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Table of Contents
Cover
Series Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
About the Authors
List of Abbreviations
Preface
Acknowledgment
About the Companion Website
1 Introduction
1.1 General Remarks
1.2 Basic Closed‐Loop Control for Power Converters
1.3 Mathematical Modeling of Power Converters
1.4 Basic Control Objectives
1.5 Performance Evaluation
1.6 Contents of the Book
References
2 Introduction to Advanced Control Methods
2.1 Classical Control Methods for Power Converters
2.2 Sliding Mode Control
2.3 Lyapunov Function‐Based Control
2.4 Model Predictive Control
References
3 Design of Sliding Mode Control for Power Converters
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Sliding Mode Control of DC–DC Buck and Cuk
Converters
 3.3 Sliding Mode Control Design Procedure
3.4 Chattering Mitigation Techniques
3.5 Modulation Techniques
3.6 Other Types of Sliding Mode Control
References
4 Design of Lyapunov Function‐Based Control for Power
Converters
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Lyapunov‐Function‐Based Control Design Using Direct
Method
4.3 Lyapunov Function‐Based Control of DC–DC Buck
Converter
4.4 Lyapunov Function‐Based Control of DC–DC Boost
Converter
References
5 Design of Model Predictive Control
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Predictive Control Methods
5.3 FCS Model Predictive Control
5.4 CCS Model Predictive Control
5.5 Design and Implementation Issues
References
6 MATLAB/Simulink Tutorial on Physical Modeling and
Experimental Setup
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Building Simulation Model for Power Converters
6.3 Building Real‐Time Model for a Single‐Phase T‐Type
Rectifier
6.4 Building Rapid Control Prototyping for a Single‐Phase
T‐Type Rectifier
References
7 Sliding Mode Control of Various Power Converters
 7.1 Introduction
7.2 Single‐Phase Grid‐Connected Inverter with LCL Filter
7.3 Three‐Phase Grid‐Connected Inverter with LCL Filter
7.4 Three‐Phase AC–DC Rectifier
7.5 Three‐Phase Transformerless Dynamic Voltage Restorer
7.6 Three‐Phase Shunt Active Power Filter
References
8 Design of Lyapunov Function‐Based Control of Various Power
Converters
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Single‐Phase Grid‐Connected Inverter with LCL Filter
8.3 Single‐Phase Quasi‐Z‐Source Grid‐Connected Inverter
with LCL Filter
8.4 Single‐Phase Uninterruptible Power Supply Inverter
8.5 Three‐Phase Voltage‐Source AC–DC Rectifier
References
9 Model Predictive Control of Various Converters
9.1 CCS MPC Method for a Three‐Phase Grid‐Connected
VSI
9.2 Model Predictive Control Method for Single‐Phase
Three‐Level Shunt Active Filter
9.3 Model Predictive Control of Quasi‐Z Source Three‐
Phase Four‐Leg Inverter
9.4 Weighting Factorless Model Predictive Control for DC–
DC SEPIC Converters
9.5 Model Predictive Droop Control of Distributed
Generation Inverters in Islanded AC Microgrid
9.6 FCS‐MPC for a Three‐Phase Shunt Active Power Filter
9.7 FCS‐MPC for a Single‐Phase T‐Type Rectifier
9.8 Predictive Torque Control of Brushless Doubly Fed
Induction Generator Fed by a Matrix Converter
 9.9 An Enhanced Finite Control Set Model Predictive
Control Method with Self‐Balancing Capacitor Voltages for
Three‐Level T‐Type Rectifiers
References
Index
Books in the IEEE Press Series on Control Systems Theory and
Applications
End User License Agreement

List of Tables
Chapter 1
Table 1.1 Jury's table.
Chapter 7
Table 7.1 Driving Signals in Double‐Band Hysteresis
Scheme.
Table 7.2 System Parameters.
Table 7.3 System parameters.
Table 7.4 Comparative analysis between models.
Table 7.5 System parameters.
Table 7.6 System and control parameters.
Table 7.7 System parameters.
Chapter 8
Table 8.1 System and control parameters.
Table 8.2 Comparisons of four control strategies with the
Lyapunov‐function...
Table 8.3 System and control parameters.
Table 8.4 System and control parameters.
Table 8.5 System and control parameters.
Chapter 9
 Table 9.1 Operating states, switching states and pole
voltages.
Table 9.2 System and control parameters.
Table 9.3 qZS four‐leg inverter and load parameters.
Table 9.4 System and control parameters.
Table 9.5 Simulation model parameters.
Table 9.6 Switching states and voltage vectors.
Table 9.7 Pre‐selection of voltage vectors for each region.
Table 9.8 System parameters.
Table 9.9 Comparative analysis.
Table 9.10 Relationship among the pole voltage and
switching states.
Table 9.11 CDFIG electrical parameters.
Table 9.12 Operation states, switching states and pole
voltages.

