International Journal of Energy and Environmental Engineering

https://doi.org/10.1007/s40095-021-00454-5

ORIGINAL RESEARCH

Degradation analysis of Solar photovoltaic module under warm

semiarid and tropical savanna climatic conditions of East Africa
Samuel M. Ngure1 · Augustine B. Makokha1,2 · Edwin O. Ataro3 · Muyiwa S. Adaramola4

Received: 14 August 2021 / Accepted: 21 November 2021

© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Islamic Azad University 2021

Abstract
The successful implementation of solar PV projects require proper understanding of degradation mechanism and rates,
which could vary significantly from one climatic condition to another. This is essential to accurately predict and estimate
lifetime energy yield of solar PV installations. This study aimed to investigate the degradation mechanism and rates of solar
photovoltaic PV modules in two climatic conditions of eastern Africa region. The I–V curve tracer, Trisen, infrared camera,
and National Renewable Energy Laboratories (in USA) tools were used to collect the data. The results indicated power
degradation rates of monocrystalline and polycrystalline as 0.99% per year and 1.15% per year, respectively, after 6 years of
outdoor exposure under tropical savanna conditions. In addition, it was found that power degradation rates of silicon amor-
phous thin-film, monocrystalline and polycrystalline technologies as 1.44% and 1.22% per year, respectively, after 6 years
of outdoor exposure under warm semiarid climatic conditions. The discoloration of encapsulating materials (36.84%) was
observed as the predominant mode of degradation mechanism for polycrystalline in warm semiarid climatic conditions,
while browning of encapsulating material is observed to be predominant mode in tropical savanna regions. In addition, the
study develops the model for estimating the degradation rates of solar PV modules in warm semiarid climatic conditions.

Keywords Degradation rates · Degradation mechanism · Short-circuit current · Open-circuit voltage · Photovoltaic
Abbreviations EPRA Energy and petroleum regulatory
a-Si:H Hydrogenerated single-junction amor- authority
phous silicon EVA Ethylene vinyl acetate
a-Si:/µc-Si:/H Hydrogenerated amorphous silicon/ FF Fill factor
hydrogenerated microcrystalline silicon HW Holt-Winters sessional model
hetero-junction IRENA International renewable energy agency
CdTe Cadmium telluride I-V Current voltage
CIS Copper indium selenium KW Kilowatts
CSD Classical sessional decomposition LLS Linear least-square
DRFF Fill factor degradation rate MW Megawatts
DRP Power degradation rate P Power
PID Potential induced degradation
STC Standard test conditions
* Muyiwa S. Adaramola STL Seasonal and trend decomposition using
[email protected] Loess
1 USA United State of America
Department of Energy Engineering, Moi University, Eldoret,
Kenya Greek symbols
2
Department of Mechanical and Production Engineering, Moi β The voltage temperature coefficient (/°C)
University, Eldoret, Kenya α The current temperature coefficient (/°C)
3
Department of Electrical and Communications Engineering,
Moi University, Eldoret, Kenya Subscripted symbols
4 DRISC Short-circuit degradation rate
Faculty of Environmental Sciences and Natural Resource
Management, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Ås, DRVoc Open-circuit voltage degradation rate
Norway FFCAL Calculated fill factor

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Vol.:(0123456789)
 International Journal of Energy and Environmental Engineering

FFSTC Fill factor at standard test conditions targets to have zero-emission energy systems between 2030
GM Measured irradiance and 2050.
IM Measured current In addition to power generation issues, the cost of trans-
ISC(CAL) Calculated short-circuit current mission and distribution of electrical energy is one of the
ISC(STC) Short-circuit current at standard test major factors that affect decisions in the implementation of
conditions power plant projects. Hence, development of decentralized
ISC2 Translated current power systems (in which power-generating plants are located
Impp Current at maximum point within the premises of the consumers) based on solar PV
Isc Short-circuit current system can reduce investment cost as well as transmission
MWp Megawatts power and distribution losses. In Kenya and many developing coun-
PCal Calculated power tries, most communities in the semiarid areas are sparsely
PSTC Power at standard test conditions populated, and hence, it is expensive for these communities
TC Measured cell temperature to be connected to utility-grid networks. Therefore, small-to-
VOC(CAL) Calculated open-circuit voltage medium decentralized power systems could serve as better
Vmpp Voltage at maximum power point options for these communities for access to electricity. Solar
Voc Open-circuit voltage photovoltaic systems can be considered as a viable choice.
VOC(STC) Open-circuit voltage at standard test
conditions Energy situation in Kenya and solar PV development

Currently, primary energy supply in Kenya is dominated by

biomass resource, which in recent times accounted for 68%,
Introduction while crude oil and electricity accounted for about 22% and
10%, respectively, Takase et al. [1]. According to EPRA [2],
Non-renewable energy sources (mainly fossil fuels—coal, total cumulative installed electrical power capacity increased
gas, and crude oil) can no longer sustain growing energy from about 1821 MW in 2013 to 2819 MW in 2019, at
demand in a sustainable way. These fuels also face many an average growth rate of 166.3 MW/year. With electric-
challenges, such as rise in project costs, opposition to devel- ity access rate of 76.49%, in term of household electricity
opment of fossil-fuel-based thermal plants due to their con- connectivity, Kenya is the leading country in East Africa
tribution to climate change and future uncertainty in the [2, 3]. Figure 1 shows the electricity generation by energy
availability of these fuels as well as unpredictability of fossil sources as of December 2019 in Kenya. As can be observed
fuel prices. Therefore, there has been increasing and grow- in this figure, with combined contribution of 85.3%, hydro-
ing interest in development of renewable energy resource- power, thermal oil, and geothermal energy dominate elec-
based power systems. To this end, many countries have set tricity generation in Kenya. Furthermore, renewable energy

900 35.0

800 Installed power capacity

Contriution by energy source (%)
30.0
Installed power capaity (MW)

