9/8/2019

Work done by Fields & Applied Forces

To lift an object of mass m a height h in a uniform gravitational field g
without acceleration, you must apply a force m g. The work you do is + m
g h, while the work done by the field is - m g h. When you lower the
object, you do negative work and the field does positive work.
PH 112: FOUNDATION PHYSICS 2 Near the surface of a negatively charged object, the electric field is nearly
uniform. To lift without acceleration a positive charge q in a downward
field E requires a force q E. You do positive work in lifting the charge,
Part A: Electric Field Lines & Electric and the field does negative work. The signs reverse when you lower the
charge.
Potential Energy

SEMESTER TWO (2) - 2019 m g E +q

mg qE
Coordinator: Mr. Aiyomba AINAO
Earth’s surface Negatively charged surface

Fields: Work & Potential Energy

The work your applied force does on the mass or on the charge can go into
kinetic energy, waste heat, or potential energy. If there is no friction and no Electric Potential Energy
acceleration, then the work you do goes into a change of potential energy:
DU = m g Dh for a mass in a gravitational field and DU = q E Dh for a
charge in a uniform electric field. The sign of Dh determines the sign of
 The electrostatic force is a conservative force
DU. (If a charged object is moved in a vicinity where both types of fields are  It is possible to define an electrical potential
present, we’d have to use both formulae.) Whether or not there is friction or
acceleration, it is always the case that the work done by the field is the
energy function with this force
opposite of the change in potential energy: Wfield = - DU.  Work done by a conservative force is equal to
the negative of the change in potential energy

m g E +q

mg qE

Earth’s surface Negatively charged surface

Electric Potential Energy Equation

 Electrical potential energy is the energy  DU = - W = q0Ed
contained in a configuration of charges.  q0 – test charge
 Like all potential energies, when it goes up  E – Electric field
the configuration is less stable; when it goes  d - distance
down, the configuration is more stable.
 The unit is the Joule.

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Work and Potential Energy

 Electrical potential energy increases  There is a uniform field
when charges are brought into less between the two plates
favorable configurations  As the charge moves
 Electrical potential energy decreases when from A to B, work is
done on it
charges are brought into more favorable
 W = Fd=q Ex (xf – xi)
configurations.
 ΔPE = - W
= - q Ex (xf – xi)
 only for a uniform field

 The change in potential energy is directly

related to the change in voltage.
Potential Difference
DU = qDV  The potential difference between points A and B
is defined as the change in the potential energy
DV = DU/q (final value minus initial value) of a charge q
 DU: change in electrical potential energy moved from A to B divided by the size of the
(J) charge
 q: charge moved (C)  ΔV = VB – VA = ΔU / q
 DV: potential difference (V)  Potential difference is not the same as potential
energy
 All charges will spontaneously go to lower
potential energies if they are allowed to
move.

Electrical Potential in
Potential Difference, cont. Uniform Electric Fields
 Another way to relate the energy and the
potential difference: ΔU = q ΔV The electric potential is related in a simple way
 Both electric potential energy and potential to a uniform electric field.
difference are scalar quantities
 Units of potential difference DV = -Ed
 V = J/C
 DV: change in electrical potential (V)
 A special case occurs when there is a uniform
electric field  E: Constant electric field strength (N/C or
 DV = VB – VA= -Ex Dx V/m)
 Gives more information about units: N/C = V/m
 d: distance moved (m)

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Energy and Charge Energy and Charge

Movements Movements, cont
 A positive charge gains electrical potential
energy when it is moved in a direction opposite  When the electric field is
directed downward, point
the electric field
B is at a lower potential
 If a charge is released in the electric field, it than point A
experiences a force and accelerates, gaining  A positive test charge that
kinetic energy moves from A to B loses
 As it gains kinetic energy, it loses an equal amount of electric potential energy
electrical potential energy  It will gain the same
 A negative charge loses electrical potential amount of kinetic energy
energy when it moves in the direction opposite as it loses in potential
the electric field energy

Summary of Positive Charge Summary of Negative Charge

Movements and Energy Movements and Energy
 When a positive charge is placed in an  When a negative charge is placed in an electric
electric field field
 It moves opposite to the direction of the field
 It moves in the direction of the field
 It moves from a point of lower potential to a point of
 It moves from a point of higher potential to a point higher potential
of lower potential  Its electrical potential energy increases
 Its electrical potential energy decreases  Its kinetic energy decreases
 Its kinetic energy increases  Work has to be done on the charge for it to move from
point A to point B

