained, calculate the density by
equation.
 Experiment 2: Measuring the Density of Irregularly Shaped Objects
o The aim is to determine density using a displacement technique.
o IV = Different irregular shapes / mass
o DV = Volume of displaced water
 o 1. Place the object on a digital balance and note down its mass.
2. Fill the eureka can with water up just below the spout and
place an empty measuring cylinder below its spout.
3. Carefully lower the object into the eureka can using a string.
4. The volume of the displaced water is equal to the volume of
the irregular object. Note down.
5. Repeat these measurements and take an average of these
readings.
6. Using the mass and volume obtained, calculate the density by
equation.
 Experiment 3: Measuring Density of Liquids
o The aim is to determine the density of a liquid by finding a
difference in its mass.
o IV = Volume of water added
o DV= Mass of cylinder
o 1. Place an empty measuring cylinder on a digital balance and note
down the mass. 2. Fill the cylinder with the liquid and note down the
volume.
3. Note down the new reading on the digital balance.
4. Repeat these measurements and take an average.
5. Find the mass of the liquid by subtracting the final reading from
the initial reading: Mass of liquid = Mass of cylinder with water –
mass of cylinder
6. Using the mass and volume, calculate density using equation.
 Evaluating the Experiments
o Systematic Errors: Ensure the digital balance is set to zero before
taking measurements of mass. This includes when measuring the
density of the liquid – remove the measuring cylinder and zero
the balance before adding the liquid.
o Random Errors: A main cause of error in this experiment is in the
measurements of length. Ensure to take repeat readings and
calculate an average to keep this error to a minimum . Place the
irregular object in the displacement can carefully, as dropping it
from a height might cause water to splash which will lead to an
incorrect volume reading.
 Safety Considerations
o There is a lot of glassware, ensure it is handled carefully. The
measuring cylinder should not be placed on an electric balance
when liquid is poured into it. This could lead to electric shock. Stand
up during the experiment to react quickly to any spills.
Changes of State
o Under normal circumstances, unlike chemical changes, physical
changes (changes of state) are reversible. If the change is reversed,
the material regains its original properties.
o When substances change state, mass is conserved (stays same).
2. Internal Energy & Energy Transfers
Internal Energy
o Defined as, ‘The total kinetic and potential energy stored inside a system
by the particles that make up the system due to their motion and
positions’.
 The molecules within a substance have energy in their:
o Kinetic store (due to their random motion / vibration)
o Potential store (due to their position relative to each other)
o These stores form the total energy that makes up the internal energy of
the system.

Heating
o Heating a system changes a substance's internal energy by increasing the
kinetic energy of its particles. The temperature of the material is related to
the average kinetic energy of the molecules.
o The higher the temperature, the higher the kinetic energy of the
molecules.
o This means they move around faster. This increase in kinetic energy (and
therefore internal energy) can cause the temperature of the system to
increase or produce a change of state (solid to liquid or liquid to gas)
Change of State
o When a substance reaches a certain temperature, energy will stop being
transferred to the kinetic store of the molecules and will be transferred to
their potential store instead.
o This energy goes into overcoming the intermolecular forces of attraction
between the molecules, causing them to move further apart from one
another leading to a change of state (For example, liquid to gas)
o When a substance changes its state: The potential energy of the
molecules increases, allowing them to overcome the intermolecular forces
of attraction.
o The kinetic energy remains the same, meaning that the temperature will
remain the same, even though the substance is still being heated.
o In summary, an increase in internal energy from heating can cause a
change of state.