List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1 Basic closed‐loop power converter control system.
(a) With modula...
Figure 1.2 Effects of the root locations on the dynamic
response of the clos...
Figure 1.3 Stable region of the closed‐loop system in
discrete time.
Figure 1.4 Settling time.
Figure 1.5 Steady‐state error.
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 Trajectories of the system in the phase plane for
two distinct K ...
 Figure 2.2 Combination of the trajectories in Figure 2.1a
and Figure 2.1b.
Figure 2.3 Block diagram of variable structure control.
Figure 2.4 Regions of variable structure control that
establish sliding mode...
Figure 2.5 Reaching and sliding phases of a second‐order
system in the phase...
Figure 2.6 Geometrical view of three different Lyapunov
functions for n = 3....
Figure 2.7 Typical structure of an MPC controller.
Figure 2.8 MPC with continuous control set.
Figure 2.9 MPC with finite control set.
Figure 2.10 Working principle of predictive control.
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1 The design of SMC for controlling power
converters.
Figure 3.2 DC–DC buck converter.
Figure 3.3 Phase‐plane trajectories obtained by various
initial conditions f...
Figure 3.4 Phase‐plane trajectories of buck converter with
different λ ...
Figure 3.5 Responses of output voltage with different λ
values.
Figure 3.6 DC–DC Cuk converter.
Figure 3.7 Responses of V C2 and I L1 for an abrupt change
in V in from 80 to 4...
Figure 3.8 Trajectory of σ and x 1 in phase‐plane
corresponding to Figur...
Figure 3.9 Generalized block diagram of a sliding mode
controlled power conv...
 Figure 3.10 Replacing sign function with the hysteresis
function.
Figure 3.11 Visualization of boundary layer method for a
second‐order system...
Figure 3.12 Replacing sign function with the saturation
function.
Figure 3.13 Block diagram of state observer method in a
sliding mode control...
Figure 3.14 (a) Single‐phase H‐bridge grid‐connected
inverter, (b) implement...
Figure 3.15 Basic SPWM scheme for a single‐phase H‐
bridge grid‐connected inv...
Figure 3.16 Block diagram of sliding mode controlled two‐
level three‐phase c...
Figure 3.17 Block diagram of TSMC‐based control of a
power converter.
Figure 3.18 Block diagram of STA‐based SMC method for
controlling a power co...
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1 Steps of Lyapunov function‐based control design.
Figure 4.2 Energy distribution in basic power converters.
(a) DC–DC converte...
Figure 4.3 Generalized block diagram of the Lyapunov
function‐based control ...
Figure 4.4 Block diagram of Lyapunov function‐based
control for DC–DC buck c...
Figure 4.5 Responses of output voltage and inductor current
for an abrupt ch...
Figure 4.6 Responses of output voltage and inductor
current for an abrupt ch...
 Figure 4.7 Responses of Lyapunov function derivative
corresponding to the ch...
Figure 4.8 Circuit diagram of a DC–DC boost converter.
Figure 4.9 Block diagram of Lyapunov function‐based
control for DC–DC boost ...
Figure 4.10 Responses of output voltage and inductor
current for an abrupt c...
Figure 4.11 Responses of output voltage and inductor
current for an abrupt c...
Figure 4.12 Responses of Lyapunov function derivative
corresponding to the c...
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1 The simplified block diagram of the FCS‐MPC for
controlling load ...
Figure 5.2 Detailed block diagram of the FCS‐MPC for
controlling the load cu...
Figure 5.3 Subsystem in Simulink for three‐phase current
generation.
Figure 5.4 Voltage vectors of the three‐phase three‐leg
inverter.
Figure 5.5 The sketch map of the reference and predicted
currents.
Figure 5.6 The flowchart of the FCS‐MPC technique.
Figure 5.7 Prediction of the system output based on the past
values and a me...
Figure 5.8 Comparison between the output signal of the
system and the increm...
Figure 5.9 Electrical circuit of a grid‐connected voltage
source inverter.
Figure 5.10 Block diagram of the control system.
 Figure 5.11 Cost function in MPC with some primary and
secondary control obj...
Figure 5.12 Weighting factors influence on the output
voltage, the input cur...
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1 Simulink diagram for simulation of single‐phase
grid‐connected in...
Figure 6.2 Subsystem for the Error Variables.
Figure 6.3 Simulink diagram for simulation of three‐phase
Rectifier based on...
Figure 6.4 Subsystem for the Park transformation.
Figure 6.5 Subsystem for Main Controller.
Figure 6.6 Subsystem for PWM Generation.
Figure 6.7 Simulink diagram for simulation of three‐phase
four‐leg qZSI.
Figure 6.8 A three‐phase four‐leg qZSI model.
Figure 6.9 Subsystem for the reference current generation.
Figure 6.10 Subsystem for the PWM signals.
Figure 6.11 Simulink diagram for simulation of distributed
generation invert...
Figure 6.12 Subsystem for the Droop‐based controller.
Figure 6.13 The fundamental concepts of real‐time
simulation.
Figure 6.14 The screenshot of OPAL‐RT launcher.
Figure 6.15 The screenshot of OPAL‐RT welcome page.
Figure 6.16 The screenshot of OPAL‐RT main page.
Figure 6.17 The screenshot of OPAL‐RT Project Explorer
page.
Figure 6.18 The screenshot of New RT‐LAB Project Menu.
 Figure 6.19 The screenshot of RT‐LAB Project Menu.
Figure 6.20 The screenshot of RT‐LAB Project Explorer.
Figure 6.21 The screenshot of RT‐LAB Model menu.
Figure 6.22 The screenshot of RT‐LAB Model selection
menu.
Figure 6.23 The screenshot of RT‐LAB Project Explorer.
Figure 6.24 The screenshot of RT‐LAB Project Explorer –
Editing Simulink Mod...
Figure 6.25 The screenshot of MATLAB/Simulink model.
Figure 6.26 The structure of MATLAB/Simulink model for
RT‐LAB implementation...
Figure 6.27 The screenshot of RT‐LAB Project Explorer –
Build Configuration....
Figure 6.28 The screenshot of RT‐LAB Simulink Console.
Figure 6.29 The block diagram of the experimental setup.
Figure 6.30 The photograph of T‐type rectifier prototype.
Figure 6.31 The photograph of measurement board.
Figure 6.32 The MATLAB/Simulink model for RCP.
Figure 6.33 The screenshot of the configuration menu of
OpCtrl block.
Figure 6.34 The screenshot of the Assignment Tab in RT‐
Lab.
Figure 6.35 The screenshot of the Execution Tab in RT‐Lab.
Chapter 7
Figure 7.1 Single‐phase grid‐connected VSI with an LCL
filter.
Figure 7.2 Stability regions of the reaching mode for
.
Figure 7.3 Single‐band hysteresis switching in one‐cycle.
Figure 7.4 Double‐band hysteresis switching in one‐cycle.
Figure 7.5 Influence of variations in h and L 1 on the average
switching freq...
Figure 7.6 Root locus of closed‐loop poles when α is varied
from 500 to...
Figure 7.7 Root locus of closed‐loop poles when β is varied
from 0 to 6...
Figure 7.8 The block diagram of single‐phase grid‐
connected VSI with the SMC...
Figure 7.9 Steady state sliding surface function, inverter
current, grid cur...
Figure 7.10 Spectrum of grid current for .
Figure 7.11 Dynamic response of grid current and grid
current reference for ...
Figure 7.12 Grid current and its reference obtained by
various β values...
Figure 7.13 Instantaneous switching frequencies obtained
by double‐band and ...
Figure 7.14 Driving signals for the switching devices.
Figure 7.15 Experimental responses of v g and i 2 for a step
change in from ...
Figure 7.16 Measured grid current spectrum for
.
Figure 7.17 Experimental responses of v g and i 2 in the
steady‐state for a st...
Figure 7.18 Circuit diagram of three‐phase grid‐connected
inverter with an L...
Figure 7.19 Control system for phase‐leg a.
Figure 7.20 Input impedances of the LCL filter and for the L
filter.
Figure 7.21 Bode plot of the input impedance in case of the
physical model a...
Figure 7.22 Bode plot of the input impedance magnitude in
the case of the ph...
Figure 7.23 Pole map for the nominal values of the LCL
filter. (a) Using the...
Figure 7.24 Root locus when the system parameters vary.
(a) L 1 varies ±30%, ...
Figure 7.25 Top: PCC voltages (50 V/div) and bottom. Grid
currents (2 A/div,...
Figure 7.26 Three‐phase currents with a grid harmonic near
the resonance fre...
Figure 7.27 Active and reactive powers in case of a sudden
step change.
Figure 7.28 (Top) Distorted PCC voltages (50 V/div) with
THD = 14%. (Bottom)...
Figure 7.29 (Top) Distorted PCC voltages (50 V/div) with
THD = 14%. (Bottom)...
Figure 7.30 Switching spectrum using the reduced model.
Figure 7.31 Circuit diagram of a three‐phase unity power
factor rectifier.
Figure 7.32 Equivalent per‐phase circuit of the UPFR.
Figure 7.33 Simulation result of cross‐coupled sliding mode
controllers.
Figure 7.34 Simulation result of decoupled sliding mode
controllers.
Figure 7.35 Control system for phase‐leg a.
Figure 7.36 Hysteresis band and switching surface.
Figure 7.37 Experimental control signals and their
corresponding sliding sur...
Figure 7.38 Experimental three‐phase currents (5 A/div)
and grid voltages (2...
Figure 7.39 Experimental results: (a) output voltage (50
V/div) and three‐ph...
Figure 7.40 Experimental results: (a) output voltage (50
V/div) and three‐ph...
Figure 7.41 (a) Output voltage (50 V/div) and three‐phase
grid voltages (20 ...
Figure 7.42 (a) Output voltage (50 V/div) and three‐phase
grid voltages (20 ...
Figure 7.43 Experimental switching surface with its
hysteresis band for phas...
Figure 7.44 Experimental switching frequency spectrum
with amplitude relativ...
Figure 7.45 Three‐phase TDVR.
Figure 7.46 Region of stability of the reaching mode.
Figure 7.47 Evolution of the sliding surface function and the
switching logi...
Figure 7.48 Triangular carrier and pulse width modulated
signals.
Figure 7.49 Block diagram of three‐phase TDVR with: (a)
Time‐varying switchi...
Figure 7.50 Simulated responses obtained by the time‐
varying switching frequ...
Figure 7.51 Simulated responses obtained by the constant
switching frequency...
Figure 7.52 Performance of time‐varying switching
frequency‐based SMC under ...
Figure 7.53 Performance of constant switching frequency‐
based SMC under volt...
 Figure 7.54 Performance of time‐varying switching
frequency‐based SMC under ...
Figure 7.55 Performance of constant switching frequency‐
based SMC under dist...
Figure 7.56 Circuit diagram of a three‐phase SAPF.
Figure 7.57 Control system for phase‐leg a.
Figure 7.58 Experimental control signals with their
corresponding sliding su...
Figure 7.59 A sudden load step change from no load to full
load and full loa...
Figure 7.60 Grid current harmonics for phase‐leg a: (a)
Before compensation,...
Figure 7.61 From top to bottom: PCC voltages (50 V/div)
with THD = 14%, load...
Figure 7.62 Measured PCC voltage and estimated PCC
voltage for phase‐leg a....
Figure 7.63 From top to bottom: grid voltages (50 V/div),
grid currents (5 A...
Figure 7.64 Experimental hysteresis band and its switching
surface for phase...
Figure 7.65 Switching spectrum: (a) without switching
decision algorithm and...
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1 Single‐phase grid‐connected inverter with LCL
filter.
Figure 8.2 Block diagram of Lyapunov function‐based
control strategy with ca...
Figure 8.3 Magnitude and phase responses of H(s): (a) With
15% parameter mis...
Figure 8.4 Magnitude responses of obtained
with different K i1 and K v value...
Figure 8.5 Magnitude responses of Z h (s) with different K p
values.
Figure 8.6 Simulated and experimental response of v g and i
2 obtained by the ...
Figure 8.7 Simulated and experimental response of v g and i
2 obtained by the ...
Figure 8.8 Simulated and experimental response of vg and i
2 obtained by the ...