Electric Potential of a Point Electric Field and Electric

Charge Potential Depend on Distance
 The point of zero electric potential is taken to be
at an infinite distance from the charge  The electric field is
 The potential created by a point charge q at any proportional to 1/r2
distance r from the charge is
 The electric
q
V  ke potential is
r proportional to 1/r
 A potential exists at some point in space
whether or not there is a test charge at that point

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Electric Potential of Multiple Electrical Potential Energy of

Point Charges Two Charges
 Superposition principle applies  V1 is the electric potential
 The total electric potential at some point P due to q1 at some point P
due to several point charges is the algebraic  The work required to bring
q2 from infinity to P without
sum of the electric potentials due to the acceleration is q2V1
individual charges  This work is equal to the
 The algebraic sum is used because potentials are potential energy of the two
scalar quantities particle system

q1q2
PE  q2 V1  k e
r

Notes About Electric Potential Problem Solving with Electric

Energy of Two Charges Potential (Point Charges)
 If the charges have the same sign, PE is positive  Draw a diagram of all charges
 Positive work must be done to force the two charges  Note the point of interest
near one another
 The like charges would repel  Calculate the distance from each charge to the
point of interest
 If the charges have opposite signs, PE is
negative  Use the basic equation V = keq/r
 The force would be attractive  Include the sign
 Work must be done to hold back the unlike charges  The potential is positive if the charge is positive and
from accelerating as they are brought close together negative if the charge is negative

Problem Solving with Electric Potentials and Charged

Potential, cont Conductors
 Use the superposition principle when you  Since W = -q(VB – VA), no work is required to
have multiple charges move a charge between two points that are at
the same electric potential
 Take the algebraic sum
 W = 0 when VA = VB
 Remember that potential is a scalar quantity  All points on the surface of a charged conductor
 So no components to worry about in electrostatic equilibrium are at the same
potential
 Therefore, the electric potential is a constant
everywhere on the surface of a charged
conductor in equilibrium

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Conductors in Equilibrium The Electron Volt

 The conductor has an excess of  The electron volt (eV) is defined as the
positive charge
All of the charge resides at the
energy that an electron gains when

surface accelerated through a potential difference of
 E = 0 inside the conductor 1V
 The electric field just outside the  Electrons in normal atoms have energies of 10’s of
conductor is perpendicular to the eV
surface
 The potential is a constant  Excited electrons have energies of 1000’s of eV
everywhere on the surface of the  High energy gamma rays have energies of millions
conductor of eV
 The potential everywhere inside
the conductor is constant and  1 eV = 1.6 x 10-19 J
equal to its value at the surface

Equipotentials and Electric

Equipotential Surfaces Fields Lines – Positive Charge
 An equipotential surface is a surface on  The equipotentials for a
which all points are at the same potential point charge are a family
of spheres centered on
 No work is required to move a charge at a
constant speed on an equipotential surface the point charge
 The electric field at every point on an  The field lines are
equipotential surface is perpendicular to the perpendicular to the
surface electric potential at all
points

Equipotentials and Electric Cont:- Capacitors & Capacitances

Fields Lines – Dipole

 Equipotential lines
are shown in blue
 Electric field lines are
shown in red
 The field lines are
perpendicular to the
equipotential lines at
all points

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Electronic Capacitors
Components  Capacitors are devices that store electric
charge
 Examples of where capacitors are used
include:
 radio receivers
 filters in power supplies
 to eliminate sparking in automobile ignition
systems
 energy-storing devices in electronic flashes
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TYPES OF CAPACITORS
Definition of Capacitance
Tubular (Paper) Capacitors
 The capacitance, C, of a capacitor is defined
as the ratio of the magnitude of the charge on  Metallic foil - thin sheets
either conductor to the potential difference of paper or Mylar, layers
between the conductors are rolled into a cylinder
Q
C
DV
 The SI unit of capacitance is the farad (F)

Electrolytic (Multiple)
Capacitors Variable Capacitors
 Used to store large  Variable capacitors
amounts of charge consist of two
at relatively low interwoven sets of
voltages metallic plates
 One plate is fixed and
 The electrolyte is a the other is movable
solution that  These capacitors
conducts electricity generally vary between
by virtue of motion 10 and 500 pF
of ions contained in  Used in radio tuning
the solution circuits

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Capacitors and Capacitance

 Capacitors consist of two conducting surfaces  Example –A 10 mF capacitor has 10 V
separated by an insulating layer called a across it. What quantity of charge is stored in
dielectric it?