700 Contribution of energy sources

25.0
600

500 20.0

400 15.0
300
10.0
200
5.0
100

0 0.0
Hydro power Thermal oil Geothermal Wind power Co-generation Solar

Fig. 1  Installed power capacity and contribution by energy sources as of December 2019 ( Source: Data used for this figure are extracted from
EPRA (2021))

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International Journal of Energy and Environmental Engineering

resources (hydro, geothermal, wind, cogeneration and solar) through evaluation of degradation rates and mechanism of
accounted for 73.4% of installed power capacity at end of installed solar PV modules. Literature data indicated that
2019 in Kenya. modules have to degrade at a rate of ˂1% to work satisfacto-
Figure 2 shows the trend in development of solar PV rily within warranty periods, which normally vary between
capacity in Kenya from 2011 to 2020. It can be observed 10 and 25 years. When solar PV modules are deployed in
that solar PV installation capacity grew from about 2 MW in the field, they are affected by factors such as humidity, tem-
2011 to about 106 MW in 2020. It is expected that this trend perature, ultraviolet radiation, surface contamination (soil-
will continue in future, and hence, proper understanding of ing), and mechanical stresses. These conditions have adverse
environmental and operational conditions on solar PV instal- impacts on various components of the solar PV modules,
lations in Kenya is of great interest. This potential increase which include packing materials, adhesion, semiconductors,
could be associated with more industries finding cleaner and and metallization and hence, affect the performance of the
alternative ways of generating electricity as well as users modules. Unfortunately, according to the literature these
seeking alternative electricity sources due to unreliable and degradation mechanisms as well as environmental condi-
expensive grid connections of utility-supplied electricity. tions that influence these mechanisms are location specific
Figure 2 also shows that before 2018, off-grid dominated and hence, different geographical regions (with different
solar PV installations in Kenya reach 97.4% in 2017. How- climatic conditions) have shown different module degrada-
ever, from 2018 to 2020, off-grid contribution dropped to tion rates.
46.4% (or 49 MW out of 106 MW) relative to total capacity.
Electricity generation by solar photovoltaic (PV) technol- Previous studies
ogy can only be economical if the solar PV modules operate
reliably for 25–30 years under field conditions. To ensure Previous studies in the literature have indicated different
such levels of reliability, solar PV modules undergo strin- forms of degradation and degradation rates for different cli-
gent qualification tests developed as per international stand- matic conditions. Ndiaye et al. [5] reported the main degra-
ards by International Electro-Technical Commission. These dation modes of solar PV modules as corrosion, discolora-
tests provide excellent information regarding module design, tions, delamination, hotspots, bubbles, and potential induced
material, and process flaws which can lead to premature fail- degradation (PID). Corrosion is usually caused by moisture
ure. However, degradation of solar PV modules under actual ingression at the edges of the solar PV modules. It usually
outdoor conditions is found to be quite different from those affects the metallic connections of solar PV cells hence
that are determined under these controlled laboratory condi- increasing the leakage currents. It also affects the adhesion
tions during qualification or certification testing. between cells and metallic frames. This can be prevented by
One of the challenges in utilizing the solar PV system in properly sealing using gaskets of low diffusivity. Delamina-
Kenya is the proliferation of sub-standard solar modules and tion is the loss of adhesion between front glass and cells,
equipment (Ministry of Energy, Kenya, [4]. This challenge between cells and encapsulating polymer. It also affects
and Kenya’s harsh environmental conditions have contrib- the back sheet and back encapsulating polymer. When the
uted to infant failures and inefficiency solar PV installations delamination occurs, it makes the module more susceptible
in the country. These failures can be assessed and quantified to water ingression and affects the light from reaching the

120 100
90
Total installed capacity (MW)

100
Off-grid contribuon (%)

80

80
70
Total installed capacity (MW) 60
60 Contribuon off-grid to total capacity (%) 50
40
40
30

20
20
10
0 0
2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020

Fig. 2  Installed solar PV capacity in Kenya from 2011 to 2020 ( Source: Data extracted from IRENA (2021) database)

