TOPIC 1: VALENCY AND VALENCE

By the end of this topic, you should be able to:

(i) Define valency and valence

(ii) Come up with valency of metals, transition metals, non-metals and radicals
(iii) Deduce chemical formula using valencies

VALENCY

Is the combining power of atoms.

It is measured by making use of valence electrons

VALENCE ELECTRONS

Are elctrons which are shared, gained or lost during a chemical reaction

1.THE VALENCY OF METALS

The valency of metals is the number of electrons which they lose during a chemical reaction’

Remember group elements lose 1 electron, so valency is 1

Group 2 elements lose 2 electrons, so valency is 2

Group 3 elements lose 3 electrons, so the valency is 3

EXAMPLES

The table below is showing metals along with their valencies

NAME OF ATOMIC SYMBOL VALENCY

METAL
Magnesium Mg 2
sodium Na 1
Potassium K 1
Aluminium Al 3
Lithium Li 1

The smaller the number, the grater the combining power of the atom. In the table above,
elements with valency 1 are more reactive than those with valency 2.

2. VALENCY OF TRANSITION METALS

These are metals which have more than one valence

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EXAMPLES OF TRANSITION METALS AND THEIR VALENCIES

Name of transition metal Atomic synbol valency

Iron Fe (II), Fe(III) 2 and 3 respectively
Copper Cu (I), Cu (II) 1 and 2respectively

NB: Fe (II) is read as iron 2 meaning iron which loses 2 electrons and has therefore a valency of
2. Similarly, Fe (III) is read as iron (III). The same knowledge can be applied to copper (I) and
copper (II)

3. VALENCY OF NON-METALS

 The valency of non-metals is the number of electrons which they gain or share during a
chemical reaction
 Group iv share 4 electrons, so their valency is 4
 Group v share or gain 3 electrons, so their valency is 3
 Group vi share or gain 2 electrons, so their valency is 2
 Group vii share or gain 1 electron, so their valency is 1

The table below is showing some non-metals and their valencies

Non-metal valency
C 4
N 3
O 2
F 1
Cl 1
Si 4

4. VALENCY OF RADICALS

 Radicals are compound ions (ions with more than one kind of atoms)
 The radicals are either Cations or annions

EXAMPLES OF RADICALS

NH4+ (ammonia ion), SO4-2 (Sulphate ion CO3- (carbonate ion

HOW DO WE GET THE VALENCY OF RADICALS?

The valency of radicals is the absolute number of their charge. Just the number, ignore the
positive or negative for example, ammonia ion has a charge of positive 1, so its valency is just
the number 1. Can you tell the valency of sulphate ion? You are right if you said 2. Similarly, the
valency of carbonate with charge negative 1 is simply the number which is 1.

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Radical valency
NH4+ 1
CO3- 1
SO4-2 2

DEDUCING CHEMICAL FORMULAE USING VALENCIES

The valencies we have studied so far are important as they help to determine the chemical
formula of a substance between and among given elements

RULES TO FOLLOW

1. If you have a metal and a non-metal, start writing the formula with the metal.
2. Write their valencies as postscripts e,g if x is the metal and y is the non-metal, you
have x2y4 where 2 is the valency for x and 4 is the valency for y
3. If the valencies are different, swap them and write them as subscripts e. g if you had
x2y4 it will be written as x4y2,
4. If the valencies are same, they cancel out and each element has a subscript of silent 1
e.g if you had X2Y2 where 2 is the valency of metal X and 2 is the valency of non-
metal Y the chemical formula will be just XY, the subscripts here are each 1.

Examples

Work out the name and chemical formula of compounds that can be formed from the reaction
between

(i) O and Al
(ii) Cu(I) and O
(iii) Na and Cl
(iv) Fe(III) and S
(v) Cu (II) and SO4-2
(vi) Fe(III) and SO4-2
(vii) K and SO4-2

WORKING OUT

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EXERCISE

Work out the molecular formula and name of compounds formed between

(i) Mg and O
(ii) K and F
(iii) Cu(I) and sulphate ion
(iv) Na and carbonate ion
(v) Fe (III) and O
(vi) Cu (II) and sulphate ion

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TOPIC 2: ELEMENTS AND THE PERIODIC TABLE

By the end of this topic you should be able to:

(i) Identify blocks in the periodic table

(ii) Describe the patterns in properties of elements in the periodic table
(iii) Discuss physical and chemical properties of group I, ii, vii and viii.
(iv) State uses of group I, ii, vii and viii elements

THE PERIODIC TABLE

GROUP I - THE ALKALI METALS

Group 1 consists of the five metals lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium and caesium and the
radioactive element francium. Lithium, sodium and potassium are commonly available for use in
schools. They are all very reactive metals and they are stored under oil to prevent them from
coming into contact with water or air. These three metals have the following properties:

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF ALKALI METALS

 They are good conductors of electricity and heat
 They are soft metals such that they can be easily cut with a knife
 They are metals with low densities such that they float in water
 They have shiny surfaces when freshly cut with a knife but tarnish after sometime
 They are malleable i.e. can be hammered into any shape
 They are ductile i.e. can easily be drawn into wires
TRENDS IN PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF ALKALI METALS
NOTE: As you go down the group 1 atomic radius increases. The number of shells is increased
hence valence electron experiences less attractive forces by the nuclear charge, therefore:
1. Metals become softer this means that K is very soft than Na
2. Density of metals decreases
3. Melting and boiling points decrease

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4. Burn more easily in air
5. React faster with chlorine
6. React faster and vigorously with water

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF ALKALI METALS

1. They react with oxygen to form metal oxides

They burn in oxygen or air with flame colours to form white solid oxides. For example,
lithium reacts with the oxygen in the air to form white lithium oxide, according to the
following equation:
Lithium + oxygen lithium oxide
4Li(s) + O2(g) 2Li2O(s)
These group 1 oxides all dissolve in water to form alkaline solutions of the metal
hydroxide
Lithium oxide + water lithium hydroxide
Li2O(s) + H2O(l) 2LiOH(aq)
2. They react with water to form metal hydroxides and hydrogen gas.
Alkali metals react vigorously with water to give an alkaline solution of the metal
hydroxide as well as producing hydrogen gas, for example:
Potassium + water potassium hydroxide + hydrogen gas
2K(s) + 2H2O(l) 2KOH(aq) + H2(g)
3. They also react vigorously with halogens, such as chlorine, to form metal halides
(salts),
Example
Sodium + chlorine Sodium Chloride
2Na(s) + Cl2(g) 2NaCl(s)

TRENDS IN CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF GROUP I (ALKALI METALS)

In the periodic table, a metal that loses few electrons is very reactive than the one that has
to lose many electrons. This means that the most reactive metals are metals of group I as
they have to lose only one electron. But the question is amongst group one elements,
which metal is most reactive? what is the trend like? Does reactivity increase or decrease
as you go down or as you go up the group? Before we answer this question lets take a
look at some important terminologies

1. Atomic radius: is the distance from the nucleus of the atom to the outermost shell

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 2. Nuclear effective forces/ Nuclear binding forces: these are forces which are
experienced by electrons from the nucleus
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ATOMIC RADIUS AND NUCLEAR EFFECTIVE
FORCES
As atomic radius is increasing, nuclear effective forces become weak due to the increase
in distance but as the atomic radius is decreasing, nuclear effective forces become
stronger. For elements which gain stability by losing electrons, electrons are lost easily if
the atomic radius is longer than when the atomic radius is shorter. Atoms that lose
electrons easily are more reactive than those that have to lose electrons with some
difficulties. For atoms that gain stability by gaining electrons, electrons are gained easily
when the atomic radius is shorter as forces being experienced by the incoming electron
increases.
THE ANALOGY OF ATOMIC RADIUS AND NUCLEAR EFFECTIVE
FORCES

Have you ever played with a magnet?