From above C
Q
V
Q  CV
 10 5  10
 100 μC

Makeup of a Capacitor More About Capacitance

 A capacitor consists of  Capacitance will always be a positive quantity
two conductors  The capacitance of a given capacitor is constant
 These conductors are
called plates  The capacitance is a measure of the capacitor’s
 When the conductor is ability to store charge
charged, the plates carry
charges of equal
 The farad is a large unit, typically you will see
magnitude and opposite microfarads (mF) and picofarads (pF)
directions
 A potential difference
exists between the
plates due to the
charge

Parallel Plate Capacitor

 Each plate is
connected to a terminal
of the battery
 The battery is a source of
potential difference
 If the capacitor is
initially uncharged, the
battery establishes an
electric field in the
connecting wires
(a) A circuit consisting of a capacitor, a battery, and a switch. (b) When the switch is closed, the battery
establishes an electric field in the wire that causes electrons to move from the left plate into the wire and into
the right plate from the wire. As a result, a separation of charge exists on the plates, which represents an
increase in electric potential energy of the system of the circuit. This energy in the system has been
transformed from chemical energy in the battery.

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The electric field between the plates of a

parallel-plate capacitor is uniform near the Parallel Plate Capacitor, cont
center but non-uniform near the edges.  This field applies a force on electrons in the wire just
outside of the plates
 The force causes the electrons to move onto the
negative plate
 This continues until equilibrium is achieved
 The plate, the wire and the terminal are all at the same
potential
 At this point, there is no field present in the wire and
the movement of the electrons ceases

Parallel Plate Capacitor, final Capacitance – Parallel Plates

 The plate is now negatively charged  The charge density on the plates is σ =
 A similar process occurs at the other plate, Q/A
electrons moving away from the plate and  A is the area of each plate, which are equal
leaving it positively charged  Q is the charge on each plate, equal with
 In its final configuration, the potential opposite signs
difference across the capacitor plates is the  The electric field is uniform between the
same as that between the terminals of the
battery plates and zero elsewhere

Capacitance – Parallel Plates, Electric Potential for Conducting Sheets

cont. qenc Using Gauss’ Law we
 E  dA  eo derived and equation to
DV   E dr

define the electric field b 
 The capacitance is proportional to the area of EA 
Q as we move radially V (b)  V (a )   ( )dr

a e

its plates and inversely proportional to the eo away from the charged o
a 
sheet or plate. Electric
Q A V (b)  V (a )  ( )dr

distance between the plates  , EA  Potential? b eo
A eo
Q Q Q εA + 
 V (b)  V (a )  (a  b), a  b  d
C    o E eo
DV Ed Qd / εo A d eo +
 Qd
E =0
+ DV  d  Ed 
eo eo A
+
+
+

+ This expression will be

particularly useful later

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Measuring Capacitance Capacitance

This was derived from
Let’s go back to thinking about plates!  Qd integrating the Gauss’ Law
DV  d  Ed  expression for a conducting
DV  Ed , eo eo A plate.
The unit for capacitance is the FARAD, F. These variables represent a
DV E , if d  constant d e oA
DV  ( )Q  Q  ( )DV constant of proportionality
between voltage and charge.
E Q Therefore eo A d
Q DV Q  CDV What this is saying is that
C  contant of proportionality eo A YOU CAN change the
C capacitance even though it
C  Capacitance d represents a constant. That
CHANGE, however, can only
Q  CV happen by physically
changing the GEOMETRY of
Q the capacitor itself.
C
V

Capacitor Geometry (Constant of Proportionality)

1
The capacitance of a C A C
d
capacitor depends on A  area of plate
HOW you make it. d  distance beteween plates
A
C
d Solution: From the equation:
C  constant of proportionality
e o  vacuum permittivity constant
C2
e o  8.85x1012
Nm 2
eo A
C
d

Circuit Symbols Circuit Symbols

 A circuit diagram is a
simplified representation of
an actual circuit
 Circuit symbols are used to
represent the various
elements
 Lines are used to represent
wires
 The battery’s positive
terminal is indicated by the
longer line