Figure 8.9 Simulated response of

in one cycle.
Figure 8.10 Simulated and experimental dynamic responses
of i 2 for a step ch...
Figure 8.11 (a) Experimental response of v g , i 2 and
spectrum of v g obtained ...
Figure 8.12 Single‐phase grid‐tied qZSI with LCL filter.
Figure 8.13 Equivalent circuit of the qZSI in [7]: (a) Active
state, (b) Sho...
Figure 8.14 Reference function generation with cascaded
PR controllers.
Figure 8.15 Block diagram of Lyapunov‐function‐based
control with cascaded P...
Figure 8.16 Steady‐state responses of the DC‐side variables
and AC‐side curr...
Figure 8.17 Dynamic responses of the DC‐side variables and
grid current. (a)...
Figure 8.18 Single‐phase voltage‐source UPS inverter.
Figure 8.19 Distribution of energy in single‐phase inverter.
 Figure 8.20 Block diagram of the Lyapunov‐function based
control with the ou...
Figure 8.21 Root loci of closed‐loop system when K i and K v
are changed.
Figure 8.22 Simulated and experimental waveforms of v o
and i o . (a) Simulatio...
Figure 8.23 Simulated and experimental responses of v o
and i o for a step cha...
Figure 8.24 Simulated response of dV(x)/dt for the step
change in the load r...
Figure 8.25 Simulated and experimental responses of v o
and i o obtained for a...
Figure 8.26 Simulated and experimental responses of i C , v
o , i o , and i L obtai...
Figure 8.27 Simulated response of dV(x)/dt for the
nonlinear load.
Figure 8.28 Three‐phase voltage‐source AC–DC rectifier.
Figure 8.29 The block diagram of Lyapunov function‐based
control of three‐ph...
Figure 8.30 The responses of grid current and output
voltage for a step chan...
Figure 8.31 The responses of grid currents under 50 Ω
resistive load when: (...
Chapter 9
Figure 9.1 Circuit diagram of a three‐phase grid‐connected
VSI.
Figure 9.2 Simulink Block diagram of the MPC simulation.
Figure 9.3 Simulink Block diagram of the MPC controller.
Figure 9.4 From top to bottom: three‐phase grid voltages
and three‐phase gri...
Figure 9.5 Control signals without any constraint.
Figure 9.6 From top to bottom: three‐phase grid voltages
and three‐phase gri...
Figure 9.7 Control signals m d and m q with the constraint
m d ≤ 1.
Figure 9.8 Single‐phase three‐level T‐type inverter based
SAPF.
Figure 9.9 Block diagram of the energy function based MPC
with three‐level T...
Figure 9.10 Flowchart of the energy‐function based FCS‐
MPC.
Figure 9.11 Experimental setup for the SAPF.
Figure 9.12 Waveforms of grid‐voltage (e g ), grid current (i
g ), load current ...
Figure 9.13 Measured spectrums of load and grid currents
corresponding to Fi...
Figure 9.14 Waveforms of grid‐voltage (e g ), grid current (i
g ), load current ...
Figure 9.15 Waveforms of grid current (i g ), PI output ( ),
capacitor voltage...
Figure 9.16 Waveforms of grid‐voltage (e g ), grid current (i
g ), load current ...
Figure 9.17 Operation of SAPF under classical MPC; (a)
Waveforms of grid‐vol...
Figure 9.18 Waveforms of grid‐voltage (e g ), grid current (i
g ), load current ...
Figure 9.19 THD comparison of classical and presented
MPC methods under weig...
Figure 9.20 qZS three‐phase four‐leg inverter topology.
Figure 9.21 Equivalent circuit of the qZS network. (a) In
non‐shoot‐through ...
Figure 9.22 Equivalent circuit of the three‐phase four‐leg
inverter.
Figure 9.23 Block diagram of the MPC scheme proposed in
[8].
Figure 9.24 Flowchart of the presented MPC algorithm for
qZS four‐leg invert...
Figure 9.25 Steady‐state simulation results with balanced
reference currents...
Figure 9.26 Steady‐state simulation results with unbalanced
reference curren...
Figure 9.27 Transient‐state simulation results with
balanced reference curre...
Figure 9.28 Transient‐state simulation results with
unbalanced reference cur...
Figure 9.29 Circuit diagram of DC–DC SEPIC converter.
Figure 9.30 Evolution of inductor current, inductor current
error, and switc...
Figure 9.31 Effect of varying v in and i in on the inductor
current ripple.
Figure 9.32 Evolution of inductor current and cost function
in one switching...
Figure 9.33 Block diagram of the control strategy.
Figure 9.34 Responses of v out , v in , i L1 , and f sw for
abrupt changes in the r...
Figure 9.35 Dynamic responses of v out , v in , i L1, and f sw
for changing vin fr...
Figure 9.36 Responses of v out , v in , i L1, and Δi L1/2 for
changing vin from 60...
Figure 9.37 Dynamic responses of v out , v in , i L1, and i out
against abrupt loa...
Figure 9.38 Switching frequency results for load change
test: (a) boost mode...
Figure 9.39 Steady‐state responses of v out , v in , i L1, and f
sw under +10% mis...
Figure 9.40 Steady‐state responses of v out , v in , i L1, and f
sw under −10% mis...
Figure 9.41 Equivalent circuit of DG inverters in Islanding
AC microgrid.
Figure 9.42 P/ω and Q/E droop characteristics.
Figure 9.43 Control structure of conventional P/ω and Q/E
droop control...
Figure 9.44 The MPC based droop control algorithm.
Figure 9.45 Block diagram of the simulated model.
Figure 9.46 Steady state results power sharing ratio
between VSI1 and VSI2 i...
Figure 9.47 Steady state results power sharing ratio
between VSI1 and VSI2 i...
Figure 9.48 Load impact with power sharing ratio between
VSI1 and VSI2 is 1 ...
Figure 9.49 Three‐phase shunt active power filter.
Figure 9.50 The block diagram of the control technique.
Figure 9.51 Voltage vectors.
Figure 9.52 Three‐phase grid voltages divided into six
regions of 60°.
Figure 9.53 SAPF prototype.
Figure 9.54 A sudden step change in the load from full load
to half load and...
Figure 9.55 Grid current harmonics for phase‐leg a: (a)
Before compensation ...
Figure 9.56 Grid voltages (50 V/div) with a THD = 14% and
load and grid curr...
Figure 9.57 From top to bottom: grid currents (5 A/div),
load currents (5 A/...
Figure 9.58 Single‐phase T‐type rectifier with an active
power decoupling ci...
Figure 9.59 Control diagram of the grid‐voltage sensorless
MPC technique....
Figure 9.60 (a) Block diagram of MRAS based grid voltage
observer; (b) Phaso...
Figure 9.61 Experimental results of the steady‐state analysis
(a) with decou...
Figure 9.62 Experimental results of the steady‐state
analysis of auxiliary c...
Figure 9.63 Experimental results of FFT analysis (a) with
decoupling functio...
Figure 9.64 Experimental results of the actual grid voltage,
the actual grid...
Figure 9.65 Experimental results of the dynamic response
(a) main circuit; (...
Figure 9.66 Experimental results of the dynamic response
(a) with CRL; (b) w...
Figure 9.67 System configuration of the CDFIG in wind
power generation.
Figure 9.68 Equivalent circuit of the CDFIG based on the
single‐phase diagra...
Figure 9.69 Equivalent circuit of the 3 × 3 matrix converter.
Figure 9.70 Block diagram of PTC for the CDFIG.
Figure 9.71 Flowchart of the MPC algorithm.
Figure 9.72 Steady‐state simulation results of the CDFIG
with PTC algorithm....
Figure 9.73 Simulation results of CDFIG under speed
variation.
Figure 9.74 Simulation results of CDFIG under torque step.
Figure 9.75 Schematic diagram of a single‐phase three‐level
T‐type rectifier...
Figure 9.76 The behavior of energy function versus error
variables.
Figure 9.77 Block diagram of the enhanced FCS‐MPC with
T‐type rectifier.
Figure 9.78 Steady‐state results of grid‐voltage (e s ), grid
current (i s ) and...
Figure 9.79 Steady‐state results of grid‐voltage (e s ), grid
current (i s ) and...
 IEEE Press
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Piscataway, NJ 08854
IEEE Press Editorial Board
Sarah Spurgeon, Editor in Chief
Jón Atli Benediktsson Behzad Razavi Jeffrey Reed
Anjan Bose Jim Lyke Diomidis Spinellis
James Duncan Hai Li Adam Drobot
Amin Moeness Brian Johnson Tom Robertazzi
Desineni Subbaram Naidu Ahmet Murat Tekalp
Advanced Control of Power
Converters

