ChE 205 Fluid Mechanics

Module 10

L2/TII Chemical Engineering

Bangladesh University of Engineering & Technology

Topic: Equations of Continuity and Motion

Course Instructor:
Dr. Iftheker Ahmed Khan

@Iftheker A Khan ChE 205 January 2024 Semester 1

Summary
• Conservation of Mass and Momentum
• Transport of Momentum: Convective + Molecular
• Equation of Continuity
• Equation of Motion
• The Equations of Change for Isothermal Systems

2
Three levels for the study of transport phenomena

• Macroscopic Level
• Microscopic Level: Equation
of Change
• Molecular Level:
fundamental understanding
of the mechanism of
momentum, energy and
mass transport in terms of
molecular structure and
Length of scale for a typical industrial problem?? intermolecular forces
Molecular Mechanism
• Molecular mechanism for various transport phenomena are closely related.
All molecules are made up of molecules
The same molecular motions and interactions are responsible for:
• Viscosity,
• thermal conductivity and
• Diffusivity
Conservation Laws: Molecular Collision
Sum of Kinetic and Internal Energy is conserved

Energy is scalar quantity

FROM MOLECULES TO CONTINUA
• For engineering applications, we prefer to think of fluids as being “continua.”
• When we look at a fluid, we do not see the individual molecules, but instead a
smoothed-out material—a continuum—rather than something of evident corpuscular
nature.

Size of tiny region???

Concept of a fluid as a continuum
• The concept of a fluid as a continuum significantly simplifies engineering calculations in several ways:
• It allows for treating fluid properties as smoothly varying functions of space and time, rather than
discrete values associated with individual molecules. This enables the use of calculus and differential
equations to describe fluid behavior.
• Engineers can divide the fluid into infinitesimally small elements, each still containing many molecules,
which facilitates the application of fundamental physical principles like mass conservation, Newton's
second law, and energy conservation.
• The continuum approach focuses on macroscopic behavior rather than molecular interactions, making
engineering calculations more tractable and relevant to practical applications.
• It allows for the use of tensors to represent physical properties independently of coordinate systems,
providing a more general and flexible mathematical framework.
• The continuity equation, derived from the continuum model, serves as a kinematic constraint among
velocity gradients, simplifying the analysis of fluid flow.
• By ignoring the particulate nature of fluids, the continuum model enables the study of large-scale
phenomena like weather patterns, air and water flow, and even galaxy evolution, which would be
impossible to predict at the molecular level.
• The approach facilitates the development and application of computational fluid dynamics (CFD) for
complex flow simulations, a crucial tool in modern engineering.

@Iftheker A Khan ChE 205 January 2024 Semester 9

These are referred to as convective momentum fluxes
since they describe how the various entities are swept
along (i.e., convected) with the fluid.
Momentum Flux

● Fluid dynamics involves the transport of momentum.

● There are two mechanisms for this transport:
 convective momentum transport, and
 molecular momentum transport
● The combination of the two types of transport gives total momentum of
transport.
CONVECTIVE MOMENTUM FLUX TENSOR
Note that the first subscript gives the direction of transport and the
second gives the component of the momentum being transported.
Note that the
first subscript
gives the
direction of
transport and
the second
gives the
component of
the
momentum
being
transported.
Vector vs. Tensor

● Velocity vs. Flux

● Velocity has one subscript associated
with the coordinate direction, 𝑣
● Flux has two subscript associated with
( )
the coordinate directions, 𝜋 = 𝜌𝑣 𝑣
MOLECULAR MOMENTUM FLUX TENSOR—NEWTON’S LAW

● In the foregoing section we discussed how momentum is transported

by being swept along by the bulk movement of the fluid.
● But there is another mechanism by which momentum may be
transported, namely, by the motion, interactions, and collisions of the
fluid molecules.
● As before, we develop the expressions for the molecular momentum
flux, by considering first (a) unidirectional shear flow, then (b) general
three-dimensional flows, and finally (c) flows in curvilinear
coordinates.
Newton’s Law
of Viscosity: At steady state, F is required
to maintain velocity V, then
the force can be expressed as,
𝑭 𝒗𝟎
=𝝁
𝑨 𝒚𝟎

Fig.1.1-1: The buildup to the steady, laminar velocity profile for a fluid contained between two plates.
 (toothpaste)

(paint)

(quicksand)
General 3-D time
dependent flow

Consider an arbitrary flow in which all

three velocity components
vx (x, y, z, t), vy (x, y, z, t), and vz (x, y, z, t)
may be nonzero and may depend on all
three spatial coordinates as well as time.

