Visit https://ebookultra.

com to download the full version and

explore more ebooks or textbooks

Bio inspired Routing Protocols for Vehicular Ad

Hoc Networks 1st Edition Salim Bitam

_____ Click the link below to download _____

https://ebookultra.com/download/bio-inspired-routing-
protocols-for-vehicular-ad-hoc-networks-1st-edition-salim-
bitam/

Explore and download more ebooks or textbooks at ebookultra.com

Here are some recommended products that we believe you will be
interested in. You can click the link to download.

Security for wireless ad hoc networks 1st Edition Farooq

Anjum

https://ebookultra.com/download/security-for-wireless-ad-hoc-
networks-1st-edition-farooq-anjum/

Ad Hoc Mobile Wireless Networks Principles Protocols and

Applications Second Edition Subir Kumar Sarkar

https://ebookultra.com/download/ad-hoc-mobile-wireless-networks-
principles-protocols-and-applications-second-edition-subir-kumar-
sarkar/

Evolutionary Algorithms for Mobile Ad Hoc Networks 1st

Edition Bernabé Dorronsoro

https://ebookultra.com/download/evolutionary-algorithms-for-mobile-ad-
hoc-networks-1st-edition-bernabe-dorronsoro/

Ad Hoc Networks Telecommunications and Game Theory 1st

Edition Batatia

https://ebookultra.com/download/ad-hoc-networks-telecommunications-
and-game-theory-1st-edition-batatia/
Advanced Routing Protocols for Wireless Networks 1st
Edition Miguel Elias Mitre Campista

https://ebookultra.com/download/advanced-routing-protocols-for-
wireless-networks-1st-edition-miguel-elias-mitre-campista/

Bio Inspired Computing and Networking 1st Edition Xiao

https://ebookultra.com/download/bio-inspired-computing-and-
networking-1st-edition-xiao/

Principles of Ad hoc Networking 1st Edition Michel Barbeau

https://ebookultra.com/download/principles-of-ad-hoc-networking-1st-
edition-michel-barbeau/

Bio Inspired Computing and Networking 1st Edition Yang

Xiao

https://ebookultra.com/download/bio-inspired-computing-and-
networking-1st-edition-yang-xiao/

Challenges in Ad Hoc Networking Fourth Annual

Mediterranean Ad Hoc Networking Workshop June 21 24 2005
Ile de Porquerolles France IFIP International Federation
for Information Processing 1st Edition K. Al Agha
https://ebookultra.com/download/challenges-in-ad-hoc-networking-
fourth-annual-mediterranean-ad-hoc-networking-workshop-
june-21-24-2005-ile-de-porquerolles-france-ifip-international-
federation-for-information-processing-1st-edition-k/
Bio inspired Routing Protocols for Vehicular Ad Hoc
Networks 1st Edition Salim Bitam Digital Instant
Download
Author(s): Salim Bitam, Abdelhamid Mellouk
ISBN(s): 9781848216631, 1848216637
Edition: 1
File Details: PDF, 3.32 MB
Year: 2014
Language: english
W663-Bitam.qxp_Layout 1 13/08/2014 10:40 Page 1

FOCUS SERIES in NETWORKS AND TELECOMMUNICATIONS

FOCUS

Abdelhamid Mellouk
Salim Bitam
NETWORKS AND TELECOMMUNICATIONS SERIES
Vehicular Ad-Hoc Networks (VANETs) play a key role in developing Intelligent
Transportation Systems (ITS) aiming to achieve road safety and to guarantee the
needs of drivers and passengers, in addition to improving transportation productivity.

One of the most important challenges of this kind of network is the data routing
between VANET nodes which should be routed with a high level of Quality of Service
(QoS) to ensure messages are received in time. The driver can then make the
appropriate decision to improve road safety. In the literature, there are several routing
protocols for VANETs which are of varying reliability in reaching safety requirements.

In this book, the authors begin by describing all the basic concepts of VANETs, such

Bio-inspired Routing Protocols for Vehicular Ad-Hoc Networks

as VANET definition, VANET versus Mobile Ad-hoc Network (MANET), architectures,
routing definition and steps, Quality of Service (QoS) for VANET routing, metrics of
evaluation, experimentation, and simulation of VANETs, mobility patterns of VANETs,
etc. Moreover, different routing protocols for routing in VANETs are described. Two
main categories are presented: classical routing and bio-inspired routing. Concerning
classical VANETs, the main principles and all phases are overviewed, as well as their
two sub-categories which are topological and geographical protocols.

0Following this, the authors propose a new category called bio-inspired routing which
is inspired by natural phenomena such as ant colony, bee life, genetic operators, etc.
They also present some referential protocols as examples of each category.

Salim Bitam is Associate Professor and responsible for the Master in Decision
Support Systems and Multimedia in the computer science department at the
Bio-inspired Routing
University of Biskra, Algeria, as well as a Senior Member of LESIA Laboratory
(University of Biskra, Algeria), and Associate Member of LiSSi Laboratory (University
of Paris-Est Créteil VdM, France). His main research interests are vehicular ad-hoc
networks, mobile ad-hoc networks, wireless sensor networks, cloud computing, and
Protocols for Vehicular
bio-inspired methods for routing and optimization.
Abdelhamid Mellouk is Full Professor at the University of Paris-Est (UPEC),
Networks & Telecommunications (N&T) Department and LiSSi Laboratory, France.
Head of several executive national or international positions, he is the founder of the
Ad-Hoc Networks
Network Control Research activity in UPEC with extensive international academic
and industrial collaborations. His general area of research is in adaptive real-time
control for high-speed new generation dynamic wired/wireless networking in order to
maintain acceptable Quality of Service/Experience for added value services.
Salim Bitam
Abdelhamid Mellouk

www.iste.co.uk
Z(7ib8e8-CBGGDB(
Bio-inspired Routing Protocols for Vehicular Ad Hoc Networks
 FOCUS SERIES

Series Editor Abdelhamid Mellouk

Bio-inspired Routing
Protocols for Vehicular
Ad Hoc Networks

Salim Bitam
Abdelhamid Mellouk
First published 2014in Great Britain and the United States by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as
permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, this publication may only be reproduced,
stored or transmitted, in any form or by any means, with the prior permission in writing of the publishers,
or in the case of reprographic reproduction in accordance with the terms and licenses issued by the
CLA. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside these terms should be sent to the publishers at the
undermentioned address:

ISTE Ltd John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

27-37 St George’s Road 111 River Street
London SW19 4EU Hoboken, NJ 07030
UK USA

www.iste.co.uk www.wiley.com

© ISTE Ltd 2014

The rights of Salim Bitam and Abdelhamid Mellouk to be identified as the authors of this work have been
asserted by them in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

Library of Congress Control Number: 2014945528

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A CIP record for this book is available from the British Library
ISSN 2051-2481 (Print)
ISSN 2051-249X (Online)
ISBN 978-1-84821-663-1
 Contents

PREFACE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix

INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi

ACRONYMS AND NOTATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv

CHAPTER 1. VEHICULAR AD HOC NETWORKS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.1. VANET definition, characteristics and applications. . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.1. Definition of vehicular ad hoc network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.2. Characteristics of vehicular ad hoc networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.3. Applications of vehicular ad hoc networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2. VANET architectures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2.1. Vehicular WLAN/cellular architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2.2. Pure ad hoc architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.2.3. Hybrid architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.3. Mobility models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.3.1. Random-based mobility models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.3.2. Geographic map-based mobility models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.3.3. Group-based mobility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.3.4. Prediction-based mobility models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.3.5. Software-tools-based mobility models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.4. VANET challenges and issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.4.1. VANET routing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.4.2. Vehicular network scalability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.4.3. Computational complexity in VANET networking . . . . . . . . . . 22
vi Bio-inspired Routing Protocols for Vehicular Ad Hoc Networks

1.4.4. Routing robustness and self-organization

in vehicular networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.4.5. Vehicular network security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.5. Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

