COMMUNICATION STUDIES WITH MISS MONIQUE NEITA

The Jamaican
Language
Situation
The Jamaican Language Situation

The language of speakers tends to consist

of a range or variation between a
In Jamaica, English is the official language hypothetical Creole Basilect and an
but the medium of wider communication accepted Standard Acrolect.
and the language of the majority of the Sociolinguists have referred to this
population is Jamaican Creole, which is situation as a speech continuum, i.e., a
lexically related to English. continuous spectrum of speech varieties
ranging from a low to a high variety.
The Jamaican Language Situation

At one extreme of the continuum there is the Acrolect, which is

Standard Jamaican English. Grammatically, it is identical with other
varieties of English. The ideal is that Jamaicans should be able to switch
from one point of the continuum to another depending on the situation .

Towards the middle of the continuum there is an area interacting

between the Basilect Creole and the standard Jamaican English
resulting in the Mesolectal variety. This intermediate evolves mainly
because of the social pressure put on speakers to use Standard
English or a variety close to it.
At the other extreme of the continuum there is the Basilect which is
“pure” or heavy Creole –the language used for example by the farmer
and higgler when conversing with their counterparts. To the non-
Jamaican this variety may be unintelligible.
Historical Basis

The African slaves spoke a variety of African

The language situation in Jamaica has its origin in languages, which were mutually unintelligible with
slavery when contact was made between a English. A medium of communication had to be
dominant power and sub dominant group (the established .Hence a Pidgin, which is a contact
English and African Slaves).The English imposed language, developed. The language borrowed from
their language upon the slave population, which the vocabulary of English but retained other
they imported from Africa to work on the sugar features of African language. Over a period of
plantations. This limited the level of cultural years, Creole slaves who were born in Jamaica
identity, which could militate against subjection acquired the Pidgin a first language and used it for
and subordination. It also stratified the population communicative functions. This resulted in the
into classes. expansion of the Pidgin into a new language, the
Jamaican Creole.
Attitudes to our Language

As an official language Standard Jamaican English is accorded high social prestige.

It is used in both private and public (formal and informal) situations. It is the
language of business, science, the professions, education and international
communication. The Creole, on the other hand, is reserved for private and public
informal situations. It is the language of the street, the markets, and of the homes of
the vast majority of the population. It is a part of our heritage and cultural identity.
Individuals from all stratas of Jamaican society use Creole at some time, depending
on the social situation, the topic being discussed and the speakers involved.
Attitudes to our Language

It is quite unfortunate, however, that there is tendency to regard the Creole as an “inferior” language.
Linguistically, the inferior view is expressed by those who use nothing else. There is also the
misconception that Creole has no grammar. Apart from the linguistic aspect, there is also
unfavourable social attitude towards Creole. The ability to manipulate Standard English is evidence
of a good education and its acquisition is a means of upward social mobility .The social attitude and
misconceptions all derive from a common source – Creole has been linked with slavery; slaves were
regarded by their masters as inferior and by implication was their language. Even today most
children are made to believe that the language they know best, which is Creole, is “bad talk” and is
inferior. When they enter school to find that their language of instruction is basically different from
theirs, the concept is further consolidated. As a result their speech is inhibited .Unless they are
strongly motivated, Language Arts classes are meaningless. Fortunately Jamaicans are developing
a more tolerant attitude towards Creole than was the case two decades ago.
 Linguistic
Terms of Note
Linguistic Terms

Pidgin: A simplified form of language that develops for communication between groups who speak different
languages. It typically has a limited vocabulary, simplified grammar, and is used primarily for specific purposes
like trade. Pidgins are not native languages; they are learned as a second or third language.
Speech Continuum: A range of language varieties spoken in a region, where adjacent varieties are mutually
intelligible but the extremes of the continuum may not be. Instead of distinct boundaries between languages or
dialects, there's a gradual transition.
Basilect: The most "creole-like" variety in a creole language continuum. It's the variety that is furthest from the
standard or lexifier language and retains the most distinct creole features.

Mesolect: The intermediate varieties in a creole language continuum, falling between the basilect and the
acrolect. These varieties share features of both the basilect and the acrolect.
Linguistic Terms

Acrolect: The variety in a creole language continuum that is closest to the standard or lexifier
language. It has fewer distinct creole features and is often considered the most prestigious
variety.

Creole: A fully developed language that originates from a pidgin. It becomes the native language
of a community and has a complex grammar and a rich vocabulary. Crucially, it is acquired by
children as their first language.

Language Register: A variety of language used in a particular social setting or for a specific
purpose. Registers can vary in formality, vocabulary, and style (e.g., formal academic writing vs.
casual conversation).