Specific Heat Capacity

 Defined as: The amount of energy required to raise the temperature of 1
kg of the substance by 1 °C
 An increase of temperature in a system depends on:
o The mass of the substance heated
o The type of material
o The energy input to the system
 Energy is transferred to the thermal store of the substance
 ΔE = mcΔθ
o Where: ΔE = change in energy, in joules (J)
 o m = mass, in kilograms (kg)
o c = specific heat capacity, in joules per kilogram per degree Celsius (J/kg
°C)
o Δθ = change in temperature, in degrees Celsius (°C)
o If a substance has a low SHC, it heats up and cools down quickly and takes
less energy to change its temperature.
o If a substance has a high SHC, it heats up and cools down slowly and takes
more energy to change its temperature.
o SHC is mainly used for liquids and solids.
o The SHC of different substances determines how useful they would be for
a specific purpose (eg. choosing the best material for kitchen appliances)
o Good thermal conductors, such as copper, conduct heat well due to their
low SHC
o On the other hand, water has a very high SHC, making it ideal for heating
homes as the water remains hot in a radiator for a long time.
Latent Heat
o Defined as, ‘The energy needed for a substance to change state’
 Comes in two types depending on the change of state:
o Latent heat of fusion
o Latent heat of vaporisation
 When a change of state occurs, the energy supplied changes the energy
stored (internal energy) but not the temperature. It remains constant
despite energy being transferred.
o This is because the energy is being used to overcome intermolecular
forces of attraction between the molecules instead of increasing the
kinetic energy of the molecules.
o Molecules in a solid are tightly bound together, whereas, in a liquid, they
are free to flow. Therefore, to change the state, the molecules need to gain
enough energy to overcome intermolecular forces of attraction holding
them in their rigid solid structure.
o Molecules in a liquid are less tightly bound together, whereas, in a gas,
they are free to move completely. Therefore, to change the state from a
liquid to a gas, the molecules need to gain enough energy to overcome
the intermolecular forces of attraction holding them close together in their
liquid structure. This is done by latent heat.
o The temperature remains constant when melting and boiling, despite
energy being transferred to the substance.

Specific Latent Heat

o Defined as, ‘The amount of energy required to change the state of 1 kg of
a substance with no change in temperature’ Symbol = L Units =
(J/kg)
 o There are 2 types:
 Specific latent heat of fusion.
o Changing the state between a solid and liquid
o Solid to liquid, or liquid to solid.
 Specific latent heat of vaporisation
o Changing the state between a liquid and gas
o Liquid to gas, or gas to liquid

Latent Heat of Fusion

o When a solid substance is melted, its temperature stays constant until all
of it has melted.
o Defined as, ‘Amount of energy needed per kg for all particles in the
substance to overcome the intermolecular forces of attraction holding
them together in their solid state.’
o If a substance in its liquid state is frozen, the substance will solidify at the
same temperature as its melting point.
o In this case, it is defined as, ‘Amount of energy per kg transferred away
from the substance until all particles have succumbed to the
intermolecular forces of attraction that hold them together in their solid
structure.’

Latent Heat of Vaporisation:

o Defined as, ‘Energy required to convert 1 kg between a liquid and a
gaseous state with no change in temperature.’
o This applies when vaporising a liquid or condensing a gas.
o When a liquid substance is vaporised, its temperature will stay constant
until all of the substance has vaporised.
o The latent heat of vaporisation is the amount of energy per kg needed for
all the particles in the substance to overcome the intermolecular forces of
attraction holding them together in their liquid state.
o If a substance is a gas and is condensed, it will condense at the same
temperature as its boiling point.
o In this case, it is defined as, ‘Amount of energy per kg transferred away
from the substance until all the particles in the substance have
succumbed to the intermolecular forces of attraction that hold them
together in their liquid state.’
Equation
 E = mL
 o E = thermal energy required for a change in state, in joules (J)
o m = mass, in kilograms (kg)
o L = specific latent heat, in joules per kilogram (J/kg)

Heating and Cooling Graphs

o Used to summarise how temperature of a substance changes when energy
is transferred to or away from it and where changes of state occur.
o When energy is transferred to a solid, its temperature increases as the
particles gain kinetic energy and vibrate faster. Once the substance
reaches its melting point, the energy is used to overcome the
intermolecular forces holding the particles in the solid state, causing the
temperature to stop rising. This is called melting, which continues until all
particles are in the liquid state. As more energy is added, the temperature
of the liquid rises as the particles gain more kinetic energy and move
faster. When the substance reaches its boiling point, the energy is used to
overcome the intermolecular forces in the liquid, stopping the temperature
increase. This is called evaporation or vaporization, continuing until all
particles become gas.