CHAPTER 2. ROUTING FOR VEHICULAR AD HOC

NETWORKS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.1. Basic concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.1.1. Single-hop versus multi-hop beaconing
in VANETs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.1.2. Routing classification of VANETs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.2. Quality-of-service of VANET routing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.2.1. Quality-of-service definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.2.2. Quality-of-service criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.3. VANET routing standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.3.1. Dedicated short range communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.3.2. Standards for wireless access in vehicular
environments (WAVE) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.3.3. VANET standards related to routing layers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2.3.4. Other VANET routing standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.4. VANET routing challenges and issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
2.4.1. Dynamics nature of VANETs
(mobility pattern and vehicles’ velocity) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
2.4.2. Vehicular network density and scalability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.4.3. Safety improvement and quality-of-service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.5. Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

CHAPTER 3. CONVENTIONAL ROUTING PROTOCOLS

FOR VANETS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.1. Topology-based routing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.1.1. Reactive routing protocols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.1.2. Proactive routing protocols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.1.3. Hybrid routing protocols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
3.1.4. Critics of topology-based routing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
3.2. Geography-based routing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
3.2.1. Geography-based routing principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
3.2.2. Geography-based routing protocols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
3.2.3. Critics of geography-based routing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
3.3. Cluster-based routing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
3.3.1. Cluster-based routing principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
 Contents vii

3.3.2. Cluster-based routing protocols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

3.3.3. Critics of cluster-based routing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
3.4. Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

CHAPTER 4. BIO-INSPIRED ROUTING PROTOCOLS

FOR VANETS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
4.1. Motivations for using bio-inspired
approaches in VANET routing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
4.1.1. Network scalability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
4.1.2. Computational complexity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
4.1.3. Self-organization and adaptability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
4.1.4. Routing robustness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
4.2. Fundamental concepts and operations of
bio-inspired VANET routing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
4.2.1. Optimization problem definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
4.2.2. Search space (SSp) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
4.2.3. Objective function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
4.2.4. Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
4.2.5. Individual encoding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
4.2.6. Initialization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
4.2.7. Stopping criterion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
4.3. Basic bio-inspired algorithms used in
VANET routing literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
4.3.1. Genetic algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
4.3.2. Ant colony optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
4.3.3. Particle swarm optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
4.3.4. Bees life algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
4.3.5. Bacterial foraging optimization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
4.4. Evolutionary algorithms for VANET routing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
4.4.1. Sequential genetic algorithms for VANET routing . . . . . . . . . . 95
4.4.2. Parallel genetic algorithms for VANET routing . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
4.5. Swarm intelligence for VANET routing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
4.5.1. Ant colony optimization for VANET routing . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
4.5.2. Particle swarm optimization for VANET routing . . . . . . . . . . . 106
4.5.3. Bee colony optimization for VANET routing . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
4.5.4. Bacterial foraging optimization for VANET routing . . . . . . . . . 110
4.6. Another bio-inspired approach for VANET routing . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
4.7. Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113

CONCLUSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121

INDEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
 Preface

It will be fascinating to look back in the years ahead and note the growing
interest of bio-inspired computing, short for biologically inspired computing, that
has been deployed to solve various computational problems in several disciplines
such as networks and telecommunications, imagery, artificial intelligence and
decision support systems.

Due to the emergence of different kinds of communication and networking

technologies and the foreseen proliferation of different and specific types of services
supported by these technologies, the use of bio-inspired techniques seems to be a
real challenge, taking into account all the computational complexities.

However, the use of artificial intelligence tools together with biologically

inspired techniques is needed to control network behavior in real-time so as to
provide users with the quality of service that they request.

The book focuses on the use of these techniques in intelligent transportation

systems (ITSs). The latter is considered as one of the most recently studied domains
where bio-inspired approaches are successfully applied. ITS design and development
play a major role in improving road safety, traffic monitoring and passengers’
comfort in order to avoid accidents and traffic congestion on the one hand, and to
serve and satisfy digital needs of vehicle drivers and passengers on the other. To
achieve these goals, ITSs need to support traffic information delivery, accurately
and timely, to vehicle drivers and transport authorities. This transmission is ensured
through a reliable vehicular wireless and mobile network known as a Vehicular Ad
hoc NETwork (VANET).

Over the years, the continuous technological evolution and the development of
new applications and services have steered networking research toward new
problems, which have emerged as the network evolves with new features toward
x Bio-inspired Routing Protocols for Vehicular Ad Hoc Networks

what is usually referred to as the next generation networks, which has become one
of the basic infrastructures that supports the world economy nowadays.

This book focuses on the current state-of-the-art research results and experience
reports in the area of bio-inspired techniques dedicated to ITSs. It shows that the
bio-inspired field is a very dynamic area in terms of theory and application.

To give a complete bibliography and a historical account of the research that led
to the present form of the subject would have been impossible. Thus, it is inevitable
that some topics have been treated in less detail than others. The choices made
reflect, in part, personal taste and expertise and, in part, a preference for very
promising research and recent developments in the field of ITS-based bio-inspired
techniques.

This book is a start, but also leaves many questions unanswered. I hope that it
will inspire a new generation of investigators and investigations.

The authors hope that you will enjoy reading this book and receive many helpful
ideas and revelations for your own study.

Abdelhamid MELLOUK
July 2014
 Introduction

Over the last decade, we have witnessed the emergence of bio-inspired

computing, short for biologically inspired computing, that has been deployed to
solve various computational problems in several disciplines such as networks and
telecommunications, imagery, artificial intelligence and decision support systems.

A bio-inspired technique is defined as a field of study of natural behaviors and

biological species aiming to propose new solutions to computational problems such
as modeling, optimization and simulation. The basic principle used by these
approaches is the imitation of natural behaviors of living creatures such as humans,
insects and animals when they try to find solutions to their natural needs such as
food or nest searching, reproduction, defense and traveling. The Intelligent
Transportation System (ITS) is considered as one of the most recently studied
domains where bio-inspired approaches are successfully applied and have given
better results compared to conventional approaches which are not biologically
inspired.

ITS’s design and development play a major role in improving road safety, traffic
monitoring and passengers’ comfort in order to avoid accidents and traffic
congestion on one side, and to serve and satisfy digital needs of vehicle drivers and
passengers. To achieve these goals, ITSs need to support traffic information delivery
accurately and timely to vehicle drivers and transport authorities. This transmission
is ensured through a reliable vehicular wireless and mobile network known as a
Vehicular Ad hoc NETwork (VANET).

VANET is considered as a specific kind of Mobile Ad hoc NETwork (MANET)

which consists of a set of mobile nodes (vehicles) and fixed nodes known as
roadside units (RSUs). A VANET provides digital data communication between
vehicles through inter-vehicle communication (IVC), and between vehicles and
RSUs through vehicle-to-roadside communication (VRC). Due to their restricted
xii Bio-inspired Routing Protocols for Vehicular Ad Hoc Networks

range of motion in terms of directions and speeds, VANET vehicles move according
to an organized and restricted mobility model with some distinctions between
highways, urban or rural areas. Moreover, a vehicle is equipped with some sort of
radio interface called on-board unit (OBU) that enables short-range wireless IVCs
and/or VRCs along with a Global Positioning System (GPS) integrated into vehicles
to facilitate location-based services.

VANETs can support different types of services such as vehicle safety,

automated toll payment, traffic management, enhanced navigation, location-based
services (e.g. finding the closest fuel station, restaurant or hotel) and infotainment
applications, such as Internet-based services.

This book studies different bio-inspired approaches proposed up to the present

which are applied to routing problems for VANETs. The main motivation behind
the deployment of bio-inspired techniques for VANET routing arises from the
strong similarity between communication scenarios in data packet routing and the
natural communication of species. Network scalability is another reason to apply
bio-inspired routing against traditional routing which is less efficient for dense
VANETs. Moreover, these approaches have proved their effectiveness in solving
such problems with high adaptability and robustness in terms of accuracy of results
compared to other VANET routing schemes. In fact, the accurate forwarding of data
packets is very crucial and important in vehicular networks, since delivering data to
its destination in time can help vehicle drivers to react in opportune time, therefore,
undesirable situations are avoided and road safety is improved.