Dialect: A variety of a language spoken by a group of people in a specific geographic area or

social group. Dialects differ in pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar, but speakers of different
dialects of the same language usually have some degree of mutual intelligibility.
Linguistic Terms

Patois: A term often used to refer to a

non-standard or regional variety of a
language, sometimes with negative
Dialectal Variation: The differences in
connotations. In the context of creole
pronunciation, vocabulary, and
languages, "patois" is sometimes used
grammar that exist between dialects
synonymously with "creole," though
of the same language.
the term can be loaded, so it's best to
be precise. In Jamaica, "Patois"
generally refers to Jamaican Creole.
Linguistic Terms

Monolingual: Speaking only Bilingual: Speaking two Multilingual: Speaking more

one language. languages fluently. than two languages fluently.

Slang: Informal vocabulary Vernacular: The native

and expressions that are language or dialect spoken by
Language Community: A
often used within a particular a group of people. It often
group of people who share a
social group or generation. refers to the everyday,
common language or dialect.
Slang is often short-lived and informal language used in a
changes rapidly. community.
Linguistic Terms

Linguistic Feature: A characteristic of a language, such as a particular pronunciation,

grammatical structure, or vocabulary item. These can be used to distinguish between different
languages, dialects, or registers.
Dialect The word dialect is generally used in two ways which to some extent overlap. In popular
usage the word dialect refers to a variety of language that is regarded as the typical speech
of uneducated ,rural people .Although this variety is associated with the rural and
uneducated ,it is also thought to be the characteristic or substandard ,incorrect ,corrupt or
relaxed speech of the population generally. In the popular, lay usage dialect is contrasted with
the standard in value- the latter is given a high prestigious value and the former is given a low,
non-prestigious value. Yet, the native dialect is dear to the heart of the people generally
because it captures deep seated emotions and feelings powerfully and directly.

When the word dialect is used by linguists, it is not set up against standard in a contrastive
scale of value judgment; it is used as an objective term to mean simply “a variety of language”.
Language is seen by linguists as having two kinds of varieties – geographical and social. When
linguists talk about a ‘regional dialect’, this is taken to mean a variety spoken in and typical of
a specific geographical area. When the linguist talks about a social dialect this is taken to
mean a variety spoken by and typical of a specific social class. Any country may then be
divided up according to the different regional dialects spoken across the whole country and
the population may be divided into different social dialects.
Standard

Standardization of a language or dialect occurs when a

language community officially adopts and approves that
variety for use by its social institutions; when it has been
codified into a dictionary or grammar and when it has
general acceptance as the medium of serious discourse
in textbooks, newspapers, contracts and communication
between that group and others foreign to it.
Standard

Standardization of a language is a function of power. Factors that determine which variety of language becomes the
standard code, especially in a multilingual context, often include military, economic and political power. Those who
have power determine which dialects are promoted and considered prestigious and which are degraded and
considered ‘bad’ or ‘corrupted’ forms of language. It is therefore, not unusual to find, in former European colonies,
that the assumptions made about the standard code (that is the language of the whole people, that everyone uses it
, that everyone holds it in high esteem, and so forth), are not necessarily true. During the colonial process, Standard
English, for example, was regarded as correct English and other social dialects were stigmatized not only in terms of
correctness but also in terms which indirectly reflected on the lifestyles, morality and good taste of the speakers.
Speakers of dialects other than the standard code were generally adjudged to be vulgar, loud, low, barbarous, and
even uneducated. It is not surprising to see that the higher one’s social standing, the less likely one is to use a
regional dialect. One is more likely to use a standardized variety because it is associated with prestige. The wider
one’s social and geographical horizon, the more likely it will be that one’s speech and that of one’s children will lose
regional features.
Standard
Colonial governments often impose a standard language on a country as an attempt to create a
unifying institution that will thereafter facilitate the creation of a nation state. The process of
standardization is never instantaneous. Initially, it affects written language, and then gradually extends
to various aspects of speech like grammar, vocabulary and even pronunciation. The process begins
when one dialect is selected over others as the preferred code. Over time this dialect is codified
through its use by socializing agencies such as schools, church, law courts and commerce.
Codification of language is one way that those with the power prescribe the standard form as the only
correct one. Codification aims at achieving minimal variation in the form of a language by setting down
the prescribed language code in a written form- in grammar books, dictionaries, spelling books,
pronunciation dictionaries and thesaurus. As the language community gradually accepts its usage, the
function of this code is elaborated to affect all aspects of life, verbal and written. The final step in the
process is the willing or tacit acceptance of this code as the standard language
Accent

Every speaker who produces language has an accent.