Are materials attracted easily when they are closer or far away from the
magnet?
You must have observed that materials are attracted easily when the magnet is
closer to them (distance is short between the magnet and the material) and the
materials are easily lost when the materials are far away from the magnet. Take
the magnet to represent nucleus of an atom and its attraction force as nuclear
effective forces, the material should represent an electron and the distance
from the magnet to the material to represent the atomic radius. This should
lead us to the conclusion that
(i) To gain a material easily, there should be shorter distance from
the material to the magnet as this increases attraction force
(ii) To lose a material, the distance must be longer, as the forces
from the magnet are weaker

3. Electron Affinity
This is the ability of the atom to attract incoming electrons. Electron affinity increases
with decrease in atomic radius and decreases with increase in atomic radius. This will
apply to members which gain stability by gaining electrons.
4. Ionization energy: means minimum amount of energy required for the atom to lose
electrons. Ionization energy increases with the decrease in atomic radius and
decreases with the increase in atomic radius.

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 5. Electronegativity : Electronegativity is the attracting ability of an atom to its
electrons

CAUSE OF THIS ATTRACTION

The positively charged nucleus attracts the negatively charged ener gy levels because opposite
charges attract.

FACTORS AFFECTING ELECTRONEGATIVITY

a. Atomic radius: An increase in the atomic radius means that outermost shell
electrons are placed farther away from the nucleus which holds onto the electrons.
The effect is that electrons are pulled less strongly to the nucleus. This decreases
electronegativity
b. Atomic number: as the atomic number is increasing, number of protons which are
positively charged also increases. This means that the nuclear effective forces will also
increase hence increasing the electronegativity of the element

ACTIVITY: Draw the full atomic structure of alkali metals starting with Li, Na, then K. What
observation can you make in terms of Atomic Radius as you are moving from Li, to Na, to K?

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You must have observed that as you are going down the group, the number of shells is increasing
leading to an increase in atomic radius. This means that as you are going down the group,
nuclear effective forces are getting weaker and the outermost electron(s) can easily be lost
making atoms don the group more reactive than those up the group.

CONCLUSION: The reactivity of alkali metals increases as you go down the group because as
you go down the group, atomic radius gets longer and this makes nuclear effective forces weaker
in turn electron(s) are lost easily. This means that between K and Na , K is more reactive because
its atomic radius is longer than that of Na. K electron experiences less attractive forces from its
nucleus hence, easily lost unlike the electron of Na

USES OF ALKALI METALS

Lithium

Lithium has the following uses:

(i) For making cellphone and computer batteries

(ii) for making lubricating greases
(iii) Used in glasses and ceramics that resist heat
(iv) Its salts are used for making drugs for stabilizing mood
(v) Its alloy can be used for aircraft building

Sodium

Sodium has the following uses:

(i) For making glass

(ii) As a coolant in a nuclear reactor
(iii) Its hydroxide is used to make soap
(iv) Its compounds are used in petroleum, textile and paper industries
(v) For making salts e,g NaCl
(vi) For making road surfaces
(vii) For plastering walls of nuclear power plants

Potasium

Potasium has the following uses:

(i) For making inks

(ii) For making food preservatives
(iii) Its hydroxide is used for making soaps
(iv) Its nitrates are used for making explosives, and fireworks
(v) Its chromate is used for tanning leather, manufacture of gunpowder, dyes and
safety matches
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 THE ALKALINE EARTH METALS (GROUP II AND III EXCEPT BORON)

This group consists of the five metals beryllium, aluminium, berylium magnesium,
calcium, strontium and barium and the radioactive element radium. Magnesium and
calcium are generally available for use in schools. These metals have the following
properties:

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
 They are harder than those in group I
 They are silvery-grey in colour when pure and clean. They tarnish quickly,
however, when left in air due to the formation of a metal oxide on their surfaces.
 They are good conductors of heat and electricity

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF ALKALI METALS

1. They react with oxygen to form metal oxides

They burn in oxygen or air with characteristic flame colours to form solid white
oxides. For example:

Magnesium + oxygen Magnesium oxide

Mg(s) + O2(g) 2MgO(s)
2. They react with water but they do so much less vigorous than the
elements in group I. For example:
Calcium + water calcium hydroxide + hydrogen gas
Ca(s) + 2H2O(l) Ca(OH)2(aq) + H2(g)
3. They react with halogens to form metal halides e,g
Magnesium + Chlorine magnesium Chloride
Mg(s) + Cl2 MgCl2

TRENDS IN CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF ALKALINE EARTH METALS

The reactivity of alkaline earth metals increases as you go down the group because as you
go down the group, atomic radius gets longer and this makes nuclear effective forces
weaker in turn electron(s) are lost easily.

USES OF ALKALINE EARTH METALS

CALSIUM
(i) Separating metals from their ores
(ii) Its hydroxide, lime is Added to soil to improve soil structure
BERYLIUM
Berylium has the following uses:

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 (i) Used in high strength electrical insulators
(ii) For making semi-conductors
MAGNESIUM
Magnesium has the following uses:
(i) For making anti-acid tablets e.g magnesium trisicate

GROUP VII - THE HALOGENS

Group 7 consists of four elements fluorine, chlorine, bromine and iodine, and the radioactive
element astatine. Of these elements, chlorine, bromine and iodine are generally available for use
in school.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF HALOGENS

1. They have a pungent smell

2. They are poisonous gases
3. They exist in all states of matter at room temperature e.g. F and Cl are gases, Bromine is
a liquid, Iodine is a solid
4. They are diatomic: they exist as two atoms e.g. F2, Cl2, Br2 and I2
5. They have different colours e.g. fluorine is pale yellow, chlorine is yellowish green,
bromine is brown and iodine is purplish black
6. They are slightly soluble in water
7. Melting points and boiling points increases as you go down the group. Why? As you go
down the group, the strength of intermolecular forces increases as you are moving from
gases (F and Cl) to liquids(Br) and then Solids (I). This means that more heat energy will
be required to break the intermolecular force hence raising the melting points and boiling
points

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF HALOGENS

1.They react with hydrogen to produce the hydrogen halides, which dissolve in water to form
acidic solutions (pH< 7) eg

Hydrogen + chlorine Hydrogen chloride

H2(g) + Cl2 2HCl(g)

Hydrogen chloride + water Hydrochloricacid

HCl(g) + H2O H+(aq) + Cl-(aq)

2.They react with metals to produce ionic metal halides, for example chlorine and iron produce
iron chloride.