This book is divided into five chapters. Chapter 1 contains an introduction and
includes bio-inspiration’s purpose, motivations and an overview of the book.
Chapter 2 reviews a background of VANETs including definition, characteristics
and applications. Also, Chapter 2 presents different VANET architectures and their
mobility models, which is concluded by the essential challenges and issues of
VANETs.

Chapter 3 is devoted to VANET routing concepts and mechanisms. To achieve

this, Chapter 3 highlights basic transmission processes and proposes a classification
of proposed routing protocols for VANETs into three categories: topology-based
routing, geography-based routing and cluster-based routing. Quality of Service and
VANET routing standards are also outlined; then, major issues and challenges
facing VANET routing are presented.

The fourth chapter deals with details of conventional routing protocols conceived
for VANETs. For each category (i.e. topology-based, geography-based and cluster-
based routing) the main principles as well as advantages and weaknesses are
 Introduction xiii

explained. In addition, the main protocol of each category is illustrated in detail by

schemes and examples.

Chapter 5 provides a detailed knowledge concerning biologically inspired

approaches applied for vehicular Ad hoc networks. It starts with motivations for
using such methods in VANET routing and describes different basic concepts and
operations used by bio-inspired protocols in this context. Afterward, basic
bio-inspired algorithms used in VANET routing literature are explained in depth.
This part concerns genetic algorithm, ant colony optimization, particle swarm
optimization, bee colony optimization and bacterial foraging optimization. Some
examples in the VANET area and illustrative schemes are depicted. Moreover, this
chapter surveys bio-inspired protocols for VANET routing classified into three
categories, namely evolutionary algorithms, swarm intelligence and another
bio-inspired source. For each category, a state of the art including proposed
protocols, their main principles and discussions are presented.

Finally, this book is concluded with some rough opportunities and future tends of
bio-inspired methods for routing in VANETs.
 Acronyms and Notations

ACAR Adaptive Connectivity Aware Routing

ACO Ant Colony Optimization
AMR Adaptive Message Routing
AODV Ad hoc on-demand Distance Vector
BLA Bees Life Algorithm
CAN Controller Area Network
CAR Connectivity-Aware Routing
CBRP Cluster-based Routing Protocol
CMGR Connectivity-aware Minimum-delay Geographic
Routing
COIN Clustering algorithm for Open Inter-vehicle
Networks
DREAM Distance Routing Effect Algorithm for Mobility
DSRC Dedicated Short Range Communications
DYMO Dynamic MANET On-demand
FAST Fuzzy-Assisted Social-based rouTing
GA Genetic Algorithm
GPCR Greedy Perimeter Coordinator Routing
GPS Global Positioning System
GPSR Greedy Perimeter Stateless Routing
HLAR Hybrid Location-based Ad hoc Routing
xvi Bio-inspired Routing Protocols for Vehicular Ad Hoc Networks

HyBR Hybrid Bee swarm Routing

IEEE 1609 Family of Standards for wireless access in
vehicular environments (WAVE)
IEEE 802.11 Set of media access control (MAC) and
physical layer (PHY) specifications for
implementing wireless local area network
IEEE 802.11a An amendment to the IEEE 802.11 defining
requirements for an orthogonal frequency division
multiplexing (OFDM) communication system
IEEE 802.11p An amendment to the IEEE 802.11 to add wireless
access in vehicular environments
IGRP Intersection-based Geographical Routing
Protocol
IP Internet Protocol
ISO International Organization for Standardization
ITS Intelligent Transportation System
IVC Inter-Vehicle Communication
LIN Local Interconnect Network
LocVSDP Location-based Vehicular Service Discovery
Protocol
LTE Long Term Evolution
MAC Medium Access Control
MANET Mobile Ad hoc NETwork
MAR-DYMO Mobility-aware Ant colony optimization Routing
DYMO
MAV-AODV Multicast with Ant Colony Optimization for
VANET
MURU MUlti-hop Routing protocol for Urban
ns-2 Network Simulator
OBU On-Board Unit
OFDM Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing
OLSR Optimized Link State Routing
PassCAR Passive Clustering Aided Routing
 Acronyms and Notations xvii

PBR Prediction Based Routing

PLCP Physical Layer Convergence Procedure
PMD Physical Medium Dependent
PSO Particle Swarm Optimization
QoS Quality of Service
QoSBeeVANET Quality of Service Bee Swarm routing
protocol for VANET
RBVT-P Road-Based using Vehicular Traffic Proactive
RIVER Reliable Inter-VEhicular Routing
ROMSGP Receive on Most Stable Group-Path
RSU Roadside Unit
SLAB Statistical Location-Assisted Broadcast
SUMO Simulation of Urban MObility
TACR Trust dependent Ant Colony Routing
VADD Vehicle-Assisted Data Delivery
VANET Vehicular Ad hoc NETwork
VCN Vehicular Cellular Network
VRC Vehicle-to-Roadside Communication
V-WLAN Vehicular Wireless Local Area Network
WAVE Wireless Access in Vehicular Environment
Wi-Fi Wireless Fidelity
WiMAX Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access
WSM WAVE Short Message
WSMP WAVE Short Message Protocol
Other documents randomly have
different content
 II. Size relatively large, body-length 6 inches or more, teeth distinctly
anisodont, skull with nearly even posterior table, limbs very long, ventral
armature highly developed Cephalerpeton

Genus AMPHIBAMUS Cope, 1865.

Cope, Proc. Phila. Acad. Nat. Sci., 1865, pp. 134-137. Geol. Surv. Ills., 11,
pp. 135-141, pl. xxxii, 1 text-fig.
Hay, Proc. Am. Phil. Soc., XXXIX, p. 120, 1900.
Moodie, Jour. Geol., XVII, p. 81, fig. 24, 1909.

Type: Amphibamus grandiceps Cope.

The publication of the type species of this genus began the
researches of Professor Cope on the extinct Amphibia of North
America, which he continued for so many years with such excellent
results (105-177). The description was based on a single specimen
(plate 3, fig. 7) belonging to Mr. Joseph Evans, of Morris, Illinois,
who loaned it to Dr. Worthen for the Illinois Geological State Survey
(107), in order that it might be described. The type has been
destroyed by fire; so I am informed by Mr. L. E. Daniels, of Rolling
Prairie, Indiana. There are two other known specimens of the
species. One is in the collection of Mr. Daniels and the other No. 794,
of Yale University Museum.
This genus may be clearly separated from all the other
microsaurians by characters which are peculiar to the form. Among
these may be mentioned the possession of sclerotic plates in the
eyes; the large size of the orbits in comparison with the dimensions
of the skull; the short, broad form of the body; the very short tail;
the possession of a calcified cartilaginous pubis; clawed phalanges;
presacrals 22. The character which places the genus distinctly in the
Microsauria is the possession of long, slender, curved ribs, first
detected on Mr. Daniels's specimen (plate 14, figs. 1, 2), by Dr. Hay
(316). Its stegocephalian characters are evident in every particular
of its anatomy the roofed skull, the arrangement of the cranial
elements, the presence of a well-developed ventral armature, and
the digital formula (4 for the hand and 5 for the foot).
The genus Amphibamus was regarded by Cope as a
representative of a new order of vertebrates which he called (105)
Xenorachia. He later (123) abandoned this, however. Fritsch (251),
Zittel (642), and others regarded Amphibamus as a branchiosaurian.
The exact position of the form was uncertain until 1900, when Dr.
Hay (316) described the long, curved ribs and suggested its place
among the Microsauria. He, however (Cat. Foss. Vert., p. 410), made
the mistake of including the branchiosaurian family Protritonidæ,
under Microsauria, thus confusing the subject further. The genus
(462) has not the slightest relationship with the Branchiosauria.

Amphibamus grandiceps Cope.