Differences in accent are most easily detected in the vocal
elements of a speaker’s pronunciation. Accent can be a
reliable guide to a speaker’s regional background and social
class. But it can also indicate a person’s level of education,
economic status, age, job and how well travelled he/she is
Language Registers

Register refers to the perceived attitude and level of formality associated with a variety of languages.
The relationship between the writer's attitude and the variety chosen is very important in the study
of written language. In face to face speech, the listener can easily interpret the attitude of the
speaker by examining the speaker's tone of voice, facial expressions and overall body language. This
is not possible in writing. The writer has to use specialized features of discourse to convey or mask
attitudes. It is then the reader's responsibility to correctly interpret the writer's attitude, tone and
level of formality. Language Registers range on a scale from most formal to most informal. The five
levels identified have been given specialized names by Linguists; frozen, formal, consultative, casual
and intimate.
Language Registers
1. Frozen: This is where the use of language is fixed and relatively static. The national pledge, anthem, school creeds and The Lord's Prayer are examples of a frozen register. In
essence it is language that does not require any feedback.

2. Formal: This describes language used in official and ceremonial settings. For example in court, in a business meeting, at a swearing in ceremony, in an interview or in a classroom
etc. The language used in these settings is comparatively rigid and has a set, agreed upon vocabulary that is well documented. In other words, the language used is often of a standard
variety.

3. Consultative: This describes language used for the purpose of seeking assistance as is suggested by the word 'consult'. It also describes the language used between a superior and
subordinate. In both cases one person is deemed as more knowledgeable and having greater expertise and the other person is the beneficiary of such knowledge and expertise. The
language dynamism between lawyer/client, doctor/patient, employer/employee and teacher/student are examples of this type of register.

4. Casual/Informal: This describes language used between friends. It is often very relaxed and focused on just getting the information out. Slangs are quite often used in these
instances.

5. Intimate: This is used to describe language used between persons who share a close relationship or bond. This register would take into account certain terms of endearment,
slangs or expressions whose meaning is shared with a small subset of persons. For example lovers having special terms of endearment, mothers giving pet names to their children
based on some character trait and best friends formulating slangs based on some shared past experience.

6. Private: Used to express personal impressions, musings, self-talk and reflection. This type of register will utilize incomplete sentences, simple vocabulary, use of standard or
nonstandard varieties reflect the speaker’s level of comfort with the language. Exclamations, interjections and nonverbal expressions are possible. For example “ a weh mi go do dat
fa?”
Language (Dialectal) Variation
Language Variation or Dialectal Variation, refers to changes
in language due to various influences. These include:

social, geographic, individual and group factors.

VARIETIES OF
LANGUAGE
Dialect

This refers to the variety of language characteristic of a

particular group of people in a given speech community
(country) or region. For example one may refer to a
Caribbean dialect as there are certain vocabulary items and
sentence structures that Caribbean countries have in
common.
VARIETIES OF LANGUAGE

Creole
There is no definition of creole that is accepted by all. The meaning of the word 'creole' has changed
considerably over the years. However, it is normally used to refer to a dialect or language which results from
contact between the language of a colonizing people and the language of a colonized people. In the
Caribbean, Creole languages are as a result of contact between English, French, Spanish, Portuguese,
Dutch (languages of the colonizers) and West African languages (languages of the colonized).
VARIETIES OF LANGUAGE

Patois

Patois is a word of French origin which translates most closely, in French, to mean 'gibberish'. It was a word
used to describe how foreign and strange Creole languages sounded to the speakers of European
languages. Patois is used to refer to a geographical dialect which differs from the standard language spoken
in a given country. In Jamaica, for example, the word patois is used to refer to the English based creole
spoken. Patois carries the usual negative associations and lack of prestige which characterize non-standard,
rural or regional dialects.
VARIETIES OF LANGUAGE

Standard Variety (Eg, English, French)

This is the variety of language or dialect that is used for formal, official and
educational purposes. It is also used as an instrument for mass education and
communication causing it to acquire greater prestige and uniformity. (Creoles have
been observed to lack uniformity as a result of not being standardized.) Most
Caribbean countries have a European language as its standard variety for formal,
official purposes and a Creole language for informal communication amongst
native, family and friends. The notable exception is Haiti where the French Creole
was made an official language alongside French.
VARIETIES OF LANGUAGE

Slang

This is a popular, fashionable use of words and phrases which may be either be old
words given new meaning or completely new words. In the same way that fashion
changes, so do slang expressions. Slang is a normal part of everyday speech but
may not be acceptable in certain formal settings. When used in formal writing, in
particular, these expressions should be put in inverted commas (For e.g., 'wicked'-
Jamaican slang for good/amazing, 'off the chain'-American slang for exciting/good)
VARIETIES OF LANGUAGE

Foreign English

This refers to varieties of the English language spoken by persons not from ones
country. Used mainly by tourists and expatriates from countries where English is a
major language. It may also be spoken by Caribbean nationals who try to imitate the
accent of tourists with whom they associate.
VARIETIES OF LANGUAGE