Techniques and MATLAB/Simulink

Implementation
Hasan Komurcugil
Eastern Mediterranean University, Turkey

Sertac Bayhan
Hamad Bin Khalifa University, Qatar

Ramon Guzman
Technical University of Catalonia, Spain

Mariusz Malinowski
Warsaw University of Technology, Poland

Haitham Abu‐Rub
Texas A&M University, Qatar

IEEE Press Series on Control Systems Theory and

Applications
Maria Domenica Di Benedetto, Series Editor
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About the Authors
Hasan Komurcugil received the BSc, MSc, and PhD degrees from
the Eastern Mediterranean University (EMU), Famagusta, North
Cyprus, Via Mersin 10, Turkey, in 1989, 1991, and 1998, respectively,
all in electrical engineering. Then, he was promoted to assistant
professor in 1998, associate professor in 2002, and full professor in
2008. From 2004 to 2010, he was the Head of the Computer
Engineering Department, EMU. In 2010, he played an active role in
preparing the department's first self‐study report for the use of
Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology. In 2010, he
was elected as the as the Board Member of Higher Education,
Planning, Evaluation, Accreditation and Coordination Council
(YODAK) North Cyprus. From 2010 to 2019, he played active role in
evaluating the universities in North Cyprus. In 2022, he visited Texas
A&M University at Qatar as an associate research scientist in the
electrical and computer engineering program. He has authored more
than 70 science citation index expanded journal papers and 80
conference papers. His research interests include power electronics
and innovative control methods for power converters such as sliding
mode control, Lyapunov‐function‐based control, and model
predictive control. He is a coauthor of one book (Multilevel
Inverters: Introduction and Emergent Topologies) chapter. He is a
member of the IEEE Industrial Electronics Society (IES) and Senior
Member of the IEEE. He served as the Corresponding Guest
Associate Editor of the IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion
and Guest Editor of the IEEE Transactions on Industrial
Informatics. Currently, he serves as the Associate Editor of the IEEE
Transactions on Industrial Electronics and the IEEE Transactions
on Industrial Informatics.
Sertac Bayhan received the MS and PhD degrees in electrical
engineering from Gazi University, Ankara, Turkey in 2008 and 2012,
respectively. His undergraduate degree was also earned at the same
university, and he graduated as valedictorian. He joined Gazi
University as a lecturer in 2008 and was promoted to associate
professor and full professor in 2017 and 2022, respectively. He was
an associate research scientist at Texas A&M University at Qatar
from 2014 to 2018. Currently, Dr. Bayhan is a senior scientist at
Qatar Environment and Energy Research Institute (QEERI) and an
associate professor (joint appointment) in Hamad Bin Khalifa
University's Sustainable Division. His research encompasses power
electronics and their applications in next‐generation power and
energy systems, including renewable energy integration, electrified
transportation, and demand‐side management.
Dr. Bayhan is the recipient of many prestigious international awards,
such as the Teaching Excellence Award in recognition of outstanding
teaching in Texas A&M University at Qatar in 2022, Best Paper
awards in the 3rd International Conference on Smart Grid and
Renewable Energy, March 20–22, 2022, Doha/Qatar and 10th
International Conference on Renewable Energy Research and
Applications, September 26–29, 2021, Istanbul/Turkey, the
Research Fellow Excellence Award in recognition of his research
achievements and exceptional contributions to the Texas A&M
University at Qatar in 2018. He has acquired $13M in research
funding and published more than 170 papers in mostly prestigious
IEEE journals and conferences. He is also the coauthor of three
books and six book chapters.
Dr. Bayhan has been active senior member of IEEE. Because of the
visibility of his research, he has been recently elected as an energy
cluster delegate of the Industrial Electronics Society (IES). In 2020,
he founded the IES Qatar Section Chapter and is currently its chair.
Furthermore, he currently serves as associate editor of the IEEE
Transactions on Industrial Electronics, IEEE Journal of Emerging
and Selected Topics in Industrial Electronics, IEEE Open Journal of
the Industrial Electronics Society, and IEEE Industrial Electronics
Technology News.
Ramon Guzman received the BSc, MSc, and PhD degrees in
communications engineering from the Unıversıtat Politècnica de
Catalunya (UPC), in 1999, 2004, and 2016, respectively. He was
promoted to assistant professor in 2002 and associate professor in
2016. Currently, he is an associate professor with the department of
automatic control in the Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya. He has
authored more than 40 documents including science citation index
expanded journal papers and conference papers. His research
interests include advanced control methods for power converters
such as sliding mode control, model predictive control, among
others. He is a coauthor of the book (Control Circuits in Power
Electronics) chapter and the book (Communication in Active
Distribution Networks) chapter. He is a member of the IEEE
Industrial Electronics Society (IES) and Senior Member of the IEEE.
Currently, he serves as an associate editor of the IEEE Transactions
on Industrial Electronics.
Mariusz Malinowski received a PhD degree with honors in
Electrical Engineering from the Warsaw University of Technology
(WUT) in 2001. He then attained a habilitation in 2012 and a full
professor title in 2019.
He received the IEEE Industrial Electronics Society (IES) David
Irwin Early Career Award for "Outstanding research and
development of modulation and control for industrial electronics
converters" in 2011, IEEE IES David Bimal Bose Award for Industrial
Electronics Applications in Energy Systems for "Contributions in
control of industrial electronics converters applications in energy
systems" in 2015, and Power Electronics and Motion Control
(PEMC) Istvan Nagy Award in 2021.
Mariusz Malinowski has published many journals and conference
papers and is a co‐author of five books. He has participated in many
research and industrial projects and has been a reviewer and PhD
commission member for numerous PhD theses in Germany, Spain,
Denmark, Australia, India, Switzerland, and Poland.
Mariusz Malinowski's public service includes activity in IEEE, where
he was editor‐in‐chief of IEEE Industrial Electronics Magazine,
associate editor of IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, and
associate editor of IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics.
Mariusz Malinowski is currently the past chair of the IEEE Poland
Section and president of the IEEE Industrial Electronics Society. He
has an IEEE Fellow status.
Mariusz Malinowski participated in the development of technologies
that received many prizes e.g. three times recognition in the
competition Polish Product of the Future organized by the Polish
Agency for Enterprise Development (PARP), the Grand Prix
Exhibition of Innovations in Geneva (Gold Medal) and the
Exhibition in Brussels “Eureco” (Bronze Medal).
Mariusz Malinowski was visiting scholar and professor in the
following institutions: Aalborg University (Denmark), University of
Nevada (Reno, USA), Technical University of Berlin (Germany),
Universidad Tecnica Federico Santa Marıa (Valparaıso, Chile),
ENSEEIHT ‐ Laplace, Toulouse (France), and ETH Zurich
(Switzerland).
Haitham Abu‐Rub is a full professor holding two PhDs from
Gdansk University of Technology (1995) and from Gdansk University
(2004). Dr. Abu Rub has long teaching and research experiences at
many universities in many countries including Qatar, Poland,
Palestine, USA, and Germany.
Since 2006, Dr. Abu‐Rub has been associated with Texas A&M
University at Qatar, where he has served for five years as the chair of
Electrical and Computer Engineering Program and has been serving
as the managing director of the Smart Grid Center at the same
university.
His main research interests are energy conversion systems, smart
grid, renewable energy systems, electric drives, and power electronic
converters.
Dr. Abu‐Rub is the recipient of many prestigious international
awards and recognitions, such as the American Fulbright
Scholarship and the German Alexander von Humboldt Fellowship.
He has co‐authored around 400 journal and conference papers, five
books, and five book chapters. Dr. Abu‐Rub is an IEEE fellow and co‐
editor in chief of the IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics.
List of Abbreviations
AC
Alternating Current
ADC
Analog Digital Converter
BDFIG
Brushless Doubly Fed Induction Generator
CCSMPC
Continuous Control Set Model Predictive Control
CDFIG
Cascaded Doubly Fed Induction Generator
CM
Control Machine
CMV
Common Mode Voltage
CPL
Constant Power Load
CRL
Constant Resistive Load
DC
Direct Current
DG
Distributed Generation
DLQR
Discrete Linear Quadratic Regulator
DPC
Direct Power Control
DSP
Digital Signal Processor
EKF
Extended Kalman Filter
EV
Electric Vehicle
FCS
Finite Control Set
FCSMPC
Finite control set model predictive control
FPGA
Field Programmable Gate Array
HM
Hysteresis Modulation
IGBT
Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor
ISMC
Integral Sliding Mode Control
KF
Kalman Filter
KKT
Karush–Kuhn–Tucker
MCU
Microcontroller unit
MIMO
Multi‐Input Multi‐Output
MIPS
Millions Instructions Per Second
MOSFET
Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor
MPC
Model Predictive Control
MRAS
Model Reference Adaptive System
NPC
Neutral Point Clamped
PCC
Point of Common Coupling
PI
Proportional Integral
PID
Proportional Integral Derivative
PLL
Phase‐Locked Loop
PM
Power Machine
PR
Proportional Resonant
PTC
Predictive Torque Control
PV
Photovoltaic
PWM
Pulse Width Modulation
qZS
Quasi Z Source
qZSI
Quasi Z Source Inverter
RMS
Root Mean Square
SAPF
Shunt Active Power Filter
SDA
Switching Decision Algorithm
SEPIC
Single‐Ended Primary‐Inductor Converters
SISO
Single‐Input Single‐Output
SMC
Sliding Mode Control
Space
Vector Modulation
SPWM
Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation
STA
Super Twisting Algorithm
TDVR
Transformerless Dynamic Voltage Restorer
THD
Total Harmonic Distortion
TSMC
Terminal Sliding Mode Control
UPFR
Unity Power Factor Rectifier
UPS
Uninterruptible Power Supply
VFD
Variable Frequency Drive
VOC
Voltage Oriented Control
VSI
Voltage Source Inverter
VSS
Variable Structure System
WF
Weighting Factor
Preface
Power electronics converters play an important role in every stage of
today's modernized world including computers, smart home
systems, electric vehicles, airplanes, trains, marine electrical
systems, microgrids, robots, renewable energy source integration
systems, residential, and many industrial applications. The main
function of a power converter is to achieve DC–DC, DC–AC, AC–DC,
and AC–AC power conversion with high performance in terms of
efficiency, stability, robustness, reduced complexity, and low cost. A
power converter consists of switching devices and diodes, which are
turned on and off based on a control strategy for achieving the
desired power conversion performance. Hence, the control of power
converters is the key point in achieving the desired target.
The traditional control techniques that are based on the linearized
model (small‐signal model) of converter offer satisfactory
performance around the operating point. However, these control
strategies fail in achieving the desired performance away from the
operating point. In the last two decades, many advanced nonlinear
control strategies, such as sliding mode control, Lyapunov function‐
based control, and model predictive control, have received
significant attention of many researchers and practicing engineers.
The effectiveness of these control methods has been proved in
literature. Considering the advantages and superiority of nonlinear
control, it is essential and timely to write a comprehensive book to
present the fundamental ideas, design guidelines, mathematical
modeling, and MATLAB®\Simulink®‐based simulation of these
advanced control strategies for various power converters employed
in many applications. Thus, we decided to write this book to cover
the advanced nonlinear control methods of power electronic
converters in a single source. The book provides a unique
combination of the advanced nonlinear control methods mentioned
above for various power converters and applications. Furthermore,
each control method is supported by simulation examples along with
MATLAB®\Simulink® models, which will make the book of high
benefit for researchers, engineering professionals, and
undergraduate/graduate students in electrical engineering and
mechatronics areas.
This book has nine chapters that can be divided into four parts. In
the first part, a brief introduction of sliding mode control, Lyapunov
function‐based control, and model predictive control methods is
presented (Chapters 1 and 2). In the second part, design guidelines of
these control methods are presented in detail (Chapters 3–5). Third
part presents a tutorial on physical modeling and experimental
verification using MATLAB®\Simulink® (Chapter 6). Finally, case
studies of various power converter applications are given in the
fourth part (Chapters 7–9). These case studies are mainly based on
our own research work available in literature. We have carefully
selected each case study to cover a wide range of converter
applications. All Simulink models referred to in the case studies are
provided as supplementary material to be downloaded from the web
site provided by the publisher. These MATLAB®\Simulink® models
will be very helpful in learning the basics of these control methods.
In this respect, we believe that this book fills the gap between theory
and practice and provides practical guidance to the researchers,
graduate and senior undergraduate students, and practicing
engineers for designing and developing these advanced control
methods using MATLAB®\Simulink®.
Acknowledgment
We would like to take this opportunity to express our sincere
appreciation to all the people who were directly or indirectly helpful
in making this book a reality. We emphasize that portions of the
book appeared in earlier forms as journal papers and conference
papers with some of our students and colleagues. Due to this fact,
our special thanks go to all of them.
We are grateful to the Qatar National Research Fund (a member of
Qatar Foundation) for funding many of the research projects, whose
outcomes helped us in preparing major part of this book. Chapters
1–4 for NPRP grant (NPRP12S‐0226‐190158), Chapters 7 and 8 for
NPRP grant (NPRP12C‐33905‐SP‐220), and Chapters 5, 6, and 9 for
NPRP grant (NPRP12S‐0214‐190083). The statements made herein
are solely the responsibility of the authors.
This work was supported in part by the OPUS program of the
National Science Centre of Poland under Grant NCN
2018/31/B/ST7/00954.
This work is also supported in part by the R+D+i project PID2021‐
122835OB‐C21, financed by MCIN/AEI/10.13039/501000011033
and FEDER “A way of making Europe.”
Also, we appreciate the help from many colleagues for providing
constructive feedback on the material and for editing. Particular
appreciation goes to Dr. Naki Guler from Gazi University, Turkey, for
his great help not only in drawing many of the figures but also in
creating some of the MATLAB®\Simulink® models.
Finally, we are indebted to our families for their continued support,
endless patience, a wonderful working environment at home,
especially during the difficult time of the COVID‐19 pandemic, and
encouragement, without which this book would not have been
completed.
Hasan Komurcugil
Sertac Bayhan
Ramon Guzman
Mariusz Malinowski
Haitham Abu‐Rub
About the Companion Website