Iron + chlorine Iron (III) chloride

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2Fe(s) + 3Cl2(g) 2FeCl3

3. They react with phosphorous to produce covalent phosphorous pentahalide.

Eg 2P(s) + 5Cl2(g) 2PCl5(s) (phosphorous pentachloride)

TRENDS IN REACTIVITY OF HALOGENS

Reactivity increases as you go up the group. Why? As you go up the group, atomic radius gets
shorter and this increases nuclear effective forces being experienced by the incoming electron.
The electron is gained easily in such a scenario. This means that Fluorine is the most reactive
halogen because the incoming electron is being more strongly attracted by the nuclear charge
since flourine has the smallest atomic radius.

Recall, Group VII have seven electrons in their outermost shell. When they react, they gain one
electron in order to reach an inert electron configuration of a noble gas. Therefore halogens are
the most reactive non-metals in the periodic table because each element requires a single electron
to reach octet rule (noble gas electron configuration).

USES OF HALOGENS

FLOURINE

Fluore has the following uses:

1. For making tooth paste: used in the form of fluorides in toothpaste because it
reduces tooth decay by hardening the enamel.
2. For making palstics e.g Polytetrafluroethene (PTFE)

CHLORINE

Chlorine has the following uses

1. For making PVC plastics: PVC is short for PolyvinylChloride

2. For making salts e.g NaCl
3. For sterilizing drinking water to make it safe from germs
4. Used in aerosol propellants e.g in perfumes
5. Previously it was used as a gas in refregrators. Now it has been banned due to its
negative impacts in the environment as it releases Chloflurocarborns (CFc’s)
6. For making acids e.g HCl

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BROMINE

Bromine has the following uses:

1. They are used as a photographic chemical.

2. Bromine is used to make disinfectants and medicines
3. for making fire retardants
4. Used to identify alkenes in organic chemistry.

IODINE

Iodine has the following uses:

1. Used for making medicine (for pharmaceutical purposes)

2. Used to make salt which prevent goiter
3. Used in scientific experiments e.g. testing for starch in biology

GROUP VIII - THE NOBLE OR INERT GASES

Helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon and the radioactive element radon make up a most unusual
group of non-metals, called the noble gases. Their outermost shells are completely filled hence
they cannot gain neither lose an electron.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF INERT/NOBLE GASES

1. They are colourless gases They do not have colours)

2. They are all gases at room temperature
3. They are monoatomic (they exist as single atoms)
4. They have low melting and boiling points which increase as we go down the
group.
5. They do not conduct electricity

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF INERT/NOBLE GASES

They are chemically unreactive so they do not have chemical properties. Why? Their outermost
shell is already completely filled with 8 electrons. As such they are naturally stable

USES OF INERT/NOBBLE GASES

HELIUM

1. It has very high density therefore it is used in weather balloons.

2. Used to provide an inert atmosphere for welding.
3. Used as a coolant in nuclear reactors
4. Used with 20% oxygen as a breathing gas used by deep sea divers
5. To inflate the tyres of large aircraft

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 6. Used in low temperature research because of its low boiling point

NEON

1. Used in advertising signs because it glows red when electricity is passed

through it.
2. Used in the helium- neon gas laser
3. Used in Geiger- Muller tubes, which are used for the detection of
radioactivity.

ARGON

1. Used to fill ordinary and long-life light bulbs to prevent the tungsten filament
from reacting with oxygen in the air and forming the oxide
2. To provide an inert atmosphere in arc welding and in the production of
titanium metal

KRYPTON AND XENON

Used in lamps of photographic flash units, in stroboscopic lamps and in lamps used in
light houses

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 TOPIC 3: CHEMICAL BONDING
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:

1. Define chemical bonding

2. Identify the three types of chemical bonding
3. Give examples of ionic and covalent compounds
4. Describe differences among the three types of chemical bonding
5. Represent bond formation in ionic and covalent bonding using cross and dot diagrams
6. Describe metallic bonding
7. Describe general properties of metals and their uses

MEANING OF CHEMICAL BONDING

Is the joining of atoms together, to form a molecule

WHY DO CHEMICAL BONDING TAKE PLACE?

 For the atoms to get stability

 For the atoms to have least potential energy
 For the atoms to have more attractive forces

TYPES OF CHEMICAL BONDING

There are three types of chemical bonding, namely:-

- ionic bonding
- metallic bonding
- covalent bonding

IONIC BONDING OR IONIC OR ELECTRO VALENT BONDING

 It takes place between a metal and a non-metal.

 The metal loses electrons while the non-metal accepts the electrons.
 After losing electrons, the metal becomes positively charged while the non-metal
becomes negatively charged. This creates opposite forces of attraction helping the atoms
to be held together. These opposite forces of attraction are called ionic bonds and the
compounds formed are called ionic compounds. Below is the diagram showing ionic
bonding between sodium and chlorine

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EXAMPLES OF IONIC COMPOUNDS

Manesium Chloride (MgCl2)

Magnesium oxide (MgO)

Sodium chloride (NaCl)

Lithium oxide (Li2O)

Calcium bromide (CaBr2)

PROPERTIES OF IONIC COMPOUNDS

(i) In general, they have high melting points and high boiling points. Why? They are
made up of strong intermolecular forces
(ii) They are soluble in water e.g sodium chloride
(iii) They conduct electricity when in molten form or liquid state only. Why? In liquid
state or molten state, their ions are able to move but when in solid state their ions
cannot move.
(iv) They are made up of ions
(v) They have strong electrostatic force
(vi) They are hard brittle solids at room temperature

REPRESANTATION OF BOND FORMATION IN IONIC BONDING USING CROSS

AND DOT DIAGRAMS

Examples

Represent the bonding in the following substances using cross and dot diagrams

(i) KCl
(ii) MgO
(iii) CaCl2

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2.COVALENT BONDING

 It takes place a non-metal and a non-metal This occurs in non-metal atoms eg hydrogen
molecule (H2),methane molecule (CH4), water molecule (H2O) and even in ammonia gas
(NH3)
 There is sharing of electrons. So no ions are formed
 Molecules are formed
 The forces holding the atoms together are called covalent bonds
 The compounds formed are called covalent compounds or molecular compounds

EXAMPLES OF COVALENT COMPOUNDS

1. Ammonia gas (NH3)

2. Carbon dioxide (CO2)
3. Nitrogen gas (N2)
4. Chlorine gas (Cl2)
5. Hydrogen gas (H2)

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 PROPERTIES OF COVALENT BONDING (MOLECULAR COMPOUNDS)
1. They do not conduct electricity when molten or dissolved in water, hence they are
non-electrolytes. This is because they do not contain ions. However, some
molecules actually react with water to form ions eg hydrogen chloride
2. They have low intermolecular force
3. They are partially soluble in water
4. They are made up of molecules and not ions
5. They have low melting and boiling points
6. They can easily be vapourised (volatile) and have a particular smell eg camphor

REPRESANTATION OF COVALENT BONDING USING CROSS AND DOT

DIAGRAMS

EXAMPLES

Show the bond formation of the following substances using cross and dot diagrams

(i) H2
(ii) CO2
(iii) NH3
(iv) H2O

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 3. METALLIC BONDING
 It takes place within metals
 No foreign atoms are involved (it is the within the metal itself)
 It is formed by the attraction of positively charged metal ions and free delocalized
electrons.