13
 International Journal of Energy and Environmental Engineering

cells, Munoz et al. [6]. It usually causes power loss and cor- Atsu et al. [13] studied the degradation rates and relia-
rosion of metallic parts. This usually occurs more in hot and bility of solar PV modules operated for twelve years under
humid climatic conditions. the tropical climatic conditions in sub-Saharan Africa.
Discoloration of solar PV modules is usually the degrada- The results indicated power output loss of between 34.5%
tion of encapsulating material, which changes color to brown (2.88% per year) and 41.4% (3.45% per year). The study
or yellow. It affects the transmittance and hence degrades further indicated EVA browning, cell interconnects, rib-
the short-circuit current (Isc) of the solar PV module. This bons browning, and corrosion of solder bonds are visually
can cause the short-circuit current to degrade from 6 to 8% observed degradation modes. This study also agreed with
for partial discoloration of solar PV module surface, and Quansah et al. [11] on the degradation of cell metallization
10% to 13% for complete discoloration Realini [7]. The main which was done in different climatic regions. However, the
cause of discoloration of encapsulating materials of solar power loss of the two studies was different. Therefore, the
PV modules is ultraviolet rays combined with water under study of each climatic region should be done separately
higher temperatures of 50◦ C Oreski and Wallner, [8]. Break- because performance in one region cannot always be rep-
ages and cracks of solar PV modules are caused by poor licated in other regions.
handling during packing, transportation, installation, and Malvonia et al. [14] investigated the degradation rates of
maintenance, Wohlgemuth and Kurtz, [9]. This may cause 1MWp utility-scale photovoltaic system located in the tropi-
electrical shock and increase the probability of water ingres- cal semiarid climatic after 50 months of outdoor exposure.
sion. Also, it may cause other forms of degradation such The study used various methods, which include the linear
as delamination, corrosion, and discoloration which in turn least-square regression (LLS), the classical sessional decom-
degrades the power output of the solar PV module. position (CSD), the Holt-Winters sessional model (HW),
Ten studied 48 solar photovoltaic modules under real and decomposition using Loess (STL). The results indicated
operational conditions installed at the Research Laboratory that degradation rates of 0.27% per year (LLS), 0.32% per
of Power Electronics at the Federal University of Uberl in year (CSD), 0.5% per year (HW) and 0.27% per year (STL).
Brazil and found that discoloration of the encapsulating They found a difference when computing degradation rates
materials, snail tracks, and hotspots at snail track sites as by using different methods, which is associated with differ-
the main modes of degradation. They also observed that the ent climatic conditions and various periods. They proposed
visually observable damaged modules produced low power a standardized procedure to compare the degradation rates of
performances. They proposed more work to be done using various PV systems. This can be done by conducting various
I–V curve tracer, thermos images, visual inspections, and studies and selecting the methodology with the least errors.
the electroluminescence test of broken cells. Establishing the degradation mechanism and rates of a
Quansah et al. [11] carried out the degradation and lon- solar power plant is an essential factor in estimating the
gevity of solar photovoltaic modules analysis of recent actual power generated for the whole lifespan. The under-
field studies in Ghana whose landmass fall within latitude standing of the degradation mechanism of a specific region
5°N-11°N and longitude 3°W-1°E. They used PV module could therefore help solar PV module manufacturers, inves-
installations owned by government agencies, educational tors, government, and other stakeholders to make the right
institutions, or private homes. The results indicate annual decisions on potential economic benefits and viability of
module performance degradation rates (peak power) of their installations.
0.8%–7%, 0.55%–2.07%, and 1.1%–2.4% for modules The above are some reported studies on performance and
located in various climate subcategorizations. Visually degradation of solar modules. Regions in Europe, Amer-
observable defects were recorded in the humid climate with ica, Middle East, West Africa, and North Africa have been
front-of-module and cell metallization being dominant. covered in the open literature. These studies are regionally
Santiago et al. [12] studied the degradation of thin-film unbalanced and represent some regions while others remain
photovoltaic modules technologies, namely; a-Si: H, a-Si:/ unrepresented. To our knowledge, much has not been done
µc-Si: H, CIS, and CdTe. The modules were deployed in (or reported in open literature) as far as the studies on solar
Leganes, Spain, (Lat.: 40°19′ N, Long.:3°46′ W, Altitude: PV module degradation rates and mechanism in East African
666 m). The PV modules were mounted on an equator-facing region is concerned. This study aims to address this gap by
open rack with a tilt angle of 30°. The results indicated that analyzing the degradation mechanisms and degradation rates
the CdTe module had the highest degradation rate of -4.45%/ of PV modules in two climatic conditions of the East African
year, while the CIS module appeared to be most stable with region. Different PV module technologies (amorphous sili-
a degradation rate of -1.04%/year. Therefore, understand- con thin-film, monocrystalline and polycrystalline) are eval-
ing degradation would be important for selecting the best uated in the study. The study also introduces the concept of
PV technology for each specific climatic condition and for the degradation model to estimate the degradation rates of a
improving reliability and performance. specific climatic condition. The model uses the degradation

13
International Journal of Energy and Environmental Engineering

Davis and Shirtliff

YL85P-17b2/3
2013

Poly

14.3
0.72
5.36
4.86
17.5

85
22

H
1
Ubbink

2018

Poly

17.8
0.71
21.6
5.2
4.4

80
18

H
1
160–30-0003–1
Barefoot

20.88
2018

Poly

14.9
0.83
1.74
1.67

30
18

H
1
Fig. 3  Köppen climatic map of Kenya (Available on https://​commo​

PSS 1230
ns.​wikim​edia.​org/​wiki/​File:​Kenya_​map_​of_K%​C3%​B6ppen_​clima​

Premier
te_​class​ifica​tion.​svg) N-Strathmore University, Nairobi and M-Mak-

2014

Poly

14.9
0.72
1.75
17.2

1.9
indu, Makueni County. Figure is licensed under the Creative Com-

30
22

H
1
mons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0 International license. There is
Insertion of letter N and M

Schott solar

D-55122

Mono
2014

14.5
0.77
5.46
45.2
5.22
36.4

190
rates trends of the different solar modules deployed in differ-

Definition of symbols: P-W for water pump, G—Grid tie, H—Sand alone domestic use, T—Training purpose
T
6
ent years in warm semiarid climatic conditions.
Ubbink

2016

Poly

17.8
0.74
21.6

140
8.8
7.9
Materials and methods
18

H
1
Table 1  Selected specifications of the modules at standard test conditions studied in the paper

Study area
Chloride Solar

Asl100-18-P

The study was conducted in Makindu, Makueni County

21.24
2018

Poly

in Kenya (Latitude -2.28, Longitude 37.82 and altitude

14.9
0.79
5.99
5.56

100
18

H
2

1,070 m) and Strathmore University solar PV power plant,

Nairobi in Kenya. The Makueni County is classified as a
As-6p30-250w

warm semiarid region, while Nairobi County is classified

Amerisolar

as tropical savanna climatic condition. The monthly aver-

age ambient temperature, humidity, and rainfall of Makindu,
2014

Poly

P-W
15.4
0.75
8.76
8.26
30.3

250

Makueni county, Kenya were 22.8◦ C, 62.33% and 47.33mm,

38
12

respectively, while Strathmore University, Nairobi, Kenya,

records a monthly average ambient temperature, humidity,
JKM250PP-60

and rainfall of 18.8◦ C, 64.5% and 49.17mm, respectively

(www.​clima​tic-​data.​org). Kenya has high insolation rates
15.31

with an average of 5–7 peak sunshine hours and receives

Jinko

2014

Poly

0.75
8.85
37.7
30.5

250
8.2
16

average daily insolation of 4–6 kWh/m2. This classification

G

is based on the Köppen climate map of Kenya as shown in

Fig. 3.
Grundfos

Gf100tf
2014

Thin

P-W
0.61
1.43

100
1.7
96
70
12

Description of deployed Solar modules

-

Table 1 shows selected technical specifications, year of

Vmpp(V)
Impp(A)
Voc(V)

deployment, and the number of solar PV modules of in

Model

Isc(A)
P(W)