This book is accompanied by the companion website:

www.wiley.com/go/komurcugil/advancedcontrolofpowerc
onverters
The website includes case studies of Simulink model.
1
Introduction
1.1 General Remarks
Power electronics converters are widely utilized in almost every
aspect of todays' modernized world including computers, smart
home systems, electric vehicles (EVs), trains, marine, aircrafts,
microgrids, robots, renewable energy conversion and integration,
and many industrial applications. The main function of a power
converter is to convert the electrical power from one form to the
other [1]. In general, there are four different categories of power
converters: DC–DC, AC–DC, DC–AC, and AC–AC. In each category,
various converter topologies have been developed to meet the
desired conversion and application objectives. For instance, when
the photovoltaic (PV) energy is to be converted and injected into the
grid, a DC–DC boost converter is connected between the PV panel
and DC–AC inverter to ensure a constant inverter input voltage and
to possibly track the panel's maximum power point. The necessity of
DC–DC boost converter in such application arises due to the buck
operation of the inverter (i.e. DC input voltage is greater than the
amplitude of its AC voltage). On the other hand, an AC–DC converter
(usually referred to as rectifier) is used in an electric vehicle (EV)
charging system to convert the grid's AC voltage to DC such that the
battery can be charged. Another example is the use of series active
filter (usually referred to as dynamic voltage restorer) in the
protection of sensitive loads (i.e. medical equipment in the hospitals,
data centers, and so on) against voltage sags, and voltage swells in
the grid voltage. When such voltage variations occur in the grid, the
series active filter, which is built using a DC–AC inverter, generates
and injects the required compensation voltage to the point of
common coupling such that the sensitive load voltage is always kept
at the desired value. Similar examples can be given for the other
converter categories.
Thus, considering the importance of today's energy demand and the
need for clean and reliable resources, the use of power electronics
has increased tremendously. As such, the performance of the power
converters used in these applications has gained utmost importance.
In most of the power electronics‐related applications, closed‐loop
control is essential to keep the voltage or current at reference values
under various conditions, which include load changes, grid voltage
deterioration (voltage sags, voltage swells, and distorted grid
voltages), and parameter variations, which occur because of aging
and operating conditions. More importantly, the stability of closed‐
loop system should not be jeopardized under these situations. For
this reason, the design of a closed‐loop system that responds to these
challenges is an essential and difficult task. First of all, it should be
noted that the design of closed‐loop control for power electronics
converters requires a deep knowledge in many areas such as circuit
analysis, advanced mathematics, modeling, control systems, and
power electronics. In this regard, this chapter starts with the
introduction of simplest closed‐loop control for power converters.
Then, mathematical modeling, basic control objectives, and
performance evaluation are explained briefly. Hence, the reader is
urged to refresh or gain further basic information in the areas of
control theory and power electronics converters from the literature.
This book is primarily concerned with advanced nonlinear control of
power converters. A closed‐loop control is referred to as nonlinear
control if it contains at least one nonlinear component. Nonlinear
control of power converters received attention of many researchers
in the last two decades. The main reason of this popularity comes
from the advantages over linear control methods, which lack
guaranteed stability in large operation range of the converters; facing
hard nonlinearities (saturation, dead‐zone, backlash, and hysteresis),
which cannot be approximated linearly; and having model
uncertainties, which are assumed to be known when designing the
linear controller. Whereas the nonlinear control is able to cope with
the problems mentioned above. In this book, sliding mode control,
Lyapunov function‐based control, and model predictive control
methodologies are explained for power converters. Although these
nonlinear control methods are not new, their application in power
converter control was limited in the past due to the required
extensive computations. Since last decade, the advent of fast
implementation platforms such as digital signal processors and field
programmable gate arrays (FPGAs) relieved the computation burden
issue. Therefore, compiling the design and application of the
nonlinear control methods mentioned above in a single book is very
beneficial for the interested readers.

1.2 Basic Closed‐Loop Control for Power

Converters
A basic single input single output (SISO) closed‐loop power
converter control system is illustrated in Figure 1.1. Here, the main
aim is to control the power converter in order to accomplish specific
desired control objectives (see Section 1.4). Clearly, the output signal
(i.e. voltage or current) is measured and compared with the reference
one to produce an error signal. This error signal is applied to the
controller. Then, the controller generates modulation signal from
which the pulse width modulation (PWM) signals are generated.
These signals are applied to the gates of switching devices (i.e.
insulated gate bipolar transistors [IGBTs], metal oxide
semiconductor field effect transistors [MOSFETs], etc.) in the power
converter. Upon the application of PWM signals, the switching
devices are turned on and off. The value of voltage (or current) in the
converter is changed by these switching actions. If the controller is
well designed, the error signal is continually reduced until the output
signal tracks the reference signal in the steady state. On the other
hand, the number of loops in a control system may be more than one
depending on the converter topology and the application area.
Figure 1.1 Basic closed‐loop power converter control system. (a)
With modulation, (b) without modulation.
Numerous control approaches have been developed for the power
converters. Each control approach has its own advantages and
disadvantages concerning with the controller complexity and cost,
dynamic response, steady‐state error, robustness to parameter
variations, and closed‐loop stability. It is worth to mention that the
discussion in this book is based on the introduction, design and
application of sliding mode control, Lyapunov function‐based
control, and model predictive control methods used in various power
converters. While the sliding mode control and Lyapunov function‐
based control methods require a modulation block as shown in
Figure 1.1a, the finite control set model predictive control (FCS‐MPC)
method does not require a modulation as shown in Figure 1.1b. The
design of sliding mode control, Lyapunov function‐based control,
and model predictive control are explained in Chapters 3, 4, and 5,
respectively. The following sections intend to present background
information regarding the steps that should be taken into
consideration when designing a controller. Even though these steps
are well known in the modern control systems area, the readers, who
are not fully familiar with these, will gain a knowledge before
learning each of these control methods.

1.3 Mathematical Modeling of Power

Converters
Usually, an accurate mathematical model of the converter is
necessary when there is a need to design its controller. As it will be
discussed in Chapter 3, the sliding mode control does not require
mathematical modeling of the converter. Whereas the Lyapunov
function‐based control and model predictive control approaches rely
on the mathematical model of the power converter as will be
explained in Chapters 4 and 5, respectively. However, a perfect
mathematical model, which represents all dynamics of the converter,
is not possible in practice due to the certain noises (i.e. measurement
noise) and possible failure conditions. There are two types of
mathematical models in the continuous time: linear models and
nonlinear models. The behavior of a linear converter system is
usually described by linear differential equations written in the state‐
space form as follows:

(1.1)

where x represents the state vector, u represents the input vector, y

represents the output vector, and A, B, C, and D represent the
matrices with appropriate dimension. Such models are suitable to be
used with the root‐locus method, state‐space method, and frequency
domain design methods such as Bode plot and Nyquist method. As
will be discussed in Chapter 4, the Lyapunov function‐based control
method uses the linear converter system model in (1.1). On the other
hand, the model predictive control method (see Chapters 5 and 9)
uses discrete‐time version of the continuous‐time model in (1.1) as
given below:

(1.2)

where Ad, Bd, Cd, and Dd are discretized matrices of A, B, C, and D,

respectively. The sampling instants are represented by k and k + 1. It
is worth to mention that the sampling period Ts is omitted in (1.2)
for brevity. In general, the discretization of (1.1) can be based on the
integral approximation method or Euler's method. In the case of
integral approximation method, the input is assumed to be constant
between sampling instants k and k + 1 (i.e. u(t) = u(kTs), kTs ≤ t ≤ (k
+ 1)Ts), which results in following discrete‐time state equation:

(1.3)

Note that (1.3) is same as first equation of (1.2) if Ts is omitted.

Comparing (1.2) and (1.3), it can be seen that

(1.4)

The discrete‐time output equation can be derived in the same way. In

the case of Euler's method, the first derivative of state equation at t =
kTs is approximated as follows:
Other documents randomly have
different content
He said the last words quickly, and pulled her to the
roadside, where a big tree grew which threw a deep
shadow. He stood listening.

“It’s wheels!” he whispered. “There is a buggy coming.

We mustn’t let any one see us.”

It was a buggy, they could tell that by the lightness of

the wheels, and it was coming rapidly. They could hear
voices—men’s voices—and they drew back and stood
very close to each other.

“Do you think they have found out, and sent some one
after us?” whispered Meg, breathlessly.

“No,” answered Robin, though his heart beat like a

triphammer. “No, no, no.”

The wheels drew nearer, and they heard one of the men
speaking.

“Chicago by sunrise,” he was saying, “and what I don’t 75

see of it won’t be worth seeing.”

The next minute the fast-trotting horse spun swiftly

down the road, and carried the voices out of hearing.
Meg and Robin drew twin sighs of relief. Robin spoke
first.

“It is some one who is going to the Fair,” he said.

“Perhaps we shall see him in the train,” said Meg.

“I dare say we shall,” said Robin. “It was nobody who

knows us. I didn’t know his voice. Meg, let’s take hands
again, and walk quickly; we might lose the train.”
They did not talk much more, but walked briskly. They
had done a good day’s work before they set out, and
were rather tired, but they did not lag on that account.
Sometimes Meg took a turn at carrying the satchel, so
that Robin might rest his arm. It was not heavy, and she
was as strong for a girl as he was for a boy.

At last they reached the dépôt. There were a number of

people waiting on the platform to catch the train to
Chicago, and there were several vehicles outside. They
passed one which was a buggy, and Meg gave Robin a
nudge with her elbow.

“Perhaps that belongs to our man,” she said.

There were people enough before the office to give the 76

ticket-agent plenty to do. Robin’s heart quickened a little
as he passed by with the group of maturer people, but
no one seemed to observe him particularly, and he
returned to Meg with the precious bits of pasteboard
held very tight in his hand.