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GENERAL PROPERTIES OF METALS AND THEIR USES

(i) They are snorous (they produce a ringing sound) as such they used for making
musical instruments e.g .guitars
(ii) They are good conductors of heat. Used for making cooking utensils e,g aluminium
(iii) They are good conductors of electricity. Used for making electrical wire connections
e.g. copper wire
(iv) They have high melting points. Used for making tungsten wire e.g Tungsten
(v) Some metals have high electrical resistance. Used for making heating elements like
kettle, electric iron. Nichrome wire is used for this
(vi) Metals are strong. Used for building houses and bridges
(vii) Metals are ductile. They can be drawn into wires
(viii) Meta
(ix) ls are malleable. Can be hammered

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TOPIC 4: ACIDS AND BASES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:

 Describe the properties of acids and bases

 Prepare acid –base indicators from local materials
 Determine the strength of an acid and a base using universal indicator and pH scale and
electrical conductivity
 Describe the uses of acids and bases
 Describe neutralization reaction
 Explain the applications of neutralization reaction
ACID
An acid is a substance with a sour taste.
Examples of acids
We have commercial acids which are manufactured in industries like
 Sulphuric acid (H2SO4)
 Hydrochloric acid (HCl)
 Nitric acid (HNO3)
Other acids are from plants and animals and we call these acids organic acids. Examples are
 Ethanoic acid/acetic acid
 Methanoic acid
 Citrus ruits e.g. lemons tangarines and oranges
 Vinegar
 Lactic acid
 Oxidesed sour milk (Chambiko)
 Bwemba
BASE
A base is a substance with a bitter taste
EXAMPLES OF BASES
 sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
 ammonia (NH3)
 calsium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2
 potasium hydroxide (KOH)
 lithium hydroxide (LiOH)
 Chidulo

PROPERTIES OF ACIDS AND BASES

The table below gives properties of acids and bases

PROPERTIES OF ACIDS PROPERTIES OF BASES

Have a sour taste Have a bitter taste
Have PH less than 7 Have PH greater than 7
Conduct electricity Conduct electricity
React with metals that is why they are stored in Do not react with metals
plastic bottles

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React with bases in neutralisation reaction React with acids in neutralisation reaction
Turn blue litmus paper red Turn red litmus paper blue
Phenophthalein indicator remains colourless When mixed with phenolphthalein indicator,
when mixed with acids bases become pink

Substances which are neither acids nor base are called neutral substances. They have of exactly
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ACIDS AND BASE INDICATORS
These are materials which have the ability to tell whether a substance is an acid or a base. We
cannot use the taste method as this is dangerous
The following is a list of indicators of acids and bases
(i) Litmus paper: when mixed with acid, it turns red while when mixed with a base, the
red colour changes to blue
(ii) Phenophthalein indicator: when mixed with a base, the base turn pink. Hen mixed
wih an acid he acid remains colourless
(iii) PH meter. PH is short for Power of hydrogen concentration. A substance is two
acidic when he power of hydrogen concentration is high. The Ph meter shows a
reading of less than 7 for acids, greater than 7 for a base and exactly 7 for a neutral
substance.
(iv) Universal Indicator: different substances when mixed with universal indicators
show different colours for example acids show red, pink, orange, orange, orange
yellow, yellow. Bases show colours like green, greenish-blue, blue, violet and purple
while a neutral substance will show a greenish-yellow.
ADVANTAGES OF PH METER OVER OTHER INDICATOTRS
PH meter is good because it indicates the degree of acidity or basicity while the other indicators
just classify whether the solution is acidic or basic without actually telling the degree of acidity
or basicity
PREPARING ACID BASE INDICATORS USING LOCAL MATERIALS
The indicators are dyes extracted from plants

Exercise : describe how you can prepare a universal indicator using locally available materials

USES OF ACIDS
1. Charging car batteries e,g. sulphuric acid
2. Making soaps and detergents
3. Aid in digestion e,g HCl
4. Used as food preservative e.g. ethanoic cid
5. Used as a solvents e.g ethanoic acid
USES OF BASES
1. For making soaps e.g NaOH
2. Preparation of relish e.g Chidulo or Soda (sodium bicarbonate)
3. Aids in digestion. When someone is having problems in digestios he/she must take ant
acid tablets like liver drews salt
4. Added to soil to reduce acidity e.g lime

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 STRENGTH OF AN ACID OR A BASE
We can determine the strength of an acid or a base by using the following methods
(i) PH meter: strong acids have PH readings which are very small while weak acids
have PH readings which are very high. For example if you have an acid with PH 2
and the other with PH 4, the strong acid is the one with PH 2 while that with PH 4 is a
weak acid. AS for bases, strong bases have high PH values while weak bases have
low PH values. For example given a base with PH 8 and another with PH 12, the
strong base is the one with a PH of 12 while the one with a PH of 8 is a weak base

(ii). Electrical conductivity: both strong acids and strong bases are good conductors of
electricity. As such strong acids and strong bases form strong electrolytes and show high
ammeter readings and the bulb in the circuit shines brighter. Weak acid and weak bases on the
contrary form weak electrolytes and show small ammeter readings and the bulb in the circuit
shines dimme.r
EXAMPLES OF STRONG ACIDS
The following are strong acids
(i) Carbonic acid (HCO3)
(ii) Sulphuric acid (H2SO4)
(iii) Nitric acid (HNO3)
(iv) Hydrochloric acid (HCl)
EXAMPLES OF WEAK ACIDS
All carboxylic acids e.g
(I) Methanoic/fomic acid (HCOOH)
(II) Ethanoic acid/Acetic acid (CH3COOH)
(III) Pentatanoic acid
(IV) Butanoic acid
(V) Propanoic acid
(VI) Hexanoic acid
(VII) Octanoic acid
(VIII) Nonanoic acid
(IX) Decanoic acid
(X) Heptanoic acid

