Electrical principles

1.2.8.1 Introduction to the learning outcome

This learning outcome specifies the content of competencies required to Apply electrical
principles. It includes terms and Concepts, electrical principles, electrical circuits, and
electrical safety.
1.2.5.2 Performance Standard
8.1 Electrical principles are identified based on scientific principles
8.2 Electrical standards are interpreted based on international standards
8.3 Occupational safety and health practises are identified based on statutory and
sector regulations.
8.4 Simple electrical circuits are identified based on international standards.

1.2.5.3 Information Sheet

Electricity
Electricity, simply put, is the flow of electric current along a conductor. This electric current
takes the form of free electrons that transfer from one atom to the next. Thus, the more free
electrons a material has, the better it conducts. There are three primary electrical parameters:
the volt, the ampere and the ohm.
The Volt
The pressure that is put on free electrons that causes them to flow is known as electromotive
force (EMF). The volt is the unit of pressure, i.e., the volt is the amount of electromotive
force required to push a current of one ampere through a conductor with a resistance of one
ohm.
The Ampere
The ampere defines the flow rate of electric current.
The Ohm
The ohm is the unit of resistance in a conductor. Three things determine the amount of
resistance in a conductor: its size, its material, e.g., copper or aluminum, and its temperature.
A conductor’s resistance increases as its length increases or diameter decreases. The more
conductive the materials used, the lower the conductor resistance becomes. Conversely, a
temperature rise will generally increase resistance in a conductor.

Terms and Concepts

• Electric Shock: A stimulation of nerve with a resulting contraction of muscles and a
feeling of concussion.
 • Alternating Current: Current that reverses direction in response to a change in voltage
polarity
• Alternator: A rotating machine used to produce electrical energy
• Amp: The unit of electrical current
• Amplification: The process of increasing power, voltage or current of an electrical
signal
• Anode: The more positive terminal of a diode or other electronic device
• Attenuation: The reduction in the level of power, current or voltage
• Capacitor: A device capable of storing electrical charge or in AC circuits creating
phase shifts
• Cathode: The more negative terminal of a diode or other electronic device
• Circuit Breaker: A protective device that will break the supply to a circuit in the event
of excessive current
• Current: The rate of flow of electrons
• Diode: A two terminal electronic device that permits current flow in only one
direction
• Phase: The angular displacement of one alternating signal with respect to another
• Power: The rate of energy consumption
• Protection: The equipment necessary in a circuit to prevent overcurrent
• Rectifier: An electronic circuit that converts ac into dc
• Relay: An electromechanical device used to switch signals
• Three phase: A supply consisting of three ac voltages with a phase difference of 120º
• Transistor: A semiconductor device used for amplification or switching
• Volt: The unit of voltage
• Voltage: The amount of energy, or driving force, available to move electrons from one
point to another in a circuit path

Electrical physics
All matter is composed of atoms. Each atom comprises of a central nucleus with a number of
electrons associated with it. One particular model suggests that this can be considered rather
like the sun (the nucleus) surrounded by planets (the electrons). The number of electrons
orbiting the nucleus determines the property of the atom. The simplest atom is hydrogen
which has only one electron, whilst copper has twenty-nine electrons surrounding it’s
nucleus.

Each electron carries a negative charge of electricity and this negative charge is balanced by
an equal and opposite positive charge on the nucleus. The atom, as a whole is electrically
neutral.

Fig 1.29: Atom

Atoms and Electrons

The electrons can move from atom to atom due to energy that they absorb in the form of heat.
This movement can be considered as being random.
ELECTRICAL PRINCIPLES
Electrical Units
Voltage
Voltage can be described as the driving force or pressure behind electricity. The physical term
electromotive force (emf) is used to describe this quantity although the term is not used
generally. Voltage is measured in volts and is often the fixed quantity in an electrical system.
The voltage is the supply of energy to a circuit and consequently is supplied from a number
of sources. A DC system will have a fixed DC voltage supplied from say a battery or DC
Power Supply Unit. An AC system will have its AC supply typically from the mains or on
occasions a local generator.
Current
Current is the flow of electrons that arises from applying a voltage to a circuit. Current is
measured in amps (amperes). A flow of 1 amp is approximately six million, million, million
electrons flowing per second. Current will flow when a voltage is applied and there is a
complete circuit (or path). The total current flowing in a circuit will be determined by the
resistance.
Power
Power is the rate at which energy is delivered or consumed and is measured in Watts. In most
cases, the conversion of energy is not 100% efficient and a proportion of the input power
appears as wanted output. The total wanted power at the output compared to the input is
indicated by the efficiency of the system.