 Cope, Proc. Phila. Acad. Nat. Sci., pp. 134-137, 1865; Geol. Surv. Ills., 11,
pp. 135-141, pl. xxxii, and 1 woodcut, 1866.
Hay, Proc. Am. Phil. Soc., XXXIX, p. 120, 1900.
Moodie, Jour. Geol., XVII, No. 1, p. 82, fig. 24, 1909.
Moodie, Kan. Univ. Sci. Bull., VI, No. 2, pp. 343-349, pl. 1, figs. 1 and 2;
pl. 5, fig. 3; pl. 7, fig. 1; pl. 11, 12, 13, 1912.

Type: Specimen has been destroyed. There is an excellent

specimen (plate 4, figs. 5. 6), No. 794 (1234), in Yale University
Museum, and another nearly as good in the possession of Mr. L. E.
Daniels, of Rolling Prairie, Indiana.
Horizon and locality: Mazon Creek shales, near Morris, Illinois.
The form of the skull of Amphibamus grandiceps Cope is not
unlike that of Tuditanus minimus Moodie (462) from the Linton,
Ohio, beds, but it is less acuminate than in that form. The large size
of the orbits is especially striking. The shape of the skull is triangular,
with concavities in the posterior table which correspond to the ear-
slits so characteristic of Metoposaurus (242) from the Keuper of
Germany. The narrowed posterior table of the skull is truncate, as in
several other genera of Microsauria, notably Tuditanus and
Saurerpeton. In structure the skull differs but little from many of the
other Carboniferous forms, but the arrangement of the elements of
the skull is more regular than in other genera.
The premaxillaries are very small elements in the anterior tip of
the skull. They border the nares. The skull is rather peculiar among
the Microsauria in the possession of a distinct lacrimal. I have
detected this element in the cranium of Stegops divaricata Cope. As
here defined the lacrimal is triangular, with its posterior border
formed exclusively by the prefrontal. Its other relations are the
normal ones. The nasal is elongate, with the usual relations of that
element. The frontal is slightly longer and broader than the nasal. It
apparently forms a portion of the inner border of the orbit. The
parietal foramen lies in the anterior fourth of the parietal, a rather
unusual position for this structure. The parietals, as in so many of
the Microsauria, together form the largest element of the skull and
are roughly a triangular area in the postero-median portion of the
skull. The postparietal and the tabulare are clearly distinguishable
and they have the usual relations for those elements. The maxillary,
jugal, and quadratojugal together form the greater part of the
maxillary border. The postero-lateral angle of the skull is, as visual,
formed by the squamosal. The orbit is bounded posteriorly by the
postorbital and the postfrontal, which include in the angle between
them the quadrangular squamosal. The orbit is especially remarkable
for its size as compared with the dimensions of the skull, being
without a parallel among other known Microsauria. Around the
border of the orbit in the specimen Cope studied (105) there were
found 14 quadrangular plates which he called "superciliary plates."
Hay (316) was inclined to regard them as sclerotic plates. In the Yale
Museum specimen (plate 4, figs. 5, 6) there are 20 of these plates,
and there seems to be no doubt that they are sclerotic elements. In
the restoration (fig. 26) 29 sclerotic plates are given, but there is no
assurance that this number is the exact one. They may also have
been slightly larger, but not as large as in Branchiosaurus.
The vertebral column is preserved nearly entire in the Daniels
specimen and quite entire (478) in the Yale specimen. Cope, in his
study of the type (105, 107), thought there could be no more than
13 presacrals, but the specimen was poorly preserved and indecisive
on this point. Dr. Hay (316) was inclined to the opinion that there
were less than 20. The Yale specimen shows 22 centra, which are
elongate, hour-glass-shaped bodies, with the neural spine a long,
low crest running the entire length of the centrum, with a median
elevation, so that in lateral view the spine would be triangular in
form. The body of the centrum is expanded laterally into a
diapophysis which extends anteriorly. The posterior vertebræ, at
least, had the notochord largely persistent. The osseous part of the
vertebra seems to have been but a thin shell, and the structure of
the zygapophyses can not be determined. That they were dorsal in
position is, however, evident from several vertebræ. The points of
these structures project laterally.
The tail is short and the caudal
vertebræ weakly developed.
There are distinct
impressions of at least 12 pairs
of ribs in the Daniels specimen.
They are long, slender, and
curved, and there is no definite
assurance that there were as
many ribs as are indicated (fig.
26) in the restoration (462). The
ribs are intercentral (469) and
probably occupied the full length
of the vertebral column. There
may have been as many as
indicated in the restoration.
One of the most interesting
features of the Yale specimen is
the preservation of a small patch
of skin, evidently from the back,
lying to one side near the head,
measuring 5 mm. in length by 3 Fig. 26. Restoration of body outline and
skeleton of Amphibamus grandiceps
mm. in width. The fragment
Cope, from Mazon Creek, Illinois, shales.
shows the skin to be of Restoration is based on complete
tuberculated scales, 4 of which specimens of the species and on Cope's
occupy the length of 1 mm. The drawing. Form of body is indicated in
scales are somewhat hexagonal, one specimen, that in possession of Mr.
Daniels. × 1.5.
almost rounded, and were
Skull: pmx, premaxilla; n, nasal; fr, frontal;
relatively quite thick. They lie in par, parietal; la, lacrimal; pf, prefrontal; pof,
a close mosaic (fig. 27). postfrontal; po, postorbital; pp, postparietal;
spt, supratemporal; mx, maxilla; j, jugal; qj,
quadratojugal; sq, squamosal; tab, tabulare.
The Yale specimen has, very
Skeleton: ic, interclavicle; cl, clavicle; sc,
well preserved, a portion of the scapula; h, humerus; r-u, radius, ulna; r,
ventral scutellæ, of the throat, carpus; pu, pubis; il, ilium; f, femur; t, tibia; fb,
fibula; ts, tarsus; x, ischium.
chest, and belly. The
arrangement of the plates on
the throat and chest is almost
exactly the reverse of what
Credner has described (190) for
Branchiosaurus amblystomus
Cred. On the throat, in the
present form, the chevron
points anteriorly, and it is the
anterior prolongation of the
belly scutes with the postero-
lateral projection of the gular
scutes which form the chest
and arm scutellation. The belly
chevrons point anteriorly, as in
Branchiosaurus, the rods
formed by the scutes being Fig. 27. Skeleton of Amphibamus
grandiceps Cope. × 1.4.
straight and not curved as in
Branchiosaurus. The entire c, carpus; cl, clavicle; cr, caudal rib; cv,
ventral armature preserved is caudal vertebra; f, femur; h, humerus: il,
displaced to the left of the ilium; s, skin: or, orbit: r, radius; ul, ulna;
animal and only the anterior sc, scapula; sp, sclerotic plates; t, tibia
and fibula; ts, tarsus; vs, ventral
portion is preserved. scutellæ. Specimen No. 794, Yale
University Museum.
The pectoral girdle is only
partially known. The scapula is
crescent-shaped. The other
elements are indicated only by fragments and nothing is known of
their form.
The arm elements are nearly all known. The humerus is slender
and expanded at the ends, with its articular surfaces well developed.
The separate radius and ulna are of approximately the same size
and length. The carpus is unossified. The complete phalangeal
formula for the hand of Amphibamus is unknown. The third digit
seems to have 4 elements. The formula 2-2-3-2 has been suggested
(462).
 The pelvis is very satisfactorily known. The ilium is a long,
slender, straight rod, with expanded ends. The ischium is shown on
both sides of the vertebral column in the Yale specimen. Its form is
almost identical with that of Paleohatteria longicaudata Credner,
from the Rothliegenden of Saxony. The ischia are apparently
approximate in the median line, though this character is somewhat
obscured by the impression of the caudal vertebræ. Their relation
with the ilium, other than that they were posterior to it, is uncertain.
The pubis is, apparently, calcified cartilage. It is a squarish plate,
somewhat corrugated, lying anterior to the ilium in the Daniels
specimen. The elements of the pelvis were undoubtedly hung loosely
in the flesh, as in modern salamanders, since there is no indication
of articular surfaces.
The hind limb is well known, the type having a nearly complete
leg with the foot. The Daniels and the Yale specimens supplement
and substantiate the type. The femur is longer than the humerus,
but more slender, with its articular surfaces about as well developed
as in the humerus. The element is a simple rod of bone without
muscular crests of any kind. The tibia and fibula are, likewise,
slender separate rods of bone. The tarsus is unossified. The
phalangeal formula is 2-2-3-4-3, and is fairly definite.