23
EXAMPLES OF STRONG BASES
(i) Ammonia
(ii) Sodium hydroxide
(iii) Potasium hydroxide
EXAMPLES OF WEAK ACIDS
Calsium hydroxide
Sodium bicarbonate
NEUTRALISATION REACTION
WHAT IS NEUTRALISATIONRAECTION?
Is a reaction that takes place between an acid and a base which result in weakening the acidity
and basicity of the substance
Acid + base salt + water
PRODUCTS OF NEUTRALISATION REACTION
 The reaction has two main products namely salt and water. For example when sodium
hydroxide reacts with hydrochloric acid it produces sodium chloride (salt) and water.
 The type of salt depends on the acid and base reacting, for example hydrochloric acid
and sodium hydroxide produce sodium chloride salt while sulphuric acid and sodium
hydroxide produces sodium sulphate salt. See the reactions below
Sodium hydroxide + sulphuric acid sodium sulphate + water
NaOH + H2SO4 Na2HSO4 + H2O

USES OF NEUTRALISATION REACTION

1. Used in agriculture to improve soil structure: it is used to improve soil structure. For
example when the soil is too acidic, lime which is a base is added to weaken the acidity
2. Used to relieve pain from bee bites: once an individual is bitten by bees, it is advisable
to apply soap on the bitten part as this adds a base to the sting. The sting of the bee comes
with methanoic acid. Once soap is placed on the bitten area, neutralisation will take place
and the pain will go away.
3. Prevent tooth decay: the food we eat releases some acids which can lead to tooth decay,
tooth paste which is made from a base is used to clean the teeth
4. It is used in preparation of anti-acid tablets that aids in digestion. Liver drews salt,
magnesium trisilicate and milk of magnesia which are bases are used to neutralise the
Hydrochloric acid which is released by the digestive glands in the stomach

24
TOPIC 5: HYDROCARBONS
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1 Classify organic compounds
2 Name and draw the formulae of alkanes and alkenes up to ten carbon atoms
3 Write the molecular and condensed formulae of alkanes and alkenes given the number of
carbon atoms
4 Explain sources of alkanes and alkenes
5 Describe physical properties of alkanes and alkenes
6 Describe combustion of alkanes and alkenes
7 Describe substitution reactions of alkanes
8 Describe the addition reactions of alkenes
9 State the uses of alkanes and alkenes

In form one you learnt that Substances are classified according to the number of kinds of atoms
making them. With this, You had:

(i) Elements: Substances made up of only one kind of atoms

EXAMPLES OF ELEMENTS

 Oxygen gas (O2)

 Ozone (O3)
 hydrogen gas (H2)
 Chlorine gas (Cl2)

In all cases above, each substance is made up of only one kind of atom as seen from the chemical
formulae

(ii) Compounds: These are substances which are made up of more than one kind of
atoms

EXAMPLES OF COMPOUNDS

 Water, H2O
 Carbon dioxide, CO2
 sulphuric acid H2SO4
 Magnesium sulphate MgSO4
 Ethene , C2H4
 Acetic acid/ethanoic acid, CH3COOH
 Sodium hydroxide, NaOH

25
TYPES OF COMPOUNDS

There are two main types of compounds. The types are based on carbon content. The two types
are organic and inorganic compounds.

(i) Organic compounds: these are compounds which contain carbon atom in their
chemical formulae e.g benzene, ethene, ethanol, acetic acid, glucose
(ii) Inorganic compounds: these are compounds which do not contain carbon atom in
their chemical formulae

SOMETHING TO REMEMBER (STR)

(i) Other compounds like metal carbonates e.g sodium carbonate (NaCO3) and carbon
dioxide (CO2) are not in the group of organic compounds although they have carbon
in their formula. The reason is that they do not have carbon to hydrogen bonding.

HOMOLOGOUS SERIES

Is a group of organic compounds with related formulae and properties

EXAMPLES OF HOMOLOGOUS SERIES

(i) Alkanes
(ii) Alkenes
(iii) Alkanols
(iv) Alkanoic acids/Carboxylic acids
(v) Alkanals
(vi) Alkayls
(vii) Alkanoates
(viii) Esters

CLASSIFICATION OF COMPOUNDS

The homologous series above are classified into the following three main groups

1. Oxycarbons. They contain three different atoms namely carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
2. Nitrocarbons: is a class of compounds which contain nitrogen in its molecules. They
contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. A good example is nitromethane
CH3NO2
3. Hydrocarbons: discussed below

26
 HYDROCARBONS
These are compounds which contain carbon and hydrogen atoms only in their chemical
formulae.

EXAMPLES OF HYDROCARBONS

(i) Benzene
(ii) All alkanes
(iii) All alkenes
(iv) All alkyls

In this topic, our focus will be on alkanes and alkenes

1. ALKANES

NOMENCLATURE OF ALKANES

 Nomenclature is a system of naming organic compounds depending on the number of

carbon atoms and the homologous series.
 The system uses prefixes to specify the number of carbon atoms
 It uses the suffix to specify the homologous series. With this, all alkanes will end their
name with the suffix “ane”
 To get the full name, add the prefix and the suffix

The table below shows the number of carbon atoms, prefix used and the suffix and the full name
of the alkane .The last but one column gives the full name. To get the full name just write the
prefix and the suffix with no space e. g meth + ane will give the name methane that is an alkane
with one carbon atom

Number of carbon prefix suffix Full name of the alkane molecular formula
atoms
1 Meth- ane Methane CH4
2 Eth- ane ethane C2H6
3 Prop- ane Propane C3H8
4 But- ane Butane C4H10
5 Pent- ane Pentane C5H12
6 Hex- ane Hexane C6H14
7 Hept- ane Heptane C7H16
8 Oct- ane Octane C8H18
9 Non- ane Nonane C9H20
10 Dec ane Decane C10H22

27
THE FUNCTIONAL GROUP OF ALKANES

 Alkanes have no functional group. This makes them the least reactive homologous series.
 Liquid alkane e.g hexane (paraffin ) is used to store very reactive metals

GENERAL FORMULAE OF ALKANES

A General formula is a formula which is used to deduce the molecular formula of a substance
given the number of carbon atoms.

The general formula of alkanes is CnH2n+2 where n is the number of carbon atoms from 1 to
infinity. In order to come up with molecular formula just replace the n with the number of carbon
atoms.

Example: What is the molecular formula of an alkane with 5 carbon atoms?

Solution.

Using CnH2n+2 let n=5

C5H5x2+2 this gives C5H 12 .

STRUCTURAL FORMULA OF ALKANES

 Structural formula of a substance shows how the atoms are joined with each other.
 Molecular formula only shows you the number of each kind of atoms present in the
substance. Which is better structural formula or molecular formula? Structural formula is
better as it shows both the number and kind of atoms present as well as how these atoms
are joined to one another.

HOW TO COME UP WITH STRUCTURAL FORMULA?