Ƞ(%)
Type

USE
Year

Cell

the installations examined in this study. The solar modules

FF
N

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 International Journal of Energy and Environmental Engineering

encountered in this study were from different manufactur- the temperature and irradiance during I–V curve measure-
ers. The panels were deployed at different times from 2013 ments. During the measurement, the Tri-ka and Trisen are
to 2018. The maximum power rating of the modules ranged kept in constant communication. To reduce the impact of
from 30 to 250 W. The module specifications were obtained angle-of-incidence effects of irradiance, measurements were
from the nameplates provided at the back provided by conducted between 10 am and 2 pm local time (East African
the manufacturer, while modules’ deployment dates were time).
obtained from institutional records. In addition, infrared camera was used to get the thermal
Depending on their uses and solar cell technology, the images of the studied modules. It was used to check those
studied modules are classified into four categories, as sum- defects that cannot be identified using visual inspections. It
marized below: was used to check the cracks and hotspots. Furthermore, the
National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) tool was
• The first category consisted of 12 polycrystalline units used as a guide to collect data on the visual inspection. The
rated at 250 W connected in series totaling 1.5 kW and visual data collected include burn marks, bubbles, cracks,
12 silicon amorphous thin-film technology units rated at delamination, wire connection, connectors, junction box,
100 W connected in series totaling 1.2 kW. These mod- frames, water ingression, discoloration, and snail trails. It
ules were used for pumping the water from boreholes took approximately 15 to 20 min to conduct a full visual
during the day only and were not connected to any energy inspection for a single module.
storage system.
• The second category consisted of eight modules. These Normalization of the data
modules are owned by different clients and used for
domestic lighting and powering electronic gadgets. They The electrical data measured using the I-V curve tracer was
are connected to charge controllers, inverters, and batter- under field environmental conditions. Therefore, the data
ies. requirements are to be translated into standard test condi-
• The third category consisted of a sample of 16 polycrys- tions (temperature 25 °C, irradiation at 1000 W/m2, and 1.5
talline modules rated at 250 W each in Strathmore Uni- air mass), which is then used for comparison between the
versity solar PV power plant. They are used for supplying measured data and the standard test conditions data. The
power to the national grid. These modules are connected actual cell temperature was measured using Trisen. Figure 4
to the grid via hybrid inverters and batteries. indicates the relationship between measured solar irradi-
• The final category consisted of six monocrystalline ance (W/m2) and measured short-circuit current, Isc (A). It
nodules. These modules were installed in a test bed at
Strathmore University. They were used for study pur-
1400
poses and were not connected to any load. The modules
Measured irradiance (W/m2)

1200
were in open-circuit conditions.
1000
800
Measurements and instrumentations
600 y = 569.12x - 46.865
R² = 0.9531
Table 2 shows the technical characteristics of the Tri-ka 400

and Trisen, which were used to measure the electrical and 200

weather parameters, respectively, in this study. The electrical 0

1.20 1.40 1.60 1.80 2.00 2.20
characteristics, which were measured, are short-circuit cur- Measured Isc (A)
rent ­(ISC), open-circuit voltage (­ VOC), power (P), maximum
current ­(IMPP), maximum voltage ­(VMPP), and fill factor (FF). Fig. 4  Measured solar irradiance (W/m2) versus measured short-cir-
The Trisen, which accompanied Tri-ka, was used to measure cuit current (Isc) (A)

Table 2  Technical specifications Specification Tri-ka Trisen

of Tri-ka and Trisen
Voltage measuring range 1.0–1000 V (<± 1%) ­(UOC>50) N.A
Current measuring range 0.1–15.0A (< ± 1%) N.A
Ambient temperature 0–50 °C 0–60 °C
Admissible relative humidity <80% RH <80% RH
Temperature measuring range N.A 0–100 °C (± 3% to a black body)
Irradiation measuring range N.A 100–1200 W/m2 ± 5%

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International Journal of Energy and Environmental Engineering

indicates a linear relationship. Therefore, when translating Pmax Impp × Vmpp

measured short-circuit current value into STC, a component 𝜂= =
Pin Incident solar radiation × Area of solar PV module
to account for different solar irradiance should be taken into (4)
consideration as depicted by Eq. (1) in this study.
It was noted that measured current is directly propor- Degradation analysis
tional to measured irradiation. Therefore, the translation of
the current into STC equivalent considering the effects can The degradation rates of the solar modules in warm semiarid
be obtained using Eq. 1 [15]: and tropical climatic conditions were determined using the
(
GSTC
) following equations as reported by Bouaichia et al. [17]:
(1)
( )
ISC = IM (1 + 𝛼 TC − 25)
GM (
ISC(CAL)
)
DRIsc = 1 − × 100 (5)
where ISC2 is the translated current value (A), IM is the meas- ISC(STC)
ured current value (A), GM is the measured irradiance (W/
where ­DRISC is the short-circuit current degradation rate,
m2) value,∝, is the current temperature coefficient (∕◦ C), Tc
ISC(CAL) is the calculated short circuit, and ISC(STC) is the
is the measured cell temperature (◦ C), and GSTC is the irra-
short-circuit current at standard test conditions, and short-
diation at standard test conditions (STC).
circuit current degradation rate per year is calculated as
Figure 5 indicates the relationship between measured
follows:
solar irradiance (W/m2) and open-circuit voltage. The fig-
ure indicates that when the solar irradiance decreases, the DRIsc
%DRIscyear = (6)
open-circuit voltage increases. Therefore, when translating n
the open-circuit voltage into STC value, a ratio of measured
irradiance divided by irradiance at STC should be included where DRI SC is the short-circuit current degradation rate,
in Eq. (2). and n is the number of years of deployment.
The translation of the measured voltage into STC equiva- (
Voc(CAL)
)
lent is done using equation [16]. However, this equation was DRVoc = 1 − × 100 (7)
VOC(STC)
modified using the effect of irradiance:
[
G
] where DRVOC is the open-circuit voltage degradation rate,
VOC = VOC1 β × M × Tc − 25 (2) VOC(CAL) is the calculated open-circuit voltage, and VOC(STC)
( )
GSTC
is the open-circuit voltage at standard test conditions. Hence,
where VOC is the translated voltage to STC and VOC1 is the the open-circuit voltage degradation rate per year is given as:
measured voltage at field environmental conditions (volts), DRVOC
and 𝛽 is the voltage temperature coefficient. The maximum %DRVocyear = (8)
n
power (PMAX ) used is calculated by equation [16]:
where DRVOC is the open-circuit voltage degradation rate.
PMAX2 = Isc × Voc × FF(w) (3) ( )
FFcal
The efficiency of solar PV panel indicates the rate at DRFF = 1 − (9)
FFSTC
which received power is converted into useful power. The
solar PV power conversion efficiency can be given as:

Fig. 5  Measured solar irradi- 1200

ance (W/m2) versus measured
Measured solar irradiation (W/m2)

open-circuit voltage (Voc) (V) 1000

800

600

400

200

0
32.6 32.8 33.0 33.2 33.4 33.6 33.8 34.0 34.2 34.4 34.6
Measured Voc

13
 International Journal of Energy and Environmental Engineering

where DRFF is the fill factor degradation rate, FFCAL is the out of the 19 solar modules polycrystalline in warm semiarid
calculated fill factor and FFSTC is fill factor at standard test climatic conditions indicated this defect.
conditions and the fill factor degradation rate per year is Figure 6a indicates Ubbink solar module (with rated
given as: power of 140 W), which was of the polycrystalline type
deployed for 5 years in warm semiarid climatic condi-
DRFF
%DRFFyear = (10) tions, indicated EVA discoloration degradation in all its 36
n
cells. Most of the cells indicated 75%–100% of the fraction
where DRFF is the fill factor degradation rate. affected by EVA discoloration degradation. Figure 5b indi-
( ) cates uneven heating of the same module showing hot spots
Pcal areas. The module indicated soiling near frames on all sides.
DRP = 1 − (11)
PSTC The module did not indicate any other visible defects. It indi-
cated a high short-circuit degradation rate of between 8.50%
where DRP is power degradation rate, PCAL is the calculated
per year. This implies that the module will not be able to
power, and PSTC is the reference power at standard test con-
operate at the expected warranty. The following issues were
ditions, and the power degradation rate per year is given as:
observed; poor installation which included roof mounting
DRP with no profession of air circulation, and it was not properly
%DRPyear = (12) grounded.
n
The discoloration of EVA leads to the low transmissivity
where DRP is the power degradation rate. of light which leads to a decrease in short-circuit current
­(ISC). The position of discoloration of EVA on a solar cell
results in the degradation of ­ISC because it reduces the cur-
rent flowing through the solar cell. Therefore, it does not
Results and discussion matter the position or the connection of the cells. However,
discoloration does not affect the open-circuit voltage and
Degradation mechanisms fill factor. Rajput et al. [18] obtained indicated power deg-
radation rates of seven modules which varied from 2.08%
Visually observable defects, thermal images, and I–V curves to 3.48% per year with an average of 2.60% per year due
to the effects of EVA discoloration. The module studied in
One of the objectives of this study was to identify the major this work indicated a power degradation of 8.20% per year,
degradation mechanism of the modules. Most of the modules which is more than the rates of the above study.
examined did not indicate any visible degradation mecha- Figure 7a indicates snail tracks in Jinko solar poly-
nism, this can be attributed to the short period of deploy- crystalline module installed in tropical savanna. All the
ment. However, few modules showed signs of degradations, modules indicated these marks. Figure 7b indicates the
hence these modules are considered and analyzed individu- browning of EVA discoloration materials. All the Jinko
ally. One of the major degradation mechanisms observed solar modules in tropical savanna indicated browning of
was EVA discoloration. It was observed that seven (36.84%) EVA discoloration materials. Figure 7c indicates uneven

Fig. 6  a EVA discoloration b Uneven heating in module

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International Journal of Energy and Environmental Engineering

Fig. 7  a Snail tracks b Brown discoloration EVA materials c Uneven heating of solar module d A shuttered glass of solar module

heating of the solar module of Jinko at tropical. This indi- Degradation rates analysis
cates the presence of hot spots especially in areas with
snail tracks and EVA discoloration. Figure 7d indicates The following electrical parameters are usually specified
the shuttered glass of the Jinko solar module in tropical in any solar module templates at STC conditions. They
savanna climatic conditions. include short-circuit current ­(I SC ), open-circuit volt-
It can be indicated that out of five (6.25%) modules age ­( VOC), maximum voltage ­( V MP), maximum current
of 80 installed in that region suffered from glass shat- ­(IMPP), maximum power ­(PMP), and fill factor (FF). The
tering. The shuttering of glass can allow ingression of change in the performance of these factors after exposure
water, dust, and current flush over. This current flush over to field conditions indicates the degradation and effects of
causes shock for anybody who comes into contact with environmental conditions of a given region. The different
it. It can be indicated that Grundfos amorphous silicon types of modules include polycrystalline from different
thin-film technology installed in warm semiarid climatic manufacturers, monocrystalline, and silicon amorphous
conditions and Schott monocrystalline solar modules thin technology as indicated in Table 1. The study was
installed in tropical savanna climatic conditions did not done in warm semiarid areas and tropical savanna climatic
indicate any sign of visible defects. conditions.