Fig. 28. Restoration of probable appearance of

Amphibamus grandiceps Cope on the basis of the
material described herewith. × 1.5.

In the type specimen the matrix in the orbit was blackened as if

by the pigmentum nigrum of the choroid. The same has been
noticed in other specimens. Professor Cope thought this indicated
that the animal was nocturnal.
There are many characters in Amphibamus which seem to
approximate the reptilian type of structure. Among these may be
mentioned the character of the articular surfaces of the limb bones,
the intercentral position of the ribs, the incipient double-headedness
and the curvature of the ribs, the presence of a cartilaginous
calcified pubis, the length of the limbs, and the clawed character of
the phalanges.
Amphibamus was a low, flat, short, and undoubtedly a creeping,
crawling animal, possibly spending a portion of its time in the water;
but it could not have been a swimmer. It was one of nature's first
attempts at constructing a land vertebrate.

Measurements of Amphibamus grandiceps Cope.

Collection of Mr. L. E. Daniels, of Rolling Prairie, Indiana:
mm.
Entire length of specimen 62
Posterior width of head 15
Length of head 15
Posterior height of skull 3
Length of orbit 5
Width of orbit 3.5
Interorbital width 4
Width of skull in front of orbits 11
Width of skull just back of orbits 16
Length of presacral region of the vertebral column 30
Length of tail 13
Length of fore limb 13.5
Length of humerus 4
Length of radius and ulna 3
Length of right hand as preserved 3.5
Length of rib along curve 5.5
 Length of hind limb 17
Length of ilium 4
Length of vertebral centrum 1.75
Length of portion of scapula (?) preserved 4.5
Length of foot 6.5
Width of impression of body midway 16

No. 794 (1234), Yale University Museum:

mm.
Length of skeleton 67
Length of skull 15
Posterior width of skull 15
Depth of tympanic notch 4
Width of tympanic notch 6
Long diameter of the orbit 7
Transverse diameter of the orbit 5.5
Interorbital width 4.5
Diameter of pineal foramen .75
Length of cervical series of vertebræ 9
Length of dorsal series 35
Length of caudal series 13
Length of a centrum of the dorsal series 1.5
Length of dorsal rib 3.5
Length of arm 20
Length of humerus 7
Length of radius and ulna 4
Width of carpal space 3
Length of third digit 5
Length of leg 25
Length of ilium 3
Length of femur 9
Length of tibia and fibula 5
Length of carpal space 4
Length of 1st digit 3
Length of 2d digit 4.5
 Length of 4th digit 7
3 ventral scutellæ in 1 mm.

Amphibamus thoracatus Moodie.

Moodie, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 40, pp. 431-433, fig. 2, 1911.
Moodie, Kans. Univ. Sci. Bull., VI, No. 2, pp. 347-349, pl. 5, fig. 2, 1912.

Type: Specimen No. 4306, U. S. National Museum.

Horizon and locality: Mazon Creek shales, near Morris, Illinois.
The type is a part of the collection of Mr. R. D. Lacoe, in the U. S.
National Museum. The fossil is very poorly preserved, but the
remains are to be seen on both halves of the nodule, so that
considerable can be made out as to its structure.
The chief diagnostic characters which will at once distinguish the
species are the elongate arm, large interclavicle, shape of the
vertebra, and triangular skull.
The portions of the animal which are preserved are the
impression of the skull with one orbit, the right humerus and radius
with portions of others, and traces of ventral scutellæ. These
remains are so intermingled with the remains of plants that it has
been quite difficult to distinguish bone impression from plants. This,
however, has been done by whitening the fossils with ammonium
chloride, when the texture of the fossils serves to distinguish the one
from the other. Parts of the plants have been converted into galena
and kaolin, as have also parts of the bones, so the task has been
rendered doubly difficult. There can be no doubt, however, that the
observations recorded below are correct. The position of the arm in
relation to the pectoral girdle and the position of the girdle in
relation to the skull impression first called attention to the possible
presence of a fossil amphibian.
There is little to be said of the skull. It is merely an impression in
the nodule. It is triangular in form, with the snout an acute angle.
The angle is, however, exaggerated by the compression to which the
fossil has been subjected. The right side of the skull lies over a
portion of some plant. The animal is preserved on its back, so that
this gives a good opportunity for the study of the pectoral girdle,
which is partially preserved. The interclavicle is very large and from
it the species has been given its specific name (thoracatus—armed
with a breast plate). It is an exaggerated T, with the stem very short
with its anterior margin curved, and ending in a rather sharp,
elongate point. The interclavicle recalls, in a measure, the same
element of the Branchiosauria, although it is much more expanded
anteriorly and has a shorter spine. In these respects it resembles
more nearly a reptilian interclavicle (fig. 14 B) .
The clavicle is of the simple triangular shape so characteristic of
the Microsauria. It is somewhat displaced backward and its inner
margin is slightly obscured. The humerus is elongate, apparently
cylindrical, and with expanded ends, resembling very closely the
humerus of Amphibamus grandiceps, although its proportions are
much greater than in that species. Its length is almost equal to the
length of the skull, while in A. grandiceps the length of the humerus
is only half that of the skull. The radius (ulna?) resembles in its
general proportions those of the humerus. It is a more elongate,
slender, lighter bone. The impression of the other bone of the
forearm is obscured.
A portion of a single vertebral centrum from the posterior part of
the dorsal series is preserved. It is apparently amphicœlous; its
width is nearly half greater than its length.
Measurements of the Type of Amphibamus thoracatus Moodie.
(No. 4306, U. S. National Museum.)

mm.
Length of entire specimen, as preserved 60
Length of skull impression 18
Greatest width of same 15.5
Long diameter of right orbit 4
 Transverse diameter of same 3
Transverse width of interclavicle 14
Long diameter of same 7(?)
Long diameter of clavicle 9
Greatest transverse diameter 3
Length of humerus 10
Greatest diameter of same 4
Least diameter of same 1.5
Length of radius (ulna?) 11
Length of vertebral centrum 2
Width of same 3

Genus CEPHALERPETON Moodie.

Moodie, Kans. Univ. Sci. Bull., VI, No. 2, p. 340, 1912.

Type: Cephalerpeton ventriarmatum Moodie.

This genus is founded on remains of a nearly entire individual of
a relatively large microsaurian from the Mazon Creek shales. The
genus is most immediately related to the Amphibamidæ, of which
two species are already known, Amphibamus grandiceps Cope and
A. thoracatus Moodie. The present genus differs from these species
in many respects, notably in size. The skull in Cephalerpeton is
nearly as long as half the entire body of Amphibamus grandiceps
Cope, inclusive of the tail. Other structural differences are the
anisodont teeth, the large size and the more median position of the
orbits, and the absence of the posterior tympanic notch in
Cephalerpeton. The form of the skull recalls that of Melanerpeton
and Pelosaurus (190) of Europe, but those genera are
branchiosaurian, while the present form, from the structure of the
vertebræ and the long, curved ribs, is an undoubted microsaurian.
Nothing like it occurs in any of the amphibian faunas thus far made
known. It is most nearly approached by a member of the genus
Erpetosaurus, but from this genus the present form is readily
distinguished by the smooth skull bones, the absence of a posterior
table to the skull, and the presence of a highly developed ventral
armature. The interorbital width is less than the transverse diameter
of the orbit.