Follow the steps below:

(i) Write down the carbon skeleton

(ii) Make sure that each carbon is possessing 4 bonds. Why 4 bonds? Carbon is in group
4 so it needs four bonds as it shares 4 electrons.

EXAMPLE

Write down the structural formula of pentane

Solution

Molecular formula of pentane is C5H12

28
EXERCISE

Write down the name, molecular formula and structural formula of an alkane with 6 carbon
atoms.

WRITING CONDESED FORMULA OF ALKANES

In order to write the condensed formula of alkanes, come up with structural formula first.

Example: Write down the condensed formula of octane

solution

The molecular formula is C8H18

The structural formula is as shown below

The condensed formula is

Take one carbon and look at how many carbon atoms it is attaching.

29
 EXERCISE

Write down the name, molecular formula, structural formula and condensed formula of an
alkane with 10 carbon atoms .

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF ALKANES

1. Found in all states of matter at room temperature. Alkanes with 1-4 carbon atoms are
gases, 5-16 are liquids and greater than 16 are solids
2. They do not conduct electricity
3. They are insoluble in water. If you mix alkanes with water, two layers are seen that’s an
indication that alkane are hydrophobic (water hating). Why do they not dissolve in water?
It’s because alkanes are unlike water. Alkanes lack the hydroxyl (OH) which is found in
water. In science, like dissolves alike.
4. Viscosity. This is the resistance of the liquid to flow. Bigger molecules of alkane are
more viscous than smaller molecules
5. Density. Bigger alkane molecules have bigger densities due to increased mass
6. Melting point and boiling points of alkane increase with the increase in the size of the
molecule. Why? As the size of the molecule is getting bigger, intermolecular forces get
stronger; this means that more heat energy will be required to break them hence raising
the melting and the boiling points. This implies that between propane and hexane, hexane
is likely to have a high melting point

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF ALKANES

The following are the chemical properties of alkanes:

(i) They react with oxygen/they undergo combustion

(ii) They react with halogens in substitution reaction
1. REACTION OF ALKANES WITH OXYGEN GAS

Reaction of alkanes with oxygen gas is called combustion reaction.

There are two types of combustion depending on the quantity of oxygen available. These are

(i) Complete combustion

 Takes place when oxygen is abundant
 The products are carbon dioxide and water vapour
EXAMPLE

Methane + oxygen gas carbon dioxide + water

CH4 (g) + O2 (g) CO2 (g) + H2O (g) unbalanced

CH4 (g) + 2O2 (g ) CO2 (g) + 2 H2O (g) balanced

30
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE FLAME PRODUCED DURING COMPLETE
COMBUSTION

 It is very hot
 It has no soot
 It is blue in color

(ii) Incomplete combustion

 Takes place when oxygen is not enough (insufficient)
 The products are carbon and water vapour

EXAMPLE

Methane + oxygen gas carbon + water

CH4 (g) + O2 (g) C (g) + 2H2O (g) unbalanced

CH4 (g) + 2O2 (g ) C (g) + 2 H2O (g) balanced

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE FLAME PRODUCED DURING INCOMPLETE

COMBUSTION

 It is yellow in colour
 It is less hot
 It has a lot of soot
2. SUBSITTUTION REACTION OF ALKANES WITH HALOGENS TO FORM
HALOGEN ALKANE

During this reaction, the hydrogen from the alkane member exchanges place with the halogen.

EXAMPLE

Methane + chlorine gas Monochloromethane

CH4 + Cl2 CH3Cl one hydrogen atom from methane

has exchanged place with one chlorine atom (halogen) forminh a halogen alkane whose specific
name is monochloromethane

The halogenalkane formed may also react as shown in cases 1 and 2 below

Case 1

CH3Cl + Cl2 CH2Cl2 (dichloromethane)

Case 2

31
CH2Cl2 + Cl2 CHCl3 (Trichloromethane)

Case 3

CHCl3 + Cl2 CCl4 (Tetra Chloromethane)

SOURCES OF ALKANES

Alkanes can be obtained from the following sources

(i) Form the additional reaction of alkenes with hydrogen (hydrogenation)

(ii) From petroleum
(iii) Natural sources e.g natural gases

Uses of alkanes

Alkanes have the following uses:

(i) For heating and cooking e.g natural gas

(ii) For surfacing the roads e.g. Bitumen
(iii) Used as solvents for other organic compounds
(iv) Used to produce other organic compounds e.g alkene
(v) Used as lubricating oil in moving parts of machines to prevent rusting and friction
(vi) Used to store very reactive metals e.g alkali metals (Li, Na and K)
(vii) Used as fuels for cars, ships, trucks and scooters

32
 2. ALKENES
They are also hydrocarbons as they contain carbon and hydrogen atoms only

NOMENCLATURE OF ALKENES

All alkenes end their names with the suffix “ene”

The prefix that denotes the number of carbon atoms are the same as used in alkanes

NAMES OF THE FIRST NINE ALKENES

We do not have an alkene with 1 carbon atom

The table below shows the number of carbon atoms, prefix used and the suffix and the full name
of the alkene .The last but one column gives the full name. To get the full name just write the
prefix and the suffix with no space e. g eth + ene will give the name ethene that is an alkene with
2 carbon atoms.

Number of carbon prefix suffix Full name of the alkane molecular formula
atoms
2 Eth- ene ethene C2H4
3 Prop- ene Propene C3H6
4 But- ene Butene C4H8
5 Pent- ene Pentene C5H10
6 Hex- ene Hexene C6H12
7 Hept- ene Heptene C7H14
8 Oct- ene Octene C8H16
9 Non- ene Nonene C9H18
10 Dec ene Decene C10H20

FUNCTIONAL GROUP OF ALKENES

The functional group of alkenes is C=C read as carbon to carbon double bond.

One of the bond is very weak and breaks easily during a chemical reaction. This makes alkenes
one of the most reactive homologous series

GENERAL FORMULA OF ALKENES

It is CnH2n where n represent number of carbon atoms from 1 to infinity. This general formula
can be used to derive the molecular formula if you know the number of carbon atoms.