Efficiency = Power Input X 100%

Power Output

Another form of energy is always produced as a byproduct. Most commonly this by product
is
heat and it is often necessary to find ways of disposing of this heat by providing extra
methods
of cooling by having fins or fans. Failure to dispose of this heat can cause the equipment to
overheat with serious consequences. It is important to understand how a piece of equipment
is
cooled and any factor that hinders this process can result in damage.

Fig 1.30: Air cooling

Restricting the throughput of air can affect the cooling and result in overheating. Power is lost
through resistance as this causes heat. Conductors possess resistance and this generates heat
and results in a power loss.
For example, a loud speaker coil possesses resistance. This resistance is not needed in the
process of converting electrical power to sound power but will produce heat. This heat will
need to be dissipated to protect the speaker from overheating.

Magnetism
An electric current passing through a conductor produces a magnetic field around that
conductor. The polarity and intensity of the magnetic field is dependent on the direction and
size of current respectively. Motors make use of the magnetic effects to create forces between
magnetic fields that in turn create motion.
Resistance
Resistance is determined, amongst other things, by the material where all materials have a
property called resistivity. This property depends upon the ability of electrons in that material
to be able to leave their orbits around the nucleus and contribute to current flow.
Materials where this can happen easily will be referred to as conductors whereas materials
where this cannot happen easily will be referred to as non-conductors or insulators.
Resistivity is measured in Ohms / meter.
Conductors
In a conductor, the electrons are not firmly attached to the nucleus and are normally
interchanging between atoms randomly. They can easily leave their orbit when an
external potential is applied and so will cause current to flow. A conductor is classified as a
material in which there will easily be current flow i.e., one that possesses a low resistivity.
Examples: silver, copper, aluminum,
Insulators
In an insulator the electrons are firmly attached to the nucleus and will not be moved from
their orbit when an external potential is applied. The interchange of electrons will not take
place and consequently there will be no current flow. An insulator is defined as material that
will not pass current and will have a high value of resistivity. (rubber, PVC, porcelain…)
Energy
Energy is the capacity of an object or a system to do work and is measured in Joules. Energy
can neither be created nor destroyed but can be converted from one source to another.
Example:
A lamp converts electrical energy into light energy.
A motor converts electrical energy into mechanical energy
A battery converts chemical energy into electrical energy

The potential energy of water in a highland reservoir is converted into kinetic energy as the
water flows down the inlet tube where it is converted into electrical energy by a generator
driven from a turbine.
 ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS

Series Circuits

Fig 1.31: Series Circuit

Consider a circuit where two items are connected together in such a way that the current path
is through both components. There are two basic features
• the same current will flow through both component
• there will be volt drops across both components

Voltage Law in closed circuit:

The sum of the voltage drops around the circuit will add up to the supply voltage, i.e., there is
no voltage lost.

This circuit is a Series Circuit where the total resistance is given by

R(total) = R1 + R2
General expression:
The total resistance in a series circuit is the sum of all the individual resistances
R(total) = R1 + R2 + R3 + ....

Examples
1. Three resistances of 10Ω, 25Ω and 35Ω are connected in series.
The total resistance will be

10Ω + 25Ω + 35Ω = 70Ω

2. A cable of total resistance 0.3Ω is joined to a cable with resistance 0.15Ω.

The total cable resistance will be

0.3Ω + 0.15Ω = 0.45Ω

Parallel circuits

Fig 1.32: Parallel Circuit

Now consider a circuit where two resistances are connected such that they are both connected
to the same supply. There are two basic features
• each component will have the same voltage across it
• the current drawn from the supply will split with a proportion of the current
flowing through R1 and the remainder flowing through R2.

The current through either resistance can be expressed as

I = Voltage
Resistance

The total current drawn from the supply will be the sum of the currents through the two
resistances.

From this it can be appreciated that the current drawn by two resistances connected in parallel
would be more that the current drawn by one resistance. If the two resistances were the same
value then the current drawn from the supply would be twice the value compared to one
resistance.

General expression:

The reciprocal of the total resistance is equal to the sum of the reciprocals of each parallel
resistance

1 = 1 + 1 + 1
R(total) R1 R2 R3 …

When there are only two resistances, there is an alternative although easier-to-use formula

TOTAL RESISTANCE = Product

Sum

R (total) = R1 x R2
R1 + R2

Example
1. Two equal resistances of 10Ω are connected in parallel.
The total resistance will be calculated by

Product = 10 x 10 = 100 = 5Ω
Sum 10 + 10 20

Note that when the two resistances are equal the resistance is halved.