Meg had waited alone in an unlighted corner, and when

she saw him coming she came forward to meet him.

“Have you got them?” she said. “Did any one look at
you or say anything?”

“Yes, I got them,” Robin answered. “And, I’ll tell you

what, Meg, these people are nearly all going just where
we are going, and they are so busy thinking about it,
and attending to themselves, that they haven’t any time
to watch any one else. That’s one good thing.”

“And the nearer we get to Chicago,” Meg said, “the

more people there will be, and the more they will have
to think of. And at that beautiful place, where there is so
much to see, who will look at two children? I don’t
believe we shall have any trouble at all.”

It really did not seem likely that they would, but it

happened, by a curious coincidence, that within a very
few minutes they saw somebody looking at them.

The train was not due for ten minutes, and there were a 77
few people who, being too restless to sit in the waiting-
rooms, walked up and down on the platform. Most of
these were men, and there were two men who walked
farther than the others did, and so neared the place
where Robin and Meg stood in the shadow. One was a
young man, and seemed to be listening to instructions
his companion, who was older, was giving him, in a
rapid, abrupt sort of voice. This companion, who might
have been his employer, was a man of middle age. He
was robust of figure and had a clean-cut face, with a
certain effect of strong good looks. It was, perhaps,
rather a hard face, but it was a face one would look at
more than once; and he too, oddly enough, had a
square jaw and straight black brows. But it was his
voice which first attracted Robin and Meg as he neared
them, talking.

“It’s the man in the buggy,” whispered Robin. “Don’t you

know his voice again?” and they watched him with deep
interest.

He passed them once, without seeming to see them at

all. He was explaining something to his companion. The
second time he drew near he chanced to look up, and
his eye fell on them. It did not rest on them more than
a second, and he went on speaking. The next time he
neared their part of the platform he turned his glance
towards them, as they stood close together. It was as if
involuntarily he glanced to see if they were still where
they had been before.

“A pair of children,” they heard him say, as if the fleeting 78

impression of their presence arrested his train of
thought for a second. “Look as if no one was with
them.”

He merely made the comment in passing, and returned

to his subject the next second; but Meg and Robin
heard him, and drew farther back into the shadow.

But it was not necessary to stand there much longer.

They heard a familiar sound in the distance, the shrill
cry of the incoming train—the beloved giant who was to
carry them to fairyland; the people began to flock out of
the waiting-rooms with packages and valises and
umbrellas in hand; the porters suddenly became alert,
and hurried about attending to their duties; the
delightful roar drew nearer and louder, and began to
shake the earth; it grew louder still, a bell began to
make a cheerful tolling, people were rushing to and fro;
Meg and Robin rushed with them, and the train was
panting in the dépôt.

It was even more thrilling than the children had thought

it would be. They had travelled so very little, and did
not know exactly where to go. It might not be the right
train even. They did not know how long it would wait. It
might rush away again before they could get on. People
seemed in such a hurry and so excited. As they hurried
along they found themselves being pushed and jostled,
before the steps of one of the cars a conductor stood,
whom people kept showing tickets to. There were
several persons round him when Robin and Meg
reached the place where he stood. People kept asking
him things, and sometimes he passed them on, and
sometimes let them go into his car.
“IS THIS THE TRAIN TO CHICAGO?” SAID ROBIN.

“Is this the train to Chicago?” said Robin, breathlessly.

But he was so much less than the other people, and the 81
man was so busy, he did not hear him.

Robin tried to get nearer.

“Is this the Chicago train, sir?” he said, a little louder.

He had had to press by a man whom he had been too

excited to see, and the man looked down, and spoke to
him.

“Chicago train?” he said, in a voice which was abrupt,

without being ill-natured. “Yes, you’re all right. Got your
sleeping tickets?”

Robin looked up at him quickly. He knew the voice, and

was vaguely glad to hear it. He and Meg had never
been in a sleeping-car in their lives, and he did not quite
understand. He held out his tickets.

“We are going to sleep on the train,” he said; “but we

have nothing but these.”

“Next car but two, then,” he said; “and you’d better 82

hurry.”

And when both voices thanked him at once, and the two
caught each other’s hands and ran towards their car, he
looked after them and laughed.

“I’m blessed if they’re not by themselves,” he said,

watching them as they scrambled up the steps. “And
they’re going to the Fair, I’ll bet a dollar. That’s Young
America, and no mistake!”

83
 IX

The car was quite crowded. There were more people

than themselves who were going to the Fair and were
obliged to economize. When the children entered, and
looked about them in the dim light, they thought at first
that all the seats were full. People seemed to be
huddled up asleep or sitting up awake in all of them.
Everybody had been trying to get to sleep, at least, and
the twins found themselves making their whispers even
lower than before.

“I think there is a seat empty just behind that very fat

lady,” Meg whispered.

It was at the end of the car, and they went to it, and
found she was right. They took possession of it quietly,
putting their satchel under the seat.

“It seems so still,” said Meg, “I feel as if I was in

somebody’s bedroom. The sound of the wheels makes it
seem all the quieter. It’s as if we were shut in by the
noise.”

“We mustn’t talk,” said Robin, “or we shall waken the

people. Can you go to sleep, Meg?”

84
“I can if I can stop thinking,” she answered, with a
joyful sigh. “I’m very tired; but the wheels keep saying,
over and over again, ‘We’re going—we’re going—we’re
going.’ It’s just as if they were talking. Don’t you hear
them?”

“Yes, I do. Do they say that to you, too? But we mustn’t

listen,” Robin whispered back. “If we do we shall not go
to sleep, and then we shall be too tired to walk about.
Let’s put our heads down, and shut our eyes, Meg.”

“Well, let’s,” said Meg.

She curled herself up on the seat, and put her head into
the corner.

“If you lean against me, Rob,” she said, “it will be softer.
We can take turns.”

They changed position a little two or three times, but

they were worn out with the day’s work, and their walk,
and the excitement, and the motion of the train seemed
like a sort of rocking which lulled them. Gradually their
muscles relaxed and they settled down, though, after
they had done so, Meg spoke once, drowsily.

“Rob,” she said, “did you see that was our man?”

“Yes,” answered Rob, very sleepily indeed, “and he 85

looked as if he knew us.”

* * * * * * * *

If they had been less young, or if they had been less

tired, they might have found themselves awake a good
many times during the night. But they were such
children, and, now that the great step was taken, were
so happy, that the soft, deep sleepiness of youth
descended upon and overpowered them. Once or twice
during the night they stirred, wakened for a dreamy,
blissful moment by some sound of a door shutting, or a
conductor passing through. But they were only
conscious of a delicious sense of strangeness, of the
stillness of the car full of sleepers, of the half-realized
delight of feeling themselves carried along through the
unknown country, and of the rattle of the wheels, which
never ceased saying rhythmically, “We’re going—we’re
going—we’re going!”

Ah! what a night of dreams and new, vague sensations,

to be remembered always! Ah! that heavenly sense of
joy to come, and adventure, and young hopefulness and
imagining! Were there many others carried towards the
City Beautiful that night who bore with them the same
rapture of longing and belief; who saw with such
innocent clearness only the fair and splendid thought
which had created it, and were so innocently blind to
any shadow of sordidness or mere worldly interest
touching its white walls? And after the passing of this
wonderful night, what a wakening in the morning, at
the first rosiness of dawn, when all the other occupants
of the car were still asleep, or restlessly trying to be at
ease!

It was as if they both wakened at almost the same 86

moment. The first shaft of early sunlight streaming in
the window touched Meg’s eyelids, and she slowly
opened them. Then something joyous and exultant
rushed in upon her heart, and she sat upright. And
Robin sat up too, and they looked at each other.

“It’s the Day, Meg!” said Robin. “It’s the Day!” Meg
caught her breath.
“And nothing has stopped us,” she said. “And we are
getting nearer and nearer. Rob, let us look out of the
window.”

For a while they looked out, pressed close together, and

full of such ecstasy of delight in the strangeness of
everything that at first they did not exchange even their
whispers.

It is rather a good thing to see—rather well worth while

even for a man or woman—the day waking, and waking
the world, as one is borne swiftly through the morning
light, and one looks out of a car window. What it was to
these two children only those who remember the
children who were themselves long ago can realize at
all. The country went hurrying past them, making
curious sudden revelations and giving half-hints in its
haste; prairie and field, farmhouse and wood and village
all wore a strange, exciting, vanishing aspect.

“It seems,” Meg said, “as if it was all going somewhere 87

—in a great hurry—as if it couldn’t wait to let us see it.”

“But we are the ones that are going,” said Rob. “Listen
to the wheels—and we shall soon be there.”

After a while the people who were asleep began to stir

and stretch themselves. Some of them looked cross,
and some looked tired. The very fat lady in the seat
before them had a coal smut on her nose.

“Robin,” said Meg, after looking at her seriously a

moment, “let’s get our towel out of the bag and wet it
and wash our faces.”

They had taken the liberty of borrowing a towel from

Aunt Matilda. It was Meg who had thought of it, and it
had, indeed, been an inspiration. Robin wetted two
corners of it, and they made a rigorous if limited toilet.
At least they had no smuts on their noses, and after a
little touching up with the mutual comb and brush, they
looked none the worse for wear. Their plain and
substantial garments were not of the order which has
any special charm to lose.

“And it’s not our clothes that are going to the Fair,” said
Meg, “it’s us!”

And by the time they were in good order, the farms and 88
villages they were flying past had grown nearer
together. The platforms at the dépôts were full of
people who wore a less provincial look; the houses grew
larger and so did the towns; they found themselves
flashing past advertisements of all sorts of things, and
especially of things connected with the Fair.

“You know how we used to play ‘hunt the thimble,’” said

Robin, “and how, when any one came near the place
where it was hidden, we said, ‘Warm—warmer—warmer
still—hot!’ It’s like that now. We have been getting
warmer and warmer every minute, and now we are
getting——”

“We shall be in in a minute,” said a big man at the end

of the car, and he stood up and began to take down his
things.