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Short‑circuit current (Isc) ­Isc degradation rates of Amerisolar, Jinko solar, Grundfos,
and Schott of 1.38%, 1.56%, 1.84%, and 1.81% per year,
Figure 8 shows the average short-circuit current (­ Isc) deg- respectively. Finally, the results indicated average ­Isc degra-
radation rates of 12 Amerisolar modules, 16 Jinko solar dation rates of Amerisolar, Jinko solar, Grundfos, and Schott
modules, 12 Grundfos modules, and six Schott solar mod- of 1.03%, 1.05%, 1.84%, and 0.92% per year, respectively.
ules. The Amerisolar and Jinko solar were of polycrystalline Figure 9 indicates the results of the ISC which has oper-
silicon cell technology, Grundfos was of silicon thin-film ated for different periods in warm semiarid climatic con-
technology, while Schott solar modules were monocrystal- ditions. Results indicated Isc degradation rates of 2.15%,
line cell technology. Full details of modules specifications 1.02%, 1.03%, 1.01%, and 0.45% per year for 3, 5, 6, 7, and
are indicated in Table 1. All the modules had operated for 8 years outdoor installed modules, respectively. The mean
6 years. The Amerisolar and Grundfos modules were oper- of every solar module per year was calculated. Then, the
ating in warm semiarid climatic conditions region, while weighted mean was determined based on the number of solar
Jinko solar and Schott modules were operating in tropical PV modules. The Isc degradation rate was established as
savanna climatic conditions. Results indicated the minimum 1.03% per year. It can be indicated that four of the remain-
short-circuit current degradation rate of Amerisolar, Jinko ing seven modules were 3 years old, and hence their high
solar, Grundfos, and Schott of 0.62%, 0.06%, 0.21%, and degradation rate may be associated with potential induced
0.4% per year, respectively. It also indicated the maximum degradation rate which occurs during the early period of

Amorphous
Solar module technology

Polycrystalline
Warm semi-arid
Tropical savanna
Monocrystalline

Polycrystalline

0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0
Isc degradation rates (%)

Fig. 8  Isc degradation per year verses type of cell technology

3.0
Isc degradation rates (%)

2.5 2.15
2.0
1.5
1.02 1.03 1.01
1.0
0.45
0.5
0.0
3 5 6 7 8
Number of operation in years

Fig. 9  Degradation rates of short-circuit currents verses number of years of operation

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International Journal of Energy and Environmental Engineering

deployment. The mounting option of the other three solar Figure 11 indicates the results of the Voc which has oper-
PV modules did not leave a good space for air circulation ated for different periods in warm semiarid climatic condi-
position and may have affected their performance. tions. Results had indicated Voc degradation rates of 0.11%,
0.01%, 0.16%, 0.03%, and 0.08% per year for the solar PV
modules which were deployed for 3, 5, 6, 7 and 8 years,
Open‑circuit voltage ­( Voc) respectively. The Voc degradation rate was determined using
the weighted mean as 0.23%.
Figure 10 shows the open-circuit voltage (Voc) average
degradation rates of 12 Amerisolar modules, 16 Jinko solar Fill factor (FF)
modules, 12 Grundfos modules, and 6 Schott solar modules.
The description and operation conditions of the modules are Figure 12 presents the fill factor (FF) average degradation
in 2.2 and Table 2. Results indicated the open-circuit volt- rates of 12 Amerisolar modules, 16 Jinko solar modules,
age minimum degradation rate of Amerisolar, Jinko solar, 12 Grundfos modules, and 6 Schott solar modules. The
Grundfos, and Schott of 0.13%, 0.09%, 0.02%, and 0.01% description and operation conditions of the modules are in
per year, respectively. It also indicated the Voc maximum Sect. 3.3.1 and Tables 1 and 2. Results indicated the fill fac-
degradation rates of Amerisolar, Jinko solar, Grundfos, and tor minimum degradation rate of Amerisolar, Jinko solar,
Schott of 0.19%, 0.15%, 1.04%, and 0.09% per year respec- Grundfos, and Schott of 0%, 0.89%, 0.09%, and 0.56% per
tively. Finally, the results indicated average Voc degradation year, respectively. It also indicated the Isc maximum degra-
rates of Amerisolar, Jinko solar, Grundfos, and Schott of dation rates of Amerisolar, Jinko solar, Grundfos, and Schott
0.16%, 0.13%, 0.75%, and 0.04% per year, respectively. of 1.33%, 3.78%, 0.96%, and 0.87% per year, respectively.

Amorphous
Solar module technology

Polycrystalline

Warm semi-arid
Monocrystalline
Tropical savanna
Polycrystalline

0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Voc degradation rates (%)

Fig. 10  Types of cell technology versus open-voltage circuit (Voc) degradation rates

0.20
0.16
Voc degradation rates (%)

0.16

0.12 0.11

0.08
0.08

0.04 0.03
0.01
0.00
3 5 6 7 8
Number of years of operation

Fig. 11  Open-circuit voltage degradation rates of solar polycrystalline modules in warm semiarid region

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 International Journal of Energy and Environmental Engineering

Amorphous
Solar module technology
Polycrystalline
Warm semi-arid

Monocrystalline Tropical savanna

Polycrystalline

0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5

FF degradation rates (%)

Fig. 12  Type of module technology verses FF degradation rates per year

Finally, the results indicated average Isc degradation rates It also indicated the power maximum degradation rates of
of Amerisolar, Jinko solar, Grundfos, and Schott of 0.93%, Amerisolar, Jinko solar, Grundfos, and Schott of 1.57%,
2.04%, 0.42%, and 0.76% per year respectively. 1.63%, 3.30%, and 1.81% per year, respectively. Finally, the
Figure 13 indicates the results of the FF which has oper- results indicated an average power degradation rate of Amer-
ated for different periods in warm semiarid climatic condi- isolar, Jinko solar, Grundfos, and Schott of 1.22%, 1.15%,
tions. Results had indicated FF degradation rates of 2.32%, 1.44%, and 0.99% per year, respectively.
2.25%, 0.93%, 2.98%, and 0.17% per year for the solar PV Figure 15 indicates the results of the power which has
modules which were deployed 3, 5, 6, 7, and 8 years, respec- operated for different periods in warm semiarid climatic con-
tively. The weighted mean FF degradation rate calculated ditions. Results had indicated power degradation rates of
as 0.93%. 2.16%, 1.81%, 1.22%, 1%, and 0.54% per year for the solar
PV modules that were deployed for 3, 5, 6, 7, and 8 years,
Power respectively. The weighted mean of power degradation rate
was determined as 1.22%.
Figure 14 shows the power average degradation rates of 12
Amerisolar modules, 16 Jinko solar modules, 12 Grundfos Efficiency
modules, and 6 Schott solar modules. The description and
operation conditions of the modules are in Sect. 3.2.1 and Figure 16 shows the average efficiency of 12 Amerisolar
Tables 1 and 2. Results indicated the power minimum degra- modules, 16 Jinko solar modules, 12 Grundfos modules
dation rate of Amerisolar, Jinko solar, Grundfos, and Schott and 6 Schott solar modules. Results indicated the mini-
of 0.8%, 0.18%, 0.34%, and 0.40% per year, respectively. mum efficiency of Amerisolar, Jinko solar, Grundfos and