MOODIE PLATE 18

1. Type specimen of Erpelosaurus sculptilis Moodie, from the

Cannelton Shales of Pennsylvania. Original in the University of
Chicago, Walker Museum.
 2. Skeletal elements of Eryops sp. indet., from the Pittsburgh Red
Shale at Pitcairn, Pennsylvania. a=nearly complete vertebra; b
and c=ribs; d=pleurocentrum; f=neural arch and spine. Originals
in the Carnegie Museum at Pittsburgh. After Case.
3. Photograph of amphibian footprints, Dromopus aduncus Branson,
from the Mississippian shales of Giles County, Virginia. × 1/3.
Courtesy of Dr. Branson. Original in the Museum at Oberlin
College.
4. Photograph of type of Thinopus antiquus Marsh, the amphibian
footprint from the Devonian of Pennsylvania. × 1/4. Courtesy of
Dr. Lull. Original No. 784, Vale University Museum.

Cephalerpeton ventriarmatum Moodie.

Moodie, Kans. Univ. Sci. Bull., VII, No. 2, pp, 350-352, pl. 1, fig. 4; pl. 7,
fig. 2, 1912.

Type: Specimen No. 796, of Yale University Museum.

Horizon and locality: Collected at Mazon Creek in 1871, near
Morris, Illinois.
The remains on which the present species is based consist of an
almost entire skull, 26 consecutive vertebræ, both fore limbs, 20 ribs
preserved on the right side of the body, and a portion of the ventral
armature (plate 4, fig. 4).
The skull is very broad posteriorly, its width being one-third
greater than its length, with due allowance for crushing. A pineal
foramen is not preserved. The sutures bounding the premaxillaries,
the maxillæ, the nasals, the prefrontals, the frontals, a portion of the
parietals, the squamosal, the supratemporal, the quadratojugal, and
the quadrate (?) are fairly well preserved. The arrangement of these
elements can be discerned by reference to figure 29. The prefrontals
are unusually large and are triangular in shape. The supratemporal is
also quite large. The surface of the skull bones is smooth and there
is nowhere an indication of sculpture.
Portions of 4 sclerotic plates are
preserved in the right orbit. These
measure 0.5 by 0.75 mm. The orbits are
large and the interorbital space is less
than the transverse diameter of the orbit.
Thirteen teeth, apparently pleurodont,
are preserved on the left maxilla. They
are short, sharply pointed, smooth, and
unequal. The first 2 left maxillary teeth
from the anterior end are short; then
follows a tooth which is one-third longer
than these two; the fourth tooth is
somewhat shorter than the third; the
fifth and sixth are still shorter and are
practically equal in size, though
somewhat larger than the first two.
Fig. 29. Skeleton of
The right mandible is preserved Cephalerpeton ventriarmatum
Moodie. × 1.
almost entire, though so badly eroded
that little can be said of its structure. pf, prefrontal; cl, clavicle; m,
Impressions of 12 teeth are present on mandible; h, humerus; j,
the mandible and all are, apparently, jugal; mx, maxilla; or, orbit;
equal. The cotylus seems to have been ph, phalanges of hand; par;
parietal; po, postorbital; r,
far posterior and an angle of the radius; sp, sclerotic plates; u,
mandible projected slightly back of the ulna; vs, ventral scutellæ.
skull.
There remain only a few indefinite
impressions of the cervical vertebræ. The union of the skull with the
vertebral column is obscured and lost. Impressions of the dorsal
vertebræ are well preserved, and wax molds made from these show
the structure of the dorsal vertebræ surprisingly well. They are long
and cylindrical, with the median portions slightly constricted by a
deep pit on each side of the low neural ridge, which takes the form
observed in Thyrsidium, Molgophis, Phlegethontia, Dolichosoma (fig.
8) and other genera. The vertebræ are strongly amphicœlous and
the notochord was probably persistent. The sides of the vertebræ
are smooth.
The ribs are all intercentral in position; the anterior ones very
broad near the base, recalling the broadly expanded ribs described
by Schwarz (540) for Scincosaurus, Ptyonius, Thyrsidium, and other
genera. Posteriorly the ribs become slender and cylindrical. They are
all rather long and distinctly curved, with probably a cartilaginous
tip.
There is preserved a single element of the right side of the
pectoral girdle. This is, I think, the coracoid, an element which has
hitherto escaped observation among the American Microsauria. It is
long and spatulate at both ends, with the median portion apparently
almost cylindrical, not unlike that described by Credner (181) for the
coracoid of Branchiosaurus, save that the lower end of the
branchiosaurian coracoid is acuminate. In the present form it is
spatulate. Its relations with the other elements of the pectoral girdle
have never been satisfactorily determined.
The fore limbs are both partially preserved. The humerus of the
right side is complete. It is greatly elongated for a microsaurian. The
form of the element is not unlike that of a lizard, with the lower end
of the bone spatulate and endochondrium well developed. Very little
difference can be seen between the form of the arm bones, which
represent the radius and ulna. They are both elongated, with
constricted median portion and expanded truncate ends. The carpus
is unossified and the cartilage has left no trace of the elements.
The right hand has two metacarpals preserved, which are fully
half as long as the radius and ulna. They are separated some little
distance from the ends of these elements, though this may be due
to post-mortem shifting. The carpus may, however, have been broad.
On the left side are preserved portions of the humerus, radius, ulna,
and 3 metacarpals, lying close to the vertebral column. The carpal
space is not so large on the left as on the right. The ventral
armature is well preserved in a narrow patch about an inch in
length. The chevron-shaped rods are quite large, there being 2 of
them in 1 mm.
Measurements.

mm.
Entire length of fossil 98
Length of skull 22
Width across base of skull 28
Long diameter of eye 10.5
Transverse diameter of eye 8
Interorbital space 4
Length of mandible 26
Depth of mandible at coronoidal region 3.5
Depth of dentary 2
Length of long tooth 2
Diameter of long tooth at base .5
Length of preserved portion of vertebral column 64
Length of a centrum 3
Median width of a centrum 1.5
Length of rib 6.5
Width of rib at base .33
Length of coracoid 5
Width of coracoid at anterior end 2.5
Length of carpal space 5
Length of humerus 18
Width of shaft 1
Distal width of humerus 4
Length of radius and ulna 10.5
Length of metacarpal 6
Length of ventral armature preserved 24
Number of rods in length of 5 mm 10
MOODIE PLATE 19

Type specimen of Ctenerpeton alveolatum Cope, from

the Coal Measures of Ohio. × 1.33. Original in U. S.
National Museum.
MOODIE PLATE 20

1. Skull of Erpetosaurus minutus Moodie, from the

Cannelton slates of Pennsylvania. Original in U. S.
National Museum. Enlarged × 3.3.
2. Skull and anterior part of body of Ptyonius pectinatus
Cope, from the Coal Measures of Linton, Ohio.
Original in U. S. National Museum. × 1.
3. Skeleton of Eosauravus copei Williston, from the Coal
Measures of Linton. Ohio. "The oldest known reptile
from North America" and closely related structurally
 to the Microsauria. Original in U. S. National
Museum. × 1.
4. Part of the ventral scutellation and ribs of
Sauropleura digitata Cope, from the Coal Measures
of Linton. Ohio. Original in American Museum of
Natural History. × 1.
 CHAPTER XVIII.

THE MICROSAURIAN FAMILY

NYRANIIDÆ, FROM THE COAL
MEASURES OF OHIO.
Family NYRANIIDÆ Lydekker, 1890.
Lydekker, Cat. Fossil Reptilia and Amphibia, p. 166, 1890.
Skull with the palatines situated near the middle line, internally to the
vomers and pterygoids, and the palatine vacuities small and placed far back.
Vertebræ (Ichthyerpeton) discoidal. Teeth less complex than in the
Anthracosauridæ. A ventral armor present and the entire body covered with
small cycloid imbriated scales.

The type genus of this family was placed by Fritsch (251) with
the Archegosauridæ, although its resemblance to Anthracosaurus
was pointed out; it was subsequently made the type of a family by
Lydekker (393) in 1890, and placed next the Archegosauridæ.
Known from the Coal Measures of Bohemia, Ireland, and Ohio.
Two genera from North America, Ichthyerpeton and
Cercariomorphis, are assigned tentatively to this family, both known
from the Coal Measures (462) of Linton, Ohio, and both with the
body completely scaled. The distinguishing characters are found
chiefly in the shape and arrangement of the scales, the structure,
form, and size of the body, all of which are given full treatment in
the discussion below.