o The process of cooling is the reverse of heating, as energy is transferred

away. A gas turns into a liquid through condensation, and a liquid turns
into a solid through freezing. When energy is transferred away from a gas,
its temperature decreases as the particles lose kinetic energy and move
slower. When the substance reaches its boiling point, energy is taken from
the energy used to overcome intermolecular forces, stopping the
temperature decrease. The particles are then held together in the liquid
state, a process called condensation, which continues until all particles are
in the liquid state. When energy is transferred away from a liquid, its
temperature decreases as the particles lose more kinetic energy and
move slower. When the substance reaches its melting point, energy is
taken from the energy used to overcome intermolecular forces, causing
the temperature to stop decreasing. The particles then become held
together in the solid state, a process called freezing, continuing until all
particles are in the solid state.
 o Origin to A: Energy transferred to the substance increases the kinetic
energy of the particles while it is a solid.
o A to B: Energy transferred to the substance overcomes the intermolecular
forces of attraction, increasing potential energy and melting the
substance.
o B to C: Energy transferred to the substance further increases the kinetic
energy of the particles while the substance is a liquid.
o C to D: Energy transferred to the substance overcomes the intermolecular
forces of attraction, increasing potential energy and boiling the substance.
o D to E: Energy transferred to the substance further increases the kinetic
energy of the particles while the substance is a gas.
Specific Heat Capacity V Specific Latent Heat
 Specific heat capacity is the amount of heat energy required to raise the
temperature of a substance by a certain amount.
o The substance will still be in the same state, just raised to a different
temperature (A liquid heated from 5 °C to 20 °C)
 Specific latent heat is the amount of heat energy needed to cause a
change of state. (Boiling of water or melting of ice)
o The substance will be changing states, but still at the same temperature.
(A liquid evaporating into a gas)
3. Particle Model and Pressure
Kinetic Theory
 Temperature & Kinetic Energy
o Molecules in a gas are in constant random motion at high speeds.
o Temperature of the gas is related to the average kinetic energy of
molecules.
o The hotter the gas, the higher the average kinetic energy.
o The cooler the gas, the lower the average kinetic energy.
o Random motion means that the molecules are travelling in no
specific path and undergo sudden changes in motion.
o The random motion of tiny particles in a fluid is known as Brownian
motion.
 Temperature & Pressure
o As the temperature of a gas increases, the average speed of the
molecules also increases, meaning there is an increase in kinetic
energy.
 Pressure
o Molecules of gas in a container will collide with the container walls.
o Pressure is defined as ‘The force exerted per unit area of the
container’.
o Therefore, a gas at high pressure has more frequent collisions on the
container walls and therefore over-all more force per unit area.
o If the gas is heated up, the molecules will travel at a higher speed.
This means they will collide with the walls more often and there will
be an increase in pressure.
o Therefore, at a constant volume, an increase in temperature
increases the pressure of a gas.

Pressure and Volume

 If the temperature of a gas remains constant, the pressure of the
gas changes when it is:
o Compressed – decreases the volume which increases the pressure
o Expanded – increases the volume which decreases the pressure
o The pressure produces a net force at right angles to the wall of the
gas container.
 o Thus, if the gas is compressed, the molecules will hit the walls of the
container more frequently and create a larger overall net force
which increases the pressure.

 Equation: pV = constant
o p = pressure in pascals (Pa)
o V = volume in metres cubed (m)

 P1V1 = P2V2
o P1 = initial pressure in pascals (Pa)
o V1 = initial volume in metres cubed (m3)
o P2 = final pressure in pascals (Pa)
o V2 = final volume in metres cubed (m3)
o This equation is sometimes referred to as Boyle's Law

Work on a gas
o Work is the transfer of energy through a force.
 When work is done on a gas (it is compressed), there is energy
transfer and an increase in temperature (and internal energy)
o Work on a gas can be done through compression when a force
moves a piston a certain distance.
o An example is a bicycle pump. Placing a thumb on the end of a
pump and rapidly compressing it causes the gas inside to get warm,
demonstrating work done on the gas and an increase in
temperature.
 If a gas is allowed to expand, the gas will do work instead which
causes the gas to lose energy, resulting in a decrease in
temperature.
o Diesel engine operation involves the rapid compression of a mixture
of gas and fuel. This compression increases the temperature of the
gas, which causes the fuel to ignite. In another example, when
carbon dioxide is compressed in a high-pressure cylinder, it is stored
under pressure. When the pressure is released, the gas loses energy
and cools down, causing the carbon dioxide to freeze and form dry
ice.