3.5
2.98
3.0
FF degradation rates (%)

2.5 2.32 2.25

2.0
1.5
0.93
1.0
0.5 0.17
0.0
3 5 6 7 8
Number of years of operation

Fig. 13  FF degradation rates of solar polycrystalline modules in warm semiarid region

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International Journal of Energy and Environmental Engineering

Amorphous 1.44

Solar module technology

Polycrystalline 1.22

Warm semi-arid
Monocrystalline Tropical savanna
0.99

Polycrystalline 1.15

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6

Power degradation rates (%)

Fig. 14  Type of solar module technology verses power degradation rates

3.0
Power degradaon rates (%)

2.5 2.16
2.0 1.81

1.5 1.22
1.00
1.0
0.54
0.5

0.0
3 5 6 7 8
Number of years of operaons

Fig. 15  Power degradations rates of solar polycrystalline modules in warm semiarid region

Amorphous in Semi-arid STC Measured

Type of cell technology

Poly-C in Semi-arid

Mono-C in Tropical savanna

Poly-C in Tropical savanna

0 4 8 12 16 20
Solar PV module efficiency (%)

Fig. 16  Solar PV modules efficiency (%)

Schott of 10.93%, 9.46%, 6.57% and 11.96% per year, 6.96%, and 12.70% per year, respectively. As expected,
respectively. It also indicated the maximum efficiency of the values were lower than efficiency at STC as given in
Amerisolar, Jinko solar, Grundfos and Schott of 12.61%, Table 1. It can be reported that the monocrystalline indi-
11.71%, 7.45% and 13.60% per year, respectively. Finally, cated less difference between the efficiency at STC and
the results indicated an average efficiency of Ameriso- real environmental climatic conditions operating efficiency
lar, Jinko solar, Grundfos and Schott of 11.71%, 10.71%, value by 1.8%.

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 International Journal of Energy and Environmental Engineering

Figure 17 indicates the efficiency of the modules installed y = 5.674e−0.267x (13)

in warm semiarid region. The results indicates that mod-
ules which were installed 3, 5, 6, 7, and 8 years recorded where y is the predicted degradation rates and X is the num-
an efficiency of 9.17%, 10.77%, 11.71% 7.63%, and 9.16%, ber of years of deployment.
respectively. These values were lower than efficiency at The developed expression (Eq. 13) can be used to esti-
STC values as given in Table 1. The results indicated a dif- mate the degradation rate at a given year, and cumulate
ference of 5.73%, 7.03%, 3.69% 7.27%, and 5.14% for the degradation rate within given period. Using this expres-
modules whose have been installed for 3, 5, 6, 7, and 8 years, sion, that the solar PV modules in the region could degrade
respectively. at 0.23% in year 12 and 0.01% in year 25, for examples.
Overall, developed expression indicated that modules
Degradation rate model of the solar PV module could produce 81.5% of their rated values after 25 years
in warm semiarid climatic conditions of operation and with average degradation rate of 0.74%
per year.
Figure 18 shows the profile of power degradation rates of Figure 19 presents a comparison of the measured and
the solar module in warm semiarid climatic conditions. A predicted values of the power degradation rates of solar PV
fitted model indicates an exponential relationship between in warm semiarid climatic conditions. The predicted values
degradation rate and of the number of years of deployments compare closely with the measured values, and therefore the
as given in Eq. 13 with ­R2 = 0.956. model can be used to estimate the power degradation rates.

20
Efficiency degrada on rates (%)

16

12
Measured

8 STC

0
3 5 6 7 8
Years

Fig. 17  Solar PV modules efficiency (%) in warm semiarid region verses years

5.0
Degradaon rates (%)

4.0

3.0 y = 5.6743e-0.267x
2.0

1.0

0.0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14

Number of years

Fig. 18  Degradation rates model for warm semiarid climatic conditions

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International Journal of Energy and Environmental Engineering

3.0

Degradation rates (%) 2.5 Actual data

2.0 Predicted data

1.5

1.0

0.5

0.0
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Number of years of deployement

Fig. 19  Actual and predicated values of power degradation rates for warm semiarid climatic conditions