“Hot,” said Robin, with an excited little laugh. “Meg,

we’re not going—going—going any more. Look out of
the window.”

“We are steaming into the big dépôt,” cried Meg. “How
big it is! What crowds of people! Robin, we are there!”
Robin bent down to pick up their satchel; the people all
rose in their seats and began to move in a mass down
the aisle toward the door. Everybody seemed suddenly
to become eager and in a hurry, as if they thought the
train would begin to move again and carry them away.
Some were expecting friends to meet them, some were
anxious about finding accommodations. Those who
knew each other talked, asked questions over people’s
shoulders, and there was a general anxiety about
valises, parcels, and umbrellas. Robin and Meg were
pressed back into their section by the crowd, against
which they were too young to make headway.

“We shall have to wait until the grown-up people have 89

passed by,” Rob said.

But the crowd in the aisle soon lost its compactness,

and they were able to get out. The porter, who stood on
the platform near the steps, looked at them curiously,
and glanced behind them to see who was with them,
but he said nothing.

It seemed to the two as if all the world must have

poured itself into the big dépôt or be passing through it.
People were rushing about; friends were searching for
one another, pushing their way through the surging
crowd; some were greeting each other with
exclamations and hand-shaking, and stopping up the
way; there was a Babel of voices, a clamor of shouts
within the covered place, and from outside came a roar
of sound rising from the city.

For a few moments Robin and Meg were overwhelmed. 90

They did not quite know what to do; everybody pushed
past and jostled them. No one was ill-natured, but no
one had time to be polite. They were so young and so
strange to all such worlds of excitement and rush,
involuntarily they clutched each other’s hands after their
time-honored fashion, when they were near each other
and overpowered. The human vortex caught them up
and carried them along, not knowing where they were
going.

“We seem so little!” gasped Meg. “There—there are so

many people! Rob, Rob, where are we going?”

Robin had lost his breath too. Suddenly the world

seemed so huge—so huge! Just for a moment he felt
himself turn pale, and he looked at Meg and saw that
she was pale too.

“Everybody is going out of the dépôt,” he said.

“Hold on to me tight, Meg. It will be all right. We shall

get out.”

And so they did. The crowd surged and swayed and

struggled, and before long they saw that it was surging
towards the entrance gate, and it took them with it. Just
as they thrust through they found themselves pushed
against a man, who good-naturedly drew a little back to
save Meg from striking against his valise, which was a
very substantial one. She looked up to thank him, and
gave a little start. It was the man she had called “our
man” the night before, when she spoke of him to Robin.
And he gave them a sharp but friendly nod.

“Hallo!” he exclaimed, “it’s you two again. You are going

to the Fair!”

Robin looked up at his shrewd face with a civil little grin. 91

“Yes, sir; we are,” he answered.

“Hope you’ll enjoy it,” said the man. “Big thing.” And he
was pushed past them and soon lost in the crowd.

92
 X

The crowd in the dépôt surged into the streets, and

melted into and became an addition to the world of
people there. The pavements were moving masses of
human beings, the centres of the streets were
pandemoniums of wagons and vans, street cars, hotel
omnibuses, and carriages. The brilliant morning sunlight
dazzled the children’s eyes; the roar of wheels and the
clamor of car bells, of clattering horses’ feet, of cries
and shouts and passing voices, mingled in a volume of
sound that deafened them. The great tidal wave of
human life and work and pleasure almost took them off
their feet.

They knew too little of cities to have had beforehand 93

any idea of what the overwhelming rush and roar would
be, and what slight straws they would feel themselves
upon the current. If they had been quite ordinary
children, they might well have been frightened. But they
were not ordinary children, little as they were aware of
that important factor in their young lives. They were
awed for this first moment, but, somehow, they were
fascinated as much as they were awed, while they stood
for a brief breathing-space looking on. They did not
know—no child of their ages can possibly know such
things of him or herself—that Nature had made them of
the metal out of which she moulds strong things and
great ones. As they had not comprehended the restless
sense of wrong and misery the careless, unlearning, and
ungrowing life in Aunt Matilda’s world filled them with,
so they did not understand that, because they had been
born creatures who belong to the great moving,
working, venturing world, they were not afraid of it, and
felt their first young face-to-face encounter with it a
thing which thrilled them with an exultant emotion they
could not have explained.

“This is not Aunt Matilda’s world,” said Rob. “It—I

believe it is ours, Meg. Don’t you?”

Meg was staring with entranced eyes at the passing

multitude.

“‘More pilgrims are come to town,’” she said, quoting

the “Pilgrim’s Progress” with a far-off look in her intense
little black-browed face. “You remember what it said,
Rob, ‘Here also all the noise of them that walked in the
streets was, More pilgrims are come to town.’ Oh, isn’t it
like it!”

It was. And the exaltation and thrill of it got into their 94

young blood and made them feel as if they walked on
air, and that every passing human thing meant,
somehow, life and strength to them.

Their appetites were sharpened by the morning air, and

they consulted as to what their breakfast should be.
They had no money to spend at restaurants, and every
penny must be weighed and calculated.

“Let’s walk on,” said Meg, “until we see a bakery that

looks as if it was kept by poor people. Then we can buy
some bread, and eat it with our eggs somewhere.”
“All right,” said Robin.

They marched boldly on. The crowd jostled them, and

there was so much noise that they could hardly hear
each other speak; but ah! how the sun shone, and how
the pennons fluttered and streamed on every side, and
how excited and full of living the people’s faces looked!
It seemed splendid, only to be alive in such a world on
such a morning. The sense of the practical which had
suggested that they should go to a small place led them
into the side streets. They passed all the big shops
without a glance, but at last Meg stooped before a small
one.

“There’s a woman in there,” she said; “I just saw her for

a minute. She has a nice face. She looked as if she
might be good-natured. Let’s go in there, Robin. It’s
quite a small place.”

They went in. It was a small place but a clean one, and 95
the woman had a good-natured face. She was a
German, and was broad and placid and comfortable.
They bought some fresh rolls from her, and as she
served them, and was making the change, Meg watched
her anxiously. She was thinking that she did look very
peaceable, indeed. So, instead of turning away from the
counter, she planted herself directly before her and
asked her a question.

“If you please,” she said, “we have some hard-boiled

eggs to eat with our bread, and we are not going home.
If we are very careful, would you mind if we ate our
breakfast in here, instead of outside? We won’t let any
of the crumbs or shells drop on the floor.”
“You not going home?” said the woman. “You from out
town?”

“Yes,” answered Meg.

“You look like you wass goun to der Fair,” said the
woman, with a good-tempered smile. “Who wass with
you?”

“No one,” said Robin. “We are going alone. But we’re all
right.”

“My crayshious!” said the woman. “But you wass young

for that. But your ’Merican childrens is queer ones. Yes!
You can sit down an’ eat your bregfast. That make no
matter to me if you is careful. You can sit down.”

There were two chairs near a little table, where, 96

perhaps, occasional customers ate buns, and they sat
down to their rolls and eggs and salt, as to a feast.

“I was hungry,” said Rob, cracking his fourth egg.

“So was I!” said Meg, feeling that her fresh roll was very
delicious.

It was a delightful breakfast. The German woman

watched them with placid curiosity as they ate it. She
had been a peasant in her own country, and had lived in
a village among rosy, stout, and bucolic little Peters and
Gretchens, who were not given to enterprise, and the
American child was a revelation to her. And somehow,
also, these two had an attraction all American children
had not. They looked so well able to take care of
themselves, and yet had such good manners and no air
of self-importance at all. They ate their rolls and hard-
boiled eggs with all the gusto of very young appetite,
but they evidently meant to keep their part of the
bargain, and leave her no crumbs and shells to sweep
up. The truth was that they were perfectly honorable
little souls, and had a sense of justice. They were in the
midst of their breakfast, when they were rather startled
by hearing her voice from the end of the counter where
she had been standing, leaning against the wall, her
arms folded.

“You like a cup coffee?” she asked.

 “YOU LIKE A CUP COFFEE?” SHE ASKED.

They both looked round, uncertain what to say, not 99

knowing whether or not that she meant that she sold
coffee. They exchanged rather disturbed glances, and
then Robin answered.

“We can’t afford it, thank you, ma’am,” he said, “we’ve

got so little money.”

“Never mind,” she astonished them by answering, “that

cost me nothing. There some coffee left on the back of
the stove from my man’s bregfast. I give you each a
cup.” And she actually went into the little back room,
and presently brought back two good cups of hot
coffee.

“There, you drink that,” she said, setting them down on

the little table. “If you children goun to der Fair in that
crowd by yourselves, you want something in your
stomachs.”

It was so good—it was so unexpected—it seemed such

luck! They looked at each other with beaming eyes, and
at her with quite disproportionate gratitude. It was
much more than two cups of coffee to them.

“Oh, thank you,” they both exclaimed. “We’re so much

obliged to you, ma’am!”

Their feast seemed to become quite a royal thing. They

never had felt so splendidly fed in their lives. It seemed
as if they had never tasted such coffee.

When the meal was finished, they rose refreshed 100

enough to feel ready for anything. They went up to the
counter and thanked the German woman again. It was
Meg who spoke to her.

“We want to say thank you again,” she said. “We are
very much obliged to you for letting us eat our breakfast
in here. It was so nice to sit down, and the coffee was
so splendid. I dare say we do seem rather young to be
by ourselves, but that makes us all the more thankful.”

“That’s all right,” said the woman. “I hope you don’t get
lost by der Fair—and have good time!”

And then they went forth on their pilgrimage, into the

glorious morning, into the rushing world that seemed so
splendid and so gay—into the fairy-land that only
themselves and those like them could see.

“Isn’t it nice when some one’s kind to you, Rob?” Meg

exclaimed joyfully, when they got into the sunshine.
“Doesn’t it make you feel happy, somehow, not because
they’ve done something, but just because they’ve been
kind?”