2. Two resistances of 20Ω and 30Ω are connected in parallel.

The total resistance is given by

Product = 20 x 30 = 600 = 12Ω

Sum 20 + 30 50

Series-parallel circuits

Fig 1.33: Series - Parallel Circuit

A series parallel arrangement consists of a mixture of series and parallel circuits.

It can be seen that the circuit consists of a series resistance in series with a parallel network.
This circuit could be analyzed by calculating the parallel resistance first (R2 in parallel with
R3) and then considering this in series with the series resistor(R1).
Example:

Total resistance is given by

10 Ω in parallel with 10 Ω

Product = 10 x 10 = 100 = 5Ω
Sum 10 + 10 20

This value is in series with 10Ω

Total circuit resistance is therefore 10Ω + 5Ω = 15Ω

Circuit Current = 30V = 2A

15Ω
ELECTRICAL SAFETY

The Dangers of Electricity

Most people think of electricity as being dangerous by virtue of its ability to produce electric
shock. However, there are many other dangers which include
a. Electric shock
b. Electric burn
c. Fires of electrical origin
 d. Electric arcing
e. Explosions started or caused by electricity

1. Electric Shock
Electric shock is the effect on the nervous system of passing electricity through the human
body. The current affects the normal control of the body muscles and the effects of this vary
from a mild tingling sensation to death.

Causes of Electric Shock

• Contact between the live conductor and earth

• Contact between Live and Neutral in a single or three phase supply

• Contact between Live and Live in a Three Phase Supply

 2. Electric Burns
Electricity passing through any resistance liberates heat energy. The element of an electric
fire
for example has resistance to the flow of current and heats up as a consequence. In the same
way, human tissue resists the flow of electric current and the heat liberated causes burns.
Such burns are commonly associated with electric shock and often occur at the point of
contact with the source of electricity.
In certain circumstances it is possible to suffer electrical burns without being in contact with
an
electrical source. High powered radio transmitters and microwave ovens, for example, can
produce electrical burns due to high frequency electromagnetic waves.

3. Electrical Explosion
This literally means blowing a piece of electrical equipment apart due to electrical overload.
A
12V car headlight, for example, will explode if mains voltage is connected across it.

4. Explosion Initiated by Electricity

Certain vapors, gases and fine dusts may explode if triggered by even tiny electric sparks.
Examples are petrol, ether, methane, flour dust and talcum powder.

5. Arcing
The air is normally a good insulator, but under certain circumstances this insulation is broken
down and sparks jump across air gaps. This is known as arcing. The most spectacular arcing
is
lightning, but you can see the effect quite clearly when you connect up a car battery. Arcing
has its own particular dangers
a. electrical burns
b. ultra violet radiation - this gives symptoms similar to that of sunburn. The
radiation from an arc welder can be particularly dangerous to the eyes.
c. infra-red heat or heat radiation - this will burn in the same way as putting your
hand close to an electric fire
d. burns due to molten metal particles which often accompany arcing

6. Fire Caused by Electricity

Fires present a number of dangers. The most obvious is burning. But smoke or toxic fume
inhalation is at least as dangerous. The main causes of fire are
a. overheating of cables and electrical equipment due to the passage of too
much current
b. current leaking due to poor or inadequate insulation
c. overheating of inflammable materials placed too close to electrical equipment
d. the ignition of flammable materials by arcing, sparking or the scattering of hot
particles from electrical equipment

Action in the Event of Electric Shock

Break contact with the supply by switching off, removing plug or by wrenching cable free. If
this should not be possible, stand on some insulating material, such as dry wood or rubber
and
break contact by pushing the casualty free. In a place of work a First Aider should be
summoned in the event of a person suffering from electric shock.