Discussion burn marks, and discoloration of encapsulant as degradation

mechanisms, and the latter being the predominant mode.
The study conducted by Quansah et al. [11] determined deg- Santiago et al. [12] conducted a study of degradation
radation rates of three climatic conditions namely humid of thin-film photovoltaic modules technologies. The study
region, sub-humid humid and sub-humid dry climates in indicated the degradation rates of a − si ∶ H, CIS, CdTe, and
Ghana of Isc as 1.1%, 0.49%, and 0.8%, Voc as 0.4%, 0.18%, micromorph as 2.28%, 1.04%, 4.55%, and 2.72%, respec-
and 0.3%, FF as 0.5%, 0.89%, and 0.5%, and P as 1.8%, tively. Sharma et al. [23] determined power degradation rates
1.43%, and 1.5%, respectively, for both monocrystalline and of a − si, m − c − si , and HIT as 5.7%, 0.51%, and 0.31%,
polycrystalline. The study indicated front-of-module defects, respectively, in a composite climatic area after 28 months
delamination, and browning of encapsulant materials as the of exposure. The study identified the soiling of glass as the
major defects in those climatic areas. Ndiaye et al. [19] mode of degradation mechanism in all modules and oxida-
established degradation rates of modules which have been tion of silver front grid metallization fingers and anti-reflec-
exposed for 3.4 and 4 years, respectively, for Isc as 0.38% and tive coating in m − c − si.
0.77%, Voc as 0.03% and 0.01%, FF as 0.94% and 2.36%, and Table 3 shows selected studies of power degradation rates
P as 1.62% and 2.96% per year, respectively, for polycrystal- and mechanism of solar PV modules in different regions and
line modules in the tropical environment. climatic conditions. The results obtained in this study indi-
Atsu et al. [13] indicated degradation rates of Isc , Voc , FF, cate lower power degradation rates for East Africa regions
and P as 0.98%, 1.23%, 1.5%, and 3.19% per year, respec- expect results of Asia composite climatic conditions. This
tively, for a monocrystalline solar module that was installed could be attributable to favorable operating module tempera-
in 2007 in tropical climatic conditions. Limmanee et al. ture which varied from 38 to 48.7◦ C with a mean of 43◦ C
[20], determined power degradation rates of multic − si, in tropical savanna and 31.3◦ C to 56.7◦ C with a mean of
hetero − junctionsi, micromorph, and CIGS under tropi- 45.31◦ C. These values are close to the NOCT value of 45◦ C.
cal climatic conditions after 4 years of outdoor exposure. The discoloration and browning of encapsulate materials are
It indicated power degradation rates of multic − si, HIT, identified as the predominant degradation mechanism mode
micromorph, and CIGS as 1.2%, 1.3%, 1.8–6.1%, and 1.7%, in most of the climatic conditions. This study has revealed
respectively. that all the technologies will meet the warranty expectation
Quansah and Muyiwa [21] indicated degradation rates on both climatic conditions considered of East Africa.
of monocrystalline after 16 years of deployment for Isc , Voc ,
FF, and P as 0.75%, 0.35%, 0.54%, and 1.54%, respectively,
in the sub-humid dry region. The browning of encapsulant Conclusion and recommendations
material and degraded junction box adhesive was indicated
as the dominant degradation mechanism. Sadok et al. [22] This paper presents the degradation rates, mechanism,
determined the annual power degradation rate of monocrys- and model for the solar PV module. The study covers two
talline solar module in Adrar, Algeria Sahara after long climatic conditions, namely warm semiarid and tropi-
exposure as 1.5%. The study also indicated delamination, cal savanna climatic conditions. The study establishes

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 International Journal of Energy and Environmental Engineering

Table 3  Power degradation rates and mechanism of solar PV modules

References Location Climatic conditions Power degradation rate per year Common degradation mechanisms
(%)

Quansah et al. [11] West Africa Humid 1.8% Delamination, Browning of encap-
sulant materials
Sub-humid humid 1.43%
Sub-humid 1.5%
Ndiaye et al. [19] West Africa tropical environment 1.62% Not indicated
2.96%
Atsu et al. [13] West Africa Tropical climate 3.19% EVA browning, cell intercon-
nects ribbons browning, and the
corrosion
Limmanee et al. [20] Far East Tropical climate multi − c − si 1.2% Not indicated
HIT 1.3%
Micromorph: 1.8–6.1%,
CIGS 1.7%
Santiago et al. [12] Europe Continental climate condition a − si ∶ H 2.8% Not indicated
CIS 1.04%
CdTe 4.55%,
Micromorph 2.72%
Sharma et al. [23] Asia composite climatic a − si 5.7% Soiling of glass
m − c − si 0.51%
HIT 0.31%
Quansah and Muyiwa [21] West Africa sub-humid Mono-c 1.54% Browning of encapsulant material
Degraded junction box adhesive
Sadok et al. [22] North Africa Sahara region Mono-c 1.5% Delamination, Burn marks,
Discoloration of encapsulant
material
This study East Africa Tropical savanna Multi-c 1.15% Browning of encapsulant material
Mono-c 0.99%
Warm semiarid Multi-c 1.22% Discoloration of encapsulant
material
a − si 1.44% None at the time of data inspec-
tion

discoloration of encapsulant material 36.84% as the pre- as 1.84%, 0.77%, 0.42%, and 1.44%, respectively. The study
dominant mode of degradation mechanism for polycrys- establishes that short-circuit current and fill factor as the
talline modules in warm semiarid climatic conditions. It major contributor to power degradation rates. This can be
also indicates browning of encapsulating materials as the associated with the degradation mechanism of encapsulant
predominant mode of degradation mechanism in tropical material. The degraded encapsulant material affects the
savanna for both polycrystalline and monocrystalline mod- transmittance of light reaching the cells hence degrade the
ules accounting for 100%. short-circuit current of the solar PV module.
The study determined the degradation rates for various A simple model was developed for predicting degradation
modules under two climatic conditions after six outdoor rates of solar PV modules for the first 12 years of exposure in
exposures as follows: Polycrystalline in warm semiarid cli- warm semiarid climatic conditions. This model can be used
matic conditions with Isc , Voc , FF and P as 1.03%, 0.16%, to estimate the performance of 90% of the solar PV mod-
0.93%, and 1.22%, respectively; Polycrystalline in tropi- ules as indicated by the warranty. The model indicates an
cal savanna climatic conditions with Isc , Voc , FF , and P as exponential degradation rates of the modules. This implies
1.05%, 0.13%, 2.04%, and 1.15%, respectively; Monocrys- that the modules will degrade at high rates during the first
talline in tropical savanna climatic conditions with Isc , Voc , 5 years of exposure, and then the degradation rates will
FF, and P as 0.92%, 0.04%, 0.76%, and 0.99% respectively; slow down to low rates. The study proposes more models
and lastly, the silicon amorphous thin-film technology in to be developed in different climatic conditions for different
warm semiarid climatic conditions with Isc , Voc , FF , and P technologies.

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International Journal of Energy and Environmental Engineering

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