“Yes, it does,” answered Rob, stepping out bravely. “And

I’ll tell you what I believe—I believe there are a lot of
kind people in the world.”

“So do I,” said Meg. “I believe they’re in it even when

we don’t see them.”

And all the more, with springing steps and brave young
faces, they walked on their way to fairy-land.

They had talked it all over—how they would enter their 101
City Beautiful. It would be no light thing to them, their
entrance into it. They were innocently epicurean about
it, and wanted to see it at the very first in all its
loveliness. They knew that there were gates of entrance
here and there, through which thousands poured each
day; but Meg had a fancy of her own, founded, of
course, upon that other progress of the Pilgrim’s.
“Robin,” she said, “oh, we must go in by the water, just
like those other pilgrims who came to town. You know
that part at the last where it says, ‘And so many went
over the water and were let in at the golden gates to-
day.’ Let us go over the water and be let in at the
golden gates. But the water we shall go over won’t be
dark and bitter; it will be blue and splendid, and the sun
will be shining everywhere. Ah, Rob, how can it be true
that we are here!”

They knew all about the great arch of entrance and 102
stately peristyle. They had read in the newspapers all
about its height and the height of the statues adorning
it; they knew how many columns formed the peristyle,
but it was not height or breadth or depth or width they
remembered. The picture which remained with them
and haunted them like a fair dream was of a white and
splendid archway, crowned with one of the great stories
of the world in marble—the triumph of the man in
whom the god was so strong that his dreams, the
working of his mind, his strength, his courage, his
suffering, wrested from the silence of the Unknown a
new and splendid world. It was this great white arch
they always thought of, with this precious marble story
crowning it, the blue, blue water spread before the
stately columns at its side, and the City Beautiful within
the courts it guarded. And it was to this they were going
when they found their way to the boat which would take
them to it.

It was such a heavenly day of June! The water was so

amethystine, the sky such a vault of rapture! What did it
matter to them that they were jostled and crowded, and
counted for nothing among those about them? What did
it matter that there were often near them common
faces, speaking of nothing but common, stupid pleasure
or common sharpness and greed? What did it matter
that scarcely any one saw what they saw, or, seeing it,
realized its splendid, hopeful meaning? Little recked
they of anything but the entrancement of blue sky and
water, and the City Beautiful they were drawing near to.

When first out of the blueness there rose the fair 103
shadow of the whiteness, they sprang from their seats,
and, hand in hand, made their way to the side, and
there stood watching, as silent as if they did not dare to
speak lest it should melt away; and from a fair white
spirit it grew to a real thing—more white, more fair,
more stately, and more an enchanted thing than even
they had believed or hoped.

And the crowd surged about them, and women

exclaimed and men talked, and there was a rushing to
and fro, and the ringing of a bell, and movement and
action and excitement were on every side. But
somehow these two children stood hand in hand and
only looked.

And their dream had come true, though it had been a

child’s dream of an enchanted thing.

104
 XI

They passed beneath the snow-white stateliness of the

great arch, still hand in hand, and silent. They walked
softly, almost as if they felt themselves treading upon
holy ground. To their youth and unworn souls it was like
holy ground, they had so dreamed of it, they had so
longed for it, it had been so mingled in their minds with
the story of a city not of this world.

And they stood within the court beyond the archway,

the fair and noble colonnade, its sweep of columns,
statue-crowned, behind them, the wonder of the City
Beautiful spread before. The water of blue lagoons
lapped the bases of white palaces, as if with a caress of
homage to their beauty. On every side these marvels
stood; everywhere there was the green of sward and
broad-leaved plants, the sapphire of water, the flood of
color and human life passing by, and above it all and
enclosing it, the warm, deep, splendid blueness of the
summer sky.

It was so white—it was so full of the marvel of color—it

was so strange—it was so radiant and unearthly in its
beauty.

The two children only stood still and gazed and gazed, 105
with widening eyes and parted lips. They could not have
moved about at first; they only stood and lost
themselves as in a dream.

Meg was still for so long that Robin, turning slowly to

look at her at last, was rather awed.

“Meg!” he said; “Meg!”

“Yes,” she answered, in a voice only half awake.

“Meg! Meg! We are there!”

“I know,” said Meg. “Only it is so like—that other City—

that it seems as if——” She gave a queer little laugh,
and turned to look at him. “Rob,” she said, “perhaps we
are dead, and have just wakened up.”

That brought them back to earth. They laughed

together. No, they were not dead. They were breathless
and uplifted by an ecstasy, but they had never been so
fully alive before. It seemed as if they were in the
centre of the world, and the world was such a bright
and radiant and beautiful place as they had never
dreamed of.

“Where shall we go first?” said Meg. “What shall we

do?”

But it was so difficult to decide that. It did not seem 106

possible to make a plan and follow it. It was not
possible for them, at least. They were too happy and
too young. Surely visitors to fairy-land could not make
plans! They gave themselves up to the spell, and went
where fancy led them. And it led them far, and through
strange beauties, which seemed like dreams come true.
They wandered down broad pathways, past green
sward, waving palms, glowing masses of flowers, white
balustrades bordering lagoons lightly ruffled by a
moment’s wind. Wonderful statues stood on silent
guard, sometimes in groups, sometimes majestic
colossal figures.

“They look as if they were all watching the thousands

and thousands go by,” said Robin.

“It seems as if they must be thinking something about it

all,” Meg answered. “It could not be that they could
stand there and look like that and not know.”

It was she who soon after built up for them the only
scheme they made during those enchanted days. It
could scarcely be called a plan of action, it was so much
an outcome of imagination and part of a vision, but it
was a great joy to them through every hour of their
pilgrimage.

Standing upon a fairy bridge, looking over shining

canals crossed by these fairy bridges again and again,
the gold sun lighting snow-white columns, archways,
towers, and minarets, statues and rushing fountains,
flowers and palms, her child eyes filled with a deep,
strange glow of joy and dreaming.

She leaned upon the balustrade in her favorite fashion, 107

her chin upon her hands.

“We need not pretend it is a fairy story, Robin,” she said.

“It is a fairy story, but it is real. Who ever thought a
fairy story could come true? I’ve made up how it came
to be like this.”

“Tell us how,” said Robin, looking over the jewelled

water almost as she did.
“It was like this,” she said. “There was a great Magician
who was the ruler of all the Genii in all the world. They
were all powerful and rich and wonderful magicians, but
he could make them obey him, and give him what they
stored away. And he said: ‘I will build a splendid City,
that all the world shall flock to and wonder at and
remember forever. And in it some of all the things in the
world shall be seen, so that the people who see it shall
learn what the world is like—how huge it is, and what
wisdom it has in it, and what wonders! And it will make
them know what they are like themselves, because the
wonders will be made by hands and feet and brains just
like their own. And so they will understand how strong
they are—if they only knew it—and it will give them
courage and fill them with thoughts.”

She stopped a moment, and Rob pushed her gently with

his elbow.

“Go on,” he said, “I like it. It sounds quite true. What 108
else?”

“And he called all the Genii together and called them by

their names. There was one who was the king of all the
pictures and statues, and the people who worked at
making them. They did not know they had a Genius, but
they had, and he put visions into their heads, and made
them feel restless until they had worked them out into
statues and paintings. And the Great Genius said to
him: ‘You must build a palace for your people, and make
them pour their finest work into it; and all the people
who are made to be your workers, whether they know it
or not, will look at your palace and see what other ones
have done, and wonder if they cannot do it themselves.’
And there was a huge, huge Genius who was made of
steel and iron and gold and silver and wheels, and the
Magician said to him: ‘Build a great palace, and make
your workers fill it with all the machines and marvels
they have made, and all who see will know what
wonders can be done, and feel that there is no wonder
that isn’t done that is too great for human beings to
plan.’ And there was a Genius of the strange countries,
and one who knew all the plants and flowers and trees
that grew, and one who lived at the bottom of the sea
and knew the fishes by name and strode about among
them. And each one was commanded to build a palace
or to make his people work, and they grew so
interested that in the end each one wanted his palace
and his people to be the most wonderful of all. And so
the City was built, and we are in it, Robin, though we
are only twelve years old, and nobody cares about us.”

“Yes,” said Robin, “and the City is as much ours as if we 109

were the Magician himself. Meg, who was the Magician?
What was he?”

“I don’t know,” said Meg. “Nobody knows. He is that—

that——” She gave a sudden, queer little touch to her
forehead and one to her side. “That, you know, Rob!
The thing that thinks—and makes us want to do things
and be things. Don’t you suppose so, Rob?”

“The thing that made us want so to come here that we

could not bear not to come?” said Robin. “The thing
that makes you make up stories about everything, and
always have queer thoughts?”

“Yes—that!” said Meg. “And every one has some of it;

and there are such millions of people, and so there is
enough to make the Great Magician. Robin, come along;
let us go to the palace the picture Genius built, and see
what his people put in it. Let us be part of the fairy
story when we go anywhere. It will make it beautiful.”

They took their fairy story with them and went their 110
way. They made it as much the way of a fairy story as
possible. They found a gondola with a rich-hued, gay-
scarfed gondolier, and took their places.

“Now we are in Venice,” Meg said, as they shot

smoothly out upon the lagoon. “We can be in any
country we like. Now we are in Venice.”

Their gondola stopped, and lay rocking on the lagoon

before the palace’s broad white steps. They mounted
them, and entered into a rich, glowing world, all
unknown.

They knew little of pictures, they knew nothing of

statuary, but they went from room to room, throbbing
with enjoyment. They stopped before beautiful faces
and happy scenes, and vaguely smiled, though they did
not know they were smiling; they lingered before faces
and figures that were sad, and their own dark little
faces grew soft and grave. They could not afford to buy
a catalogue, so they could only look and pity and delight
or wonder.

“We must make up the stories and thoughts of them

ourselves,” Robin said. “Let’s take it in turns, Meg. Yours
will be the best ones, of course.”
“NOW WE ARE IN VENICE.”
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