Rasta English

This refers to a special variety of English indigenous to Jamaica, spoken by a religious group of
persons called Rastafarians. This variety differentiates itself from standard and non-standard English
by use of different, specialized vocabulary items. The psychology of 'no contradiction' extends to all
aspects of a Rastafarian's life, including language. Hence because it sounds contradictory for
oppress -/up-res/ to mean held down in life, Rastafarians refer to this verb as down press. Likewise
instead of participation -/part-icipation/ to mean being fully involved they refer to this noun as
fullticipation. The language is also characterized by use of 'I' to signify positivity and the importance
of the individual in relation to another, so instead of 'You and I', Rasta would refer to us as 'I and I' to
signify that we are both equal in importance. Irie, refers to a good vibe and Ital food refers to food
considered good for the body (i.e, Vegetarian based food).
VARIETIES OF
LANGUAGE
Radio and Television English

Involves sound and the human voice in the electronic media. It can be divided into four
categories- newscast, music programmes, advertisements and general public features.

Erudite English

Consists of language containing features that show that the speaker is knowledgeable of words,
phrases and idioms especially older ones and foreign ones which are considered difficult.

Colloquial English

Which refers to English which is characteristically West Indian without being Creole English-
marked by differences in pronunciation, pitch and syntax.
VARIETIES OF LANGUAGE

Profane English

Refers to impolite and shocking expressions and obscenities (used in cursing)

involving God, religious things, sex, sexual organs and practices.
Attitudes to Language
 First time visitors to the English speaking Caribbean
Attitudes to often assume that all territories in the region share an
identical culture and identity. However, the distinctions
Language that exist between territories, given the political and
economic competition of the colonial era and the varying
cultural legacies, are reflected not only in differing
speech forms but also in notions of superiority among the
territories. Attitudes to language in the region, therefore,
vary widely from a sense of respect for the Queen’s
English to making fun of the small island status of certain
territories.
 In spite of the mutual intelligibility that exists

Attitudes to between English based Creoles of the territories,

there are certain identifiable characteristics of the
speech of each territory .The territories of which
the speech is most easily identified are Jamaica
Language and Barbados. In the case of Barbados, it is
pronunciation that is distinctive, whereas
Jamaican Patois is recognizable for its
pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary.
Interestingly, in contemporary society, while
ignorance of Jamaican Basilect ( the form of
creole that is furthest from standard English) may
contribute to prejudice against some quarters, the
global influence of Jamaican Music and culture is
ensuring that many slang terms used in the
Caribbean, as elsewhere are of Jamaican origin.
 In those countries where tourism is a major
Attitudes to contributor to economic development, there is
more pressure to attempt not only to
communicate in Standard English but also to
Language adopt a foreign accent when interacting with
tourists. The stereotype of returning residents
who have adopted an American or British
Accent and idiom (even after a brief trip
abroad)is another popular source of humor and
even derision. Even so, for the Caribbean
speaker there are conflicting attitudes to the
mother tongue.
Table of Country
Anguill a English
Official language

English, Some Spanish

Spoken languages

Languages
Antigua and Barbuda English English, local dialects
Aruba Dutch Papiamento, Dutch, Engl ish, Spanish
Bahamas English English, Creole
Barbados English English, Some Portuguese creole

Spoken in
Bay Islands, Honduras Spanish Spanish, English, Amerindian dialects
Belize English English, Spanish, Mayan, Garifuna, Creole
Bermuda English English, Portuguese
Bonaire Dutch Papiamento, Dutch, Engl ish, Spanish

the British Virgin Islands

Cancun
Cayman Islands
English
Spanish
English
English
Spanish, English
English

Caribbean
Cuba Spanish Spanish
Curacao Dutch Papiamento, Dutch, Spanish
Dominica English English, French patois
Dominican Republic Spanish Spanish, Some Engl ish
Grenada English English, French patois
Guadeloupe French French, Creole patois
Haiti French, Creole French, Creole, Some Spanish
Isla Cozumel Spanish Spanish, Some Engl ish
Isla de Margarita Spanish Spanish, Some Engl ish
Jamaica English English, Creole, Hindi, Chinese, Some Spanish
Martinique French French, Creole patois
Montserrat English English
Puerto Rico Spanish, English Spanish, Some Engl ish
Saba Dutch English, Dutch
Saint Barthelemy French French, English
Saint Croix English English
Saint John English English
Saint Kitts and Nevis English English
Saint Lucia English English, French patois
Saint Martin - FWI French French, English, Creole patois, Spanish
Saint Thomas English English
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines English English, French patois
Saint Eustatius Dutch English, Dutch, Some Spanish
Saint Maarten Dutch English, Spanish, Dutch, Creole, Papiamento
Trinidad and Tobago English English, Hindi, French, Spanish, Chinese, Creol e (Many variations)
Turks and Caicos Islands English English