33
PROBLEM SOLVING USING THE GENERAL FORMULAE OF ALKENES

WORKED EXAMPLE

Write down the name, molecular formula, structural formula and condensed formula of an
alkene with 5 carbon atoms

Solution

(i) The name is pentene

(ii) To come up with molecular formula, we use CnH2n let n=5

C5H2x5 This gives C5H10

(iii) Now structural formulae will be as shown below

(iv) Condensed formula

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF ALKENES

1. Found in all states of matter at room temperature.

3. They do not conduct electricity
4. They are insoluble in water. If you mix alkenes with water, two layers are seen that’s an
indication that alkenes are hydrophobic (water hating). Why do they not dissolve in
water? It’s because alkenes are unlike water. Alkenes lack the hydroxyl (OH) which is
found in water. In science, like dissolves alike.
5. Viscosity. This is the resistance of the liquid to flow. Bigger molecules of alkenes are
more viscous than smaller molecules
6. Density. Bigger alkene molecules have bigger densities due to increased mass
7. Melting point and boiling points of alkenes increase with the increase in the size of the
molecule. Why? As the size of the molecule is getting bigger, intermolecular forces get
stronger; this means that more heat energy will be required to break them hence raising
the melting and the boiling points. This implies that between propene and hexene, hexene
is likely to have a high melting point

34
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF ALKENES

Alkenes have the following chemical properties:

(i) They undergo combustion reaction with oxygen

(ii) They undergo addition reaction with bromine and hydrogen
(iii) They react with water to form alkanols. This reaction is called hydration
1. REACTION OF ALKENES WITH OXYGEN
 Just like alkanes, alkenes also undergo complete and incomplete combustion.
2. ADDITION REACTION OF ALKENES
 Alkenes undergo addition reaction with bromine and hydrogen gas
 It is called addition reaction as the bromine molecule or hydrogen molecule is added
to the alkene molecule.
 After the reaction, the double bond in alkene is broken thereby forming an alkane

ADDITION REACTION OF ALKENS WITH BROMINE

 The reaction takes place quickly in the presence of light

 Bromine is a bromine liquid but when mixed with an alkene, the brown colour disappears
(becomes colorless)
 During the reaction the double bond is broken and the bromine molecule is added to the
alkene molecule. See below

Ethene + Bromine gas Bromoethane

C2H4 + Br2 C2H4Br2

35
ADDITION REACTION OF ALKENES WITH HYDROGEN

 Once the double bond is broken, the hydrogen molecule is added to the alkene molecule
thus the name addition reaction
 The alkene is turned into an alkane. See below

Ethene + Hydrogen gas ethane

C2H4 + Br2 C2H6 the two hydrogen atoms have been added to the
ethane forming ethane

ADDITION REACTION OF ALKENES WITH WATER

 The reaction is called hydration.

 An alkanol is formed after the reaction. See below

36
USES OF ALKENES

(i) To make alkanols in industries by reacting them with water

(ii) For making plastics e.g addition polymers
(iii) Used as palnt hormone that regulate fruit ripening , flower maturity and seed
germination (ethene)
(iv) Used in production of halogenalkane which are an important industrial solvents

37
 TOPIC 6: AIR
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:

1 Describe the composition of gases present in dry air

2 State the uses of the gases present in dry air
3 Describe the importance of oxygen
4 Describe common atmospheric pollutants and their sources
5 Explain the effects of pollutants on human health and the environment

COMPOSITION OF AIR
 Air is a mixture of gases
 It is made up of many gases which are found in different quantities
 Percentages are used to express this composition

The table below shows different gases making up air and their percentage by volume

COMPONENT PERCENTAGE BY VOLUME

Nitrogen 78.08
Oxygen 20.95
Argon 0.93
Carbon dioxide 0.03
Neon 0.002
Helium 0.0005
Methane 0.00017
Krypton 0.000114
Trace gases 0.00056

 The table is indicating that the most abundant gas in air is nitrogen seconded by oxygen
gas
 Besides the gases in the table above, air also contains
(i) Small amounts of water vapour
(ii) Solid particulates e.g. dust, smoke and ash

HOW CAN YOU SEPARATE COMPONENTS OF AIR?

By sing fractional distillation method as the gases have different boiling points.

USES OF SOME GASES PRESENT IN AIR

1. NITROGEN GAS
 Is made up of triple covalent bond that is very stable
 It is therefore inert

38
USES OF NITROGEN

Nitrogen has the following uses

(i) Food packaging: Nitrogen is used for storing foods because it provides a condition
where food can not react with oxygen and rot
(ii) Nitrogen is used as a gas in some fire extinguishers. It prevents the oxygen from
reaching the fire when it is spread onto the fire from the extinguisher
(iii) Freezing : liquid nitrogen is used in refrigeration because at low temperatures liquid
nitrogen can freeze food quickly
(iv) Making ammonia gas
(v) Preventing fires in oil tankers

USES OF OXYGEN GAS

Oxygen has the following uses:

(i) For making oxides e.g magnesium oxide and carbon dioxide
(ii) For efficient use of fuel in cars. Combustion with fuels will provide energy for
heating and driving cars
(iii) For welding. Oxygen gas can provide very high temperatures which can melt metals
(iv) For respiration in living things
(v) Used in iron blast furnaces

USES OF CARBON DIOXIDE

Carbon dioxide has the following uses:

(i) Used in plants to make their own food (photosynthesis)

(ii) Used in fire extinguishers
(iii) Used in fizzy drinks .The hissing sound you hear when you open Fanta, coke is
carbon dioxide escaping

AIR POLLUTION

MEANING OF AIR POLLUTION

Is the introduction of harmful substances into the atmosphere which have dangerous effects on
living things. The substances introduced are called air pollutants.

EXAMPLES OF AIR POLLUTANTS

 carbon dioxide
 Sulphur dioxide
 Nitrogen oxides

39
  Burnt hydrocarbons e.g methane
 Ozone
 Particulates such as dust, smoke

WAYS ON HOW THE POLLUTANTS ARE INTRODUCED INTO THE ATMOSPHERE

Below are some of the major ways

(i) Burning of fuels for energy

(ii) Motorization
(iii) Economic activities
(iv) Natural ways
1. BURNING FOSSIL FUELS

Burning of different fuels such as wood, paraffin, petrol, and methane gas introduce various
pollutants into the atmosphere. Some of the gases introduced are carbon dioxide, carbon
monoxide, sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxide and other un-burnt hydrocarbons

2. Motor vehicle exhausts

Due to high temperature in the exhaust, nitrogen and oxygen of the air combine and produce
nitrogen oxide (NO). NO in turn reacts with oxygen to produce nitrogen dioxide which has the
following harmful impacts:

(a) Inflammation of cells

(b) Interference with oxygen transportation in the body as the nitrogen oxide is incorporated
into haemoglobin
(c) Irritation of the lungs
(d) Lowering of an individual to respiratory infections such as influenza
3. Ozone
 It is a very reactive gas
 The presence of this gas in the upper part of the atmosphere is good but in the lower part
is a threat to human life.
 The ozone layer protects us from direct ultra-violet light rays from the sun
4. INDUSTIRIAL CHEMICAL PROCESSES

Industrial activities like production of cement produces poisonous gases like SO2.