Genus ICHTHYERPETON Huxley, 1866.

 Huxley, Trans. Roy. Irish Acad., XXIV, p. 195, pl. xxiii, fig. 1; Scientific
Memoirs, III, p. 195, pl. 23, fig. 1, 1866.

The genus was founded by Huxley (334) for the reception of the
species Ichthyerpeton bradleyæ from the Kilkenny Coal Measures of
Ireland. The remains of the type specimen represent "the hinder
moiety of the trunk, with the greater part of the tail, of an animal
whose scaly integument and laterally compressed, fin-like tail might
easily lead one to take it for a fish, were not its true position among
higher vertebrata settled at once by the digitate hind limb; while its
alliance with the labyrinthodonts is indicated by the delicate spicular
ossicles, which form a rudimentary dermal shield along the belly."
(Huxley.)

Ichthyerpeton squamosum Moodie.

Moodie, Jour. Geol., XVII, No. 1, p. 69, 1909.
Moodie, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 37, p. 24, 1909.

Type: Specimens Nos. 4476 and 4459, U. S. National Museum.

Locality and horizon: Linton, Ohio, Coal Measures.
The present species is based on well-preserved remains from the
Linton, Ohio, beds. There are two specimens of the species
preserved on blocks of coal and together they represent the greater
part of the length of the animal. The species is located in the genus
Ichthyerpeton, which was founded by Huxley (334, p. 351) on
remains from the Coal Measures of Ireland, on account of the
character of the dermal covering, which consists of small scales such
as Huxley described in the form from Ireland. The specific characters
of this form are the small size of the rounded scales, the attenuated
tail, the apparent absence of limbs, the character of the ventral
scutellation, and the slightly curved condition of the ribs.
It is estimated, from the portions preserved, that the animal
attained a length of not less than 3 feet and its body was long and
slender. It may have had an appearance similar to the modern
caudate genus Siren, though there were doubtless 4 limbs present
instead of 2. The slenderness of the body is at variance with the
condition found in the type species Ichthyerpeton bradleyæ Huxley,
in which the trunk was rather stoutly built. The character of the
anterior portion of the body in the present species can not be
determined and the skull is wanting. There are no evidences of
anterior limbs, although the ventral scutellation preserved would
seem to include the pectoral region. No pectoral shields are
preserved, nor are there any traces of pelvic girdle or limbs.
The preserved portions on one block include nearly the entire tail
and the posterior region of the body, and on the other block the
dorsal region of the body and the anterior portion of the tail, so that
the two specimens supplement each other in an interesting manner.
There are impressions of several vertebræ preserved. They are much
the same in character as Huxley has described for the type species
(I. bradleyæ). They are short and thick and were probably
amphicœlous. There are likewise preserved the remains of rather
slender recurved ribs mingled in with the remains of the ventral
scutellation and distinguished from the elements of the abdominal
shield by their size and curvature. They are, apparently, single-
headed, but the character of their articulation can not be
determined. The ventral scutellation consists of fine continuous rods
arranged in the regular chevron pattern. They do not seem to be
divided into oat-shaped scutes, as is the case with the form
described by Huxley. The ventral rods are closely packed for a
distance of more than 6 inches, but as they are scattered their exact
arrangement can not be determined. They seem to have extended
to the cloacal region, but there are no evidences of the specialized
clasping organs such as Fritsch (251) has described in the ventral
scutellæ of Ophiderpeton. The scales, which are well preserved on
the tail, may have covered the entire body, since there are many
scattered scales in the dorsal region of one of the specimens. They
are slightly oval, tuberculate, and measure scarcely 1 mm. in their
longest diameter. They show but slight evidences of having been
imbricated, though it is likewise possible that they were simply
inclosed within the integument, and somewhat separated from one
another. The most posterior part of the tail preserved seems to
indicate that the tip was attenuated. It was probably flattened from
side to side. We may thus regard Ichthyerpeton squamosum as an
elongate aquatic animal with a long, flattened tail, and since there
were possibly no limbs or very small ones, it would be an animal
highly adapted for life in the water. The present species is of interest
because it represents an additional discovery of the scaled Amphibia
in North America. The species previously known from the Linton,
Ohio, deposits is Cercariomorphus parvisquamis Cope. Dermal scales
have also been observed in specimens of Amphibamus grandiceps
Cope and Micrerpeton caudatum Moodie (462, 478) from the Mazon
Creek, Illinois, beds, and Sir William Dawson (208) described scales
accompanying several forms from the Joggins deposits of western
Nova Scotia.
MOODIE PLATE 21

1. Mandible of Micrerpeton deani Moodie, from

the Linton. Ohio, Coal Measures. Original in
American Museum of Natural History, No.
2934. × 0.6.
2. Portion of the skull of Micrerpeton deani
Moodie, possibly of the same individual as
the mandible. From the Linton, Ohio, Coal
Measures. Original in American Museum of
Natural History, No. 3535 G. × 0.4.
3. Type of Cercariomorphus parvisquamis Cope,
from the Linton, Ohio, Coal Measures.
 Original in American Museum of Natural
History. × 1.
4. An additional specimen of Cercariomorphus
parvisquamis Cope, from the Linton, Ohio,
Coal Measures. Original in American Museum
of Natural History. × 1.
5. Skull of Sauropleura scutellata Newberry. From
the Coal Measures of Ohio. × 1.
6. Tooth of Mastodonsaurus sp. indet. of the
Carboniferous of Kansas. Original in
University of Kansas Museum. × 1.
7. Tooth of Mastodonsaurus giganteus Jaeger,
from the Triassic of Germany. Introduced for
comparison with the tooth from the Kansas
Carboniferous. × 1.

Measurements of the Types of Ichthyerpeton squamosum Moodie.

mm.
Length of animal as estimated from two impressions 3 ft.
Length of longest impression 21 in.
Length of specimen containing tail impression 9 in.
Width of tail impression: Maximum 50 mm.
Minimum 6 mm.
Width of a single scale 1 mm.
Distance from base of tail to tip 125 mm.
Length of specimen as preserved 225 mm.
Width of chevron rod space 30 mm.
Length of rib 25 mm.
8 chevrons in a distance of 3 mm.

Genus CERCARIOMORPHUS Cope.

Cope, Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc., 1885, p. 405.

Type: Cercariomorphus parvisquamis Cope.

 The type specimen of this genus is supplemented by a portion of
the body of another specimen which adds a little to our knowledge
of the animal's form, but nothing as to structure. Cope's original
description is as follows:
"Represented by a fusiform body which terminates in a long, slender,
cylindrical tail, and which is covered with small subquadrate scales
quincuncially arranged. No fins or limbs are preserved, and the form of the
head can not be made out. Probably a portion of the skull is preserved.
There are some scattered bodies in the body portion, which look like deeply
concave vertebræ with the zygapophyses of batrachians. There are some
linear impressions at one point, which resemble the bristle-like rods on many
Stegocephali. They are so few as to be of little importance. The scales are
like those of fishes. There are traces of segmentation in the axis of the long
tail.
"The position of this curious form is quite uncertain. It is quite different
from anything observed hitherto in the American Coal Measures."

Cercariomorphus parvisquamis Cope.

Cope, Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc., 1885, p. 405.
Moodie, Science, n.s., XLI, No. 1056, p. 463, 1915.