Treatment for Electric Shock

Reference should be made to an appropriate First Aid manual
• St Johns Ambulance
• St Andrews Ambulance Association
• The British Red Cross Society
Slight Shock
• Reassure the casualty and make them comfortable
• If in doubt refer to a medical practitioner
• Report the accident to the appropriate personnel

Burns
• Cool the tissue with cold water or other non-flammable fluid close to hand
• Remove any smoldering clothing. Clothing that has caught fire but has cooled
need not be removed
• Remove anything of a constrictive nature; rings, bangles, belts and boots
• Reassure the casualty
• Dress wounds to prevent infection
• Give sips of fluid to the casualty if conscious
• If the casualty is severely burned arrange for them to be taken to hospital
without delay
• Report the accident to the appropriate personnel

Abrasions
• Clean and dress the wound to prevent further infection
• Reassure the casualty
• Arrange for medical help if necessary
• Report the accident to the appropriate personnel

Casualty Unconscious but breathing

• Loosen clothing about the neck, chest, and waist and place casualty in the
recovery position
• Keep a constant check on breathing and pulse
• Arrange for medical help if necessary
• Report the accident to the appropriate personnel
Safe Working Practices
Introduction
Death or injury can occur if you work on a piece of electrical equipment and you;
• are not adequately trained in the dangers of working on such equipment
• do not have the necessary knowledge of electricity and the equipment being worked
on
• are careless and negligent
• do not observe safety precautions

Remember that you do not only endanger yourself but also others. Causing death or suffering
to others can not only be traumatic but could also have severe legal implications as a result of
a breach of health and safety law.

Making tests on live equipment

This is a hazardous situation that could result in a fatality. Remember if you can make an
equivalent test with the circuit dead that method should be used in preference to a live circuit
test.
Before making any tests on a live circuit you must:
• Be aware of all the voltages that you can encounter whilst working on a system.
• Be aware of the voltages that may be generated within a circuit that may be higher
then an incoming supply voltage
• At all times you must be fully alert to the parts that you are touching
• Ensure that any tools and equipment that you use are in good working condition and
of the correct type and standard for the task being undertaken
• If it is appropriate disconnect power, connect the test instrument in such a way that it
can be operated hands free. Power can be reconnected and the instrument read without
contact. Before removing the instrument disconnect the power.
• If a circuit is interrupted to make a test ensure that it is reconnected correctly
• Always ensure that earths are connected
Electrical Isolation
The way in which the electrical supply is connected to the equipment will affect the certainty
of
whether the supply is disconnected. Equipment fed from a connector such as plug can easily
be observed as being disconnected and there ought to be little doubt that the equipment being
worked on is disconnected from the supply. Switchable isolators can sometimes be difficult to
locate or identify. These isolators should be easily accessible and clearly marked indicating
the
equipment to which it relates.

Isolation
The term isolation is defined here as disconnecting the supply and ensuring that it stays
disconnected for the duration of the work being carried out. This is clearly to prevent
inadvertent switching on of the supply at a time when the person working on the equipment is
not aware.
Precautions should be taken to prevent this reconnection of the supply during this
time. Such precautions could include the use of lockable isolators which can be locked in the
‘off’ position. The person working on the equipment uses a padlock to lock the supply off and
they hold the key to that padlock. In some instances where several people are working on
equipment, the use of clasps that allow the padlocks of all those working to be fitted is good
practice.

Stored Energy
In some cases, electrical energy will be stored within the equipment even when the electrical
supply has been isolated.
In the case where energy will be stored within a system there should be
• warning labels indicating this and
• an automatic means for this to be discharged when the power is removed

Working on equipment made dead

Whenever work is to be carried out the requires the assembly or disassembly of electrical
equipment that equipment must be disconnected from its source of supply.
The person carrying out the work has to be absolutely sure that the supply has been
disconnected and the equipment is dead. Extra tests should be carried out if there can be any
doubt which may include
• observing for signs of the equipment being active,
• operating controls on the equipment
• testing with an appropriate test instrument.

If the person carrying out this work has any doubt over the state of the equipment assistance
and clarification must be sought.

Replacing faulty items

• Power should always be removed before any part is disconnected
• identify the method of isolating a machine from its supply
• Adequate precautions should be taken to ensure that the supply cannot inadvertently
be reconnected
• Be aware of any voltages that will remain in a circuit when the mains power is
removed
• Note connections before they are removed
• Note any damage to cables or other components
• When power is reconnected observe for any signs of a problem
✓ Smoking
✓ Sparking
✓ Malfunction of machine

Earthing
The earth connection should be very securely made ensuring that solid contact is made with
bare metal. It may well be necessary to ensure that any paint has been removed to enhance
this contact. If for any reason this connection is removed it should be replaced before the
equipment is turned on.
 1.2.5.4 Learning Activities

Activity 1
Given a circuit, use loops to obtain equations which will be solved to determine unknown
currents, for example current supplied by generator, current through battery A and B.

Activity 2
Build circuits on breadboard, the electrical quantities should be measured and compared with
calculated values using Ohm’s and Kirchhoff’s laws.