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Capacitor Values Reading Capacitor

• A component with 2 leads
(connections) Value: If the code ‘103’ is printed on the capacitor:

• Its function in a circuit is to charge up • The first digit of the code is the first digit of
to a voltage, hence storing electrical the value
• The second digit of the code is the second
charge (energy) digit of the value
• Capacitor value is measured in Farads • The third digit of the code is the number of
(F) zeros following the first 2 digits of the
Appearance value
• Capacitors usually have a very low • The resulting value is always in pico-
capacitance value: farads
• 0.000001 F is given as 1 µF (µ =
• The value of the capacitor will therefore
micro = 1 x 106) be:
• 0.000000001 F is given as 1 nF (n • 10000 pF or 10 nF
= nano = 1 x 109)
• The letter code 1KV means that the
• 0.000000000001 F is given as 1 pF Schematic capacitor can be charged up to 1000V
(p = pico = 1 x 1012) Symbol (1kV) maximum.
• The value of the capacitor is read 55 56

using a number coding scheme

Calculating the Capacitance Calculating the Capacitance

We start with the simplest form – two parallel
conducting plates separated by vacuum Putting this all together, we have for
Let the conducting plates have the capacitance
area A and be separated by a
distance d Q A
C  e0
The magnitude of the electric Vab d
 Q
field between the two plates is E 
e0 e0A The capacitance is only
given by
We treat the field as being Qd dependent upon the geometry of
Vab  Ed 
uniform allowing us to write e0A the capacitor

1 farad Capacitor Capacitors in Series

Given a 1 farad parallel plate capacitor
having a plate separation of 1mm. What is  When a battery is
the area of the plates? connected to the circuit,
A electrons are
We start with C  e 0
d transferred from the left
plate of C1 to the right
And rearrange A
Cd

1.0F 1.0  103 m  plate of C2 through the
to solve for A, e0 8.85  1012 F / m battery
giving
 1.1  10 m 2
8

This corresponds to a square about 10km on a side!

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Capacitors in
Capacitors in Series, 2 Series, 3

 As this negative charge accumulates on the  An equivalent capacitor

can be found that
right plate of C2, an equivalent amount of performs the same
negative charge is removed from the left function as the series
plate of C2, leaving it with an excess positive combination
charge  The charges are all the
 All of the right plates gain charges of –Q and same
all the left plates have charges of +Q Q 1 = Q2 = Q

Review: Capacitors in Series

Capacitors in Series, final Capacitors in series each charge each other by INDUCTION. So they
each have the SAME charge. The electric potential on the other hand
is divided up amongst them. In other words, the sum of the individual
 The potential differences add up to the battery voltages will equal the total voltage of the battery or power source.
voltage
ΔVtot = DV1 + DV2 + …
 The equivalent capacitance is
1 1 1 1
   
Ceq C1 C2 C3

 The equivalent capacitance of a series combination

is always less than any individual capacitor in the
combination

Capacitors in Parallel
Capacitors in Parallel, 2
 When capacitors are  The flow of charges ceases when the voltage across
first connected in the the capacitors equals that of the battery
circuit, electrons are  The potential difference across the capacitors is the
transferred from the left same
plates through the  And each is equal to the voltage of the battery
battery to the right  DV1 = DV2 = DV
plate, leaving the left  DV is the battery terminal voltage

plate positively charged  The capacitors reach their maximum charge when
and the right plate the flow of charge ceases
negatively charged  The total charge is equal to the sum of the charges
on the capacitors
 Qtotal = Q1 + Q2

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Capacitors in Parallel, 3 Capacitors in Parallel, final

 The capacitors can be  Ceq = C1 + C2 + C3 + …
replaced with one
 The equivalent capacitance of a parallel
capacitor with a
capacitance of Ceq combination of capacitors is greater than any
 The equivalent capacitor of the individual capacitors
must have exactly the  Essentially, the areas are combined
same external effect on
the circuit as the original  Use the active figure to vary the battery
capacitors potential and the various capacitors and
observe the resulting charges and voltages
on the capacitors

Equivalent Capacitance, Example

Review: Capacitors in Parallel
In a parallel configuration, the voltage is the same
because ALL THREE capacitors touch BOTH ends
of the battery. As a result, they split up the charge
amongst them.