DANGERS OF SULPHUR DIOXIDE

 Causes irritation of the respiratory tract leading to high mucus secretion, shortness of
breath, coughing and wheezing
 More absorption of SO2 may lead to death
5. NATURAL PROCCESES

40
Polluting gases may be produced through

 Volcanic action
 Lightning flashes
 Biological processes in plants and animals

OTHER POLLUTANTS AND THEIR DANGEROUS EFFECTS

(i) Particulates (dust, smoke): affect humans in that when they get deposited into the
human body they block organs and their functions. For example, they may block
lungs and irritate air passages smog found in particulates impairs vision causes
respiratory disorders and damages plants
(ii) Carbon dioxide when it is highly concentrated below the atmosphere lead to
greenhouse effect which is a leading cause to global warming and climate change
(iii) Carbon monoxide (CO) lead to suffocation

41
 TOPIC 7: SOIL
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1 Describe the components of soil
2 Describe the chemical properties of soil
3 Describe sources of soil pollutants and their effects
4 Explain ways of preventing soil pollution

COMPONENTS OF SOIL
Soil is made up of the following
(i) Organic component: this includes humus from both plants and animals
(ii) Inorganic component : this include gravel, coarse, sand, clay and silt
(iii) Living organisms: soil has some livimg microorganisms e.g bacteria, termites, worms
and fungi
(iv) Water
(v) Air

EXERCISE : Describe experiment to carry out in order to investigate that soil contain the
components above

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL

Soil has the following chemical properties:
(i) Soil PH
(ii) Cation exchange capacity
(iii) Salinity
(iv) Organic matter
(i) SOIL PH
This means the acidity or alkalinity of the soil. The PH of the soil depend on the concentration of
Hydrogen ions which (H+) are responsible for acidic properties and the concentration of
hydroxyl ions (OH-) which are responsible for basic properties. When Hydrogen ions are in high
concentration, the soil is acidic and its PH is less than 7 but when the concentration of hydroxyl
ions is high , the sois is basic/alkaline and its PH is greater than 7. If the Hydroxyl ions and
hydrogen ions are found in equal proportion the soil is neutral and has a PH of exactly 7.
EFFECTS OF SOIL PH
1. Soil PH determines the type of crop to be grown. Different crops do better in soils of
different PH e.g tea and pineapple do well in acidic soils while maize, wheat, beans,
cabbages, sunflower and cotton do well in alkaline/basic soils
2. It affects the availability of plant nutrients in the soil: In acidic soils, minerals become
very soluble and are easily washed away.
3. Acidic soils also increase the availability of aluminium ions which are very toxic to
plants.
4. Affects the availability of micro-organisms in the soill. Soil PH can cause some
organisms to be present or absent in the soil
FACTORS THAT AFFECTS SOIL PH
1. Application of acidic fertiliser: pholsphate and sulphate of ammonia are such kind of
fertilizers that makes the soil acidicand lower its PH

42
 2. Leaching: heavy rainfall makes some plant nutrients like magnesium ions, sodium ions,
and potassium to go down the soil profile and these are replace by hydrogen ions which
lower the PH
3. Parental material: the nature of the parental material from which the soil is formed may
make it acidic or basic. For example soils from sulphur parent releases sulphuric acid
soils while Calsium hydroxide(lime) releases alkaline soil

HOW CAN WE CONTROL THE PH OF THE SOIL?

We can make the acidity of the soils by applying acidifying fertilisers like phosphate and
sulphate of ammonia. The soil can be made basic by adding lime.

IMPORTANCE OF CONTROLLING SOIL PH

i.Its good that we control the PH of the soil because different crops do well in different PH soils.
For example most of the crops grown in Malawi like maize, wheat, beans, cabbages, sunflower
cotton do well in basic/alkaline soils while tea pineapple and berries prefer acidic soils

ii. Soil PH affects the availability of some plant nutrients in the soil.

(ii) ION EXCHANGE CAPACITY

The plant nutrients which are found in the soil are in the form of ions. Cations of magnesium
(Mg+2), potassium (K+), iron (Fe+2) and sodium (Na+) are found in the soil colloids while annions
of nitrogen (N-3), chlorine (Cl-) are found in the soil solution. These ions may replace each other
and we call this process ion exchange capacity. Formally, Ion exchange capacity is the ability of
the soil to exchange ions at a given PH per unit weight.

(iii) SALINITY

 This is the salt content of the soil.

 Increase in salinity increases the soil PH thereby making it alkaline.
 High salt accumulation also affects germination of seeds as it leads to lack of water in the
soil due to the high concentration of the salts.

(iv) ORGANIC MATTER

This is the decaying plant and animal remains in the soil. How is this important?

 It is important because it binds the soil particles together

 When applied in clay oils it improves aeration and drainage of the soil and when applied
in sandy soils, it improves its structure and water holding capacity
 Promote microbial activity in the soil as it provides them with food and habitat

43
 SOIL POLLUTION
Soil pollution means activities both natural and human which degrade soils leading to low
productivity and making the soil harmful for living things. The activities and the substances
causing this are called soil pollutants

SOURCES OF SOIL POLLUTANTS AND THEIR EFFECTS

1. Poor farming methods e.g.

(i) Making ridges along the slope: this leave the soil vulnerable to erosion
(ii) Gardening along the river banks: causes the soil to be easily washed away during a
heavy rainfall
(iii) Clear and burn cultivation: destroys nutrients in the soil
(iv) Overgrazing: leaves the soil bare and once rain drops come, the soils are easily
washed away

2. Application of inorganic fertilizers

Too much use of this fertilizer makes the soil acidic

3.Car exhausts and industrial wastes

They produce gases e.g SO2 which when mixed with rains makes the soil acidic.

4,Waste plastics and industrial effluents deposits

 Once deposited in the soil, plastics do not decay

 Industrial effluent deposited in some soils may make the place smell bad and this also
provide a breeding ground for flies which may cause diseases to human beings

5. Lead compounds

Some fuels are mixed with lead compounds to make the fuel burn smoothly in engines. The
release o these compounds pollute the soil. They caa also kill soil organisms and damage the
foetuses in pregnancy. Fortunately the fuel used is unleaded.

WAYS OF PREVENTING SOIL POLLUTION

1. Use of clean energy sources e.g. electricity and solar power. They do not emit gases that
can lead to acid rain
2. Good farming practices: farmers should not cultivate in river banks and make ridges on
the steep slope

44
3. Use of organic fertilizers instead of inorganic fertilizers. This has many benefits which
include improving soil structure, aeration and microbial activities in the soil
4. Recycling industrial and domestic waste plastics
5. Processing domestic and industrial wastes into fuels such as methane gas.
6. Afforestation and re-afforestation. Afforestation means planting trees where there are no
trees while re-afforestation means replacing the cut down trees

45
 REFERENCES

Ann Childs, 2000. Macmillan Secondary Chemistry. Malaysia: Macmillan Publishers Ltd.

B. Earl and L. D. R. Wilford, 2011. GCSE Chemistry, 2nd Edition. London: John Murray

Publishers Ltd.

Keith Wallis, 2007. Chanco Physical Science for Malawi: MSCE Book One, 3rd Edition.

Zomba: Chancellor College Publications.

Rose Marie Gallagher and Paul Ingr am, 2000. Complete Chemistry. New York: Oxford

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