Type: Specimen No. 2560, Newberry Collection, American

Museum of Natural History.
Horizon and locality: Discovered by Samuel Huston at the Linton,
Ohio, Coal Mines. (Plate 21, figs. 3, 4; 24, figs. 2, 3.)
The scales (plate 24, fig. 2) in their present condition are entirely
smooth. At a distance of 20 mm. from the base of the tail they are in
20 longitudinal series. At that point the transverse diameter of the
body is 140 mm. The outline contracts rather abruptly to the tail, of
which 66 mm. are preserved. The surface of the tail is obscured by a
thin layer of carbonaceous matter not sufficiently thick to obscure
scales, which are evident at distances of 16 mm., 43 mm., and 52
mm. from the tip. The scales on the tail are smaller than those on
the body and are without markings of any kind. The anterior half of
the body is depressed and distorted, but the remainder is well
preserved and shows a fairly good outline of an apparently limbless
body.
An additional specimen (No. 8683 G, of the Newberry Collection,
American Museum of Natural History) reveals no new facts as to
structure, but serves to show that the body of the animal was long
and slender (plate 21, fig. 4). The portion studied comes
undoubtedly from the middle of the body. No limb elements are
preserved. The scales are somewhat larger, especially toward the
sides of the body, than in the type. The fragment measures 70 mm.
in length by 18 mm. and 26 mm. in width. One of the largest scales
measures 1 mm. in diameter.
Measurements of the Type.

mm.
Length of entire remains 180
Greatest width 22
Greatest width of undisturbed portion 15
Length of an individual scale .75
 CHAPTER XIX.

THE AISTOPODOUS
MICROSAURIAN FAMILY
PTYONIIDÆ, FROM THE COAL
MEASURES OF OHIO.
Family PTYONIIDÆ Cope, 1875.
Cope, Geol. Surv. Ohio, II, pt. II, p. 357, 1875.
Elongate, slender, weak-limbed, aquatic microsaurians. Neural and hæmal
spines of vertebræ elongated, expanded and sculptured. Ventral armature
weakly developed or absent. Skull lanceolate, with long, slender teeth.

Three genera are assigned to this family: Ptyonius,

Œstocephalus, and Thyrsidium. The forms are very closely related,
and when additional material is secured the three genera may be
found to be identical. The species included in this family are:
Ptyonius pectinatus Cope, P. vinchellianus Cope, P. marshii Cope, P.
nummifer Cope, P. serrula Cope, Œstocephalus remex Cope, O.
rectidens Cope, Thyrsidium fasciculare Cope. The species are all
exclusively from the Linton, Ohio, Coal Measures, and most of them
are known from abundant material.

Genus PTYONIUS Cope, 1875.

Cope, Geol. Surv. Ohio, II, pt. II, p. 373, 1875.

Cope designated no species as the type, but we may regard

Ptyonius pectinatus as typical.
 Form elongate, with long tail and lanceolate cranium. Limbs
weak, a posterior pair only discovered. Three clavicular elements;
abdomen protected by packed osseous rods, which are arranged en
chevron, the angle directed forward. Neural and hæmal spines of
caudal vertebræ expanded and fan-like. Ribs well developed. The
various species vary in length from 3 to 10 inches. They are the
most abundant amphibian in the Linton beds. The present genus
resembles Lepterpeton Huxley (334), of the Kilkenny, Ireland, Coal
Measures. But that genus possesses divided abdominal rods, or "oat-
shaped scales," and the form of the cranium and proportions of the
body are different.
The genus is closely related to, possibly identical with,
Œstocephalus, but additional material will be required to settle this
point.
Cope (123) gives the following key for the separation of the 5
species:
x. Abdominal rods coarser, not more than 10 in
5 mm.
Median pectoral shield discoid, radiate-
ridged; muzzle short P. nummifer
Median pectoral shield oval, pitted and
ridged P. marshii
xx. Abdominal rods hair-like, 15 or more in 5
mm.
Median pectoral shield with radii from the
center, the principal forming a cross; form
wider P. vinchellianus
Middle pectoral with pits at the center
P. pectinatus
and few or no radii; form narrow
Middle pectoral shield narrow, closely
reticulate medially, and radiate towards the
circumference; size half that of last P. serrula

Ptyonius pectinatus Cope.

 Cope, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., 1868, p. 216.
Cope, Trans. Am. Phil. Soc., XIV, p. 20, 1869.
Cope, Trans. Am. Phil. Soc., XV, p. 266, 1874.
Cope, Geol. Surv. Ohio, II, pt. II, p. 377, pl. xxvii, fig. 7; xxviii, figs. 2, 3,
6; pl. xxix, fig. 2; pl. xxx, fig. 2; pl. xxxv, figs. 1-3; pl. xli, fig. 1, 1875.
Moodie, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 37, p. 24, pl. 8, fig. 3, 1909.
Schwarz, Beiträge zur Paleontologie und Geologie Osterreich-Ungarns und
des Orients, Bd. XXI, p. 83, figs. 23, 24, 26, 1908.

Type: It is impossible to determine which one of the specimens is

the type. There are numerous representatives of the species, as
follows: Nos. 140, 1096 G, 8345 G, 8555 G, 1089 G, 2, 132, 133, no
number, 1094 G, 8545 G, 8677 G, 1159 G, 105, no number, 1091 G,
7a, 1092 G, 1093 G, 1095 G, 153, and others unnumbered in the
American Museum of Natural History; in the U. S. National Museum
are the following: Nos. 4458, 4463, 4464, 4514. (Plate 20, fig. 2.)
Horizon and locality: Linton, Ohio, Coal Measures.
The most abundant species of the Linton Coal Measures. There
are over three dozen specimens preserved in the Newberry
collection. The species is a clearly marked one, as a rule, though
there is great variation in the size of the body and the form of the
vertebræ. Though there are several apparently complete skulls
preserved in the collection, it is impossible to make out the
morphology of the elements on account of the amount of crushing
to which the skulls have been subjected.
The head is lancet-shaped, and the muzzle very elongate,
slender, and acute at the extremity. The head is in fact a miniature
of an ichthyosaur cranium. (Plate 20, fig. 2.) The orbits are large and
posterior to the median line. The anterior portion of the skull is
narrow, posteriorly truncate, and the mandibular angle is projecting.
The posterior portion of the mandible is sculptured. Possibly the
entire cranium was also, and this has been lost; in fact, this
sculpturing is indicated in one or two specimens. The teeth are
conical and sharp, longitudinally
striate, and anisodont. There
seems to be evidence of
palatine or pterygoid teeth,
though this needs confirmation.
The pectoral plates are well
preserved, with the interclavicle
a narrow oval, with anterior and
posterior prolongations. In one
specimen it is sculptured. The Fig. 30. Restoration of Ptyonius. × 1.
clavicles are narrow and slightly
sculptured. The abdominal
scutellæ are bristle-like.
The vertebræ are short, with expanded neural and hæmal
spines. The expanded condition of the neural spines begins over the
thoracic region, where they are low. They become well developed in
the posterior dorsal region. The caudal fan-shaped spines are larger.
The dilated portions form equilateral triangles which stand on
moderately short pedicels. They are weakly ridged, and each ridge is
prolonged into a narrow acute tooth beyond the margin, 11 of which
may be counted on one of the best preserved spines. The
longitudinal striæ are terminated near the pedicel by two others
which cross obliquely from each side, and, meeting, present the
appearance of the margin of a cup sculptured in relief, from which
the striæ arise. Pedicels smooth. The spines are in contact at their
angles, thus forming a continuous line. In a typical specimen there
are 6 in half an inch, in another 7, and in a third 8. The ribs are well-
developed and slender.
No traces of fore limbs have been detected in the numerous
specimens, but elements of hind limbs are preserved. In one of
these the femur is a small bone, contracted at the middle. The form
of the body is snake-like.
There were probably from 75 to 100 vertebræ in a single animal.
The form may be well compared to the modern Amphiuma so far as
Welcome to our website – the ideal destination for book lovers and
knowledge seekers. With a mission to inspire endlessly, we offer a
vast collection of books, ranging from classic literary works to
specialized publications, self-development books, and children's
literature. Each book is a new journey of discovery, expanding
knowledge and enriching the soul of the reade

Our website is not just a platform for buying books, but a bridge
connecting readers to the timeless values of culture and wisdom. With
an elegant, user-friendly interface and an intelligent search system,
we are committed to providing a quick and convenient shopping
experience. Additionally, our special promotions and home delivery
services ensure that you save time and fully enjoy the joy of reading.

Let us accompany you on the journey of exploring knowledge and

personal growth!

ebookultra.com