 The 1.0-mF and 3.0-mF capacitors are in parallel as are the 6.0-
mF and 2.0-mF capacitors
 These parallel combinations are in series with the capacitors
next to them
 The series combinations are in parallel and the final equivalent
capacitance can be found

Problem-Solving Strategy,
Problem-Solving Strategy cont
 Be careful with the choice of units  Combining capacitors
 Combine capacitors following the formulas  When two or more capacitors are connected in
 When two or more unequal capacitors are connected parallel, the potential differences across them are
in series, they carry the same charge, but the potential the same
differences across them are not the same  The charge on each capacitor is proportional to its
 The capacitances add as reciprocals and the equivalent capacitance
capacitance is always less than the smallest individual
 The capacitors add directly to give the equivalent
capacitor
capacitance

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Problem-Solving Strategy,
Problem-Solving Strategy, final Equation Summary
 Repeat the process until there is only one single
equivalent capacitor  Use the following equations when working through
 A complicated circuit can often be reduced to one the circuit diagrams:
equivalent capacitor  Capacitance equation: C = Q / DV
 Replace capacitors in series or parallel with their equivalent
 Capacitors in parallel: Ceq = C1 + C2 + …
 Redraw the circuit and continue
 Capacitors in parallel all have the same voltage
 To find the charge on, or the potential difference
differences as does the equivalent capacitance
across, one of the capacitors, start with your
final equivalent capacitor and work back through  Capacitors in series: 1/Ceq = 1/C1 + 1/C2 + …
the circuit reductions  Capacitors in series all have the same charge, Q, as
does their equivalent capacitance

REVIEW: Stored Energy from a

Energy Stored in a Capacitor Capacitor – A calculus perspective
 Energy stored = ½ Q ΔV
 From the definition of capacitance, this can
be rewritten in different forms

1 1 Q2
Energy  QDV  CDV 2 
2 2 2C

Capacitors “STORE” energy

Energy in a Capacitor – Overview, cont Anytime you have a situation where energy is “STORED” it is
called POTENTIAL. In this case we have capacitor
potential energy, Uc
 The electric potential energy is related to the Suppose we plot a V vs. Q
graph. If we wanted to find the
separation of the positive and negative AREA we would MULTIPLY the
2 variables according to the
charges on the plates equation for Area.
 A capacitor can be described as a device that A = bh
stores energy as well as charge
When we do this we get Area =
VQ

Let’s do a unit check!

Voltage = Joules/Coulomb
Charge = Coulombs
Area = ENERGY

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Potential Energy of a Capacitor

Since the AREA under the line is a
Energy Stored in a Capacitor
triangle, the ENERGY(area) =1/2VQ
 Assume the capacitor is being charged
Q and, at some point, has a charge q on it
U C  1 VQ C 
2 V  The work needed to transfer a charge from
U C  1 V (VC )  1 CV 2 one plate to the other is
2 2
This energy or area is referred
2 q
as the potential energy stored Q Q dW  DVdq  dq
inside a capacitor. U C  1 ( )Q  C
2 C 2C
Note: The slope of the line is
the inverse of the capacitance.
 The total work required is
most common form
Q q Q2
W  dq 
0 C 2C

Energy, cont Energy, final

 The work done in charging the capacitor appears as  The energy can be considered to be stored in
electric potential energy U: the electric field
Q2 1 1 For a parallel-plate capacitor, the energy can
U  QDV  C ( DV )2 
2C 2 2 be expressed in terms of the field as U = ½
 This applies to a capacitor of any geometry (εoAd)E2
 The energy stored increases as the charge
increases and as the potential difference increases
 It can also be expressed in terms of the
energy density (energy per unit volume)
 In practice, there is a maximum voltage before
discharge occurs between the plates uE = ½ eoE2

Applications Applications
 Defibrillators  Defibrillators
 When fibrillation occurs, the heart produces a rapid,  When fibrillation occurs, the heart produces a rapid,
irregular pattern of beats irregular pattern of beats
 A fast discharge of electrical energy through the heart  A fast discharge of electrical energy through the heart
can return the organ to its normal beat pattern can return the organ to its normal beat pattern
 In general, capacitors act as energy reservoirs  In general, capacitors act as energy reservoirs
that can slowly charged and then discharged that can slowly charged and then discharged
quickly to provide large amounts of energy in a quickly to provide large amounts of energy in a
short pulse short pulse

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