This generalization of Newton’s law of

viscosity is associated with the names
of Navier, Poisson, and Stokes—all
eminent mathematicians
and scientists.
Viscous and Pressure Force

● Consider the tiny volume element ΔxΔyΔz within a flow field.

● There will be two contributions to the force:

○ the viscous forces caused by the flow, and

○ the pressure force that remains even when the fluid is not moving.
● In general, the viscous forces are neither perpendicular nor parallel to the
surface element but rather act at some angle to the surface.
● The pressure force, however, is present even if the fluid is stationary. The
pressure force is always perpendicular to an exposed surface.
Molecular
Momentum Flux
Tensor

𝝅 = 𝒑𝜹 + 𝝉

Normal Shear
Stress Stress
 𝝅𝒙 = 𝒑𝜹𝒙 + 𝝉𝒙
Molecular Momentum Flux Tensor 𝝅 = 𝒑𝜹 + 𝝉 𝝅𝒚 = 𝒑𝜹𝒚 + 𝝉𝒚
𝝅𝒛 = 𝒑𝜹𝒛 + 𝝉𝒛

Shear Normal
Stress Stress
Notation

● Lightface italic symbols for scalars

● Boldface Roman symbols for vectors
● Boldface Greek symbols for tensors
● Dot product operations enclosed in ( ) are scalars
● Dot and cross product operations in [ ] are vectors, and
those in { } are tensors.
Formulation of general ● The equation of continuity
mass and momentum ● The equation of motion
balance equation that ● The equation of change for mechanical energy
can be applied to any ● The equations of change (substantial derivative form)
problem ● Common simplifications of the equation of motion

● Equation of Continuity: Law of conservation of Mass

● Equation of Motion: Law of conservation of Momentum
● Equation of Change:
 The term “equation of change” may be used to describe how
any physical quantity changes with time and position.

 Not based on conservation laws.

Equation of Continuity

● We consider here an arbitrary flow

in which all three velocity
components vx(x,y,z,t), vy(x,y,z,t), and
vz(x,y,z,t) may be nonzero, and may
depend on all three spatial
coordinates as well as time.
● We apply the law of conservation of
mass to a tiny volume element Δx Δy
Δz, fixed in space, through which a
fluid is flowing.
Efflux meaning material
that is flowing out
Divergence
Divergence measures the change
in density of a fluid flowing
according to a given vector field.
Divergence

● Interpret a vector field as representing a fluid flow.

● The divergence is an operator, which takes in the vector-valued
function defining this vector field, and outputs a scalar-valued function
measuring the change in density of the fluid at each point.
● This is the formula for divergence:
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rB83Dp
BJQsE

https://www.khanacademy.org/math/multivariable-
calculus/multivariable-derivatives/divergence-and-curl-
articles/a/divergence
Cartesian vs. Cylindrical vs. Spherical Coordinates
Cartesian vs. Cylindrical Coordinates

https://math.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Calculus/
Book%3A_Calculus_(OpenStax)/12%3A_Vectors
_in_Space/12.7%3A_Cylindrical_and_Spherical_
Coordinates
Cartesian vs. Cylindrical Coordinates
Cartesian vs. Cylindrical vs. Spherical Coordinates

Spherical coordinates make it simple to describe a sphere,

just as cylindrical coordinates make it easy to describe a
cylinder. Grid lines for spherical coordinates are based on
angle measures, like those for polar coordinates.
The Equation of Motion
To derive the equation
of motion for an
arbitrary flow, we
again consider a tiny
volume element Δx Δy
Δz.

X-momentum ONLY

Conservation of
momentum for
this volume
element
can be written in
words as
Rate of increase of x
momentum within
the volume element

Net rate of addition (“in” minus

“out”) of x momentum for transport
across all three pairs of faces.

External force (typically

the gravitational force)
acting on the fluid in the
volume element. The x
component of this force is
x component of the
momentum balance

y component of the
momentum balance

z component of the
momentum balance
The Equation of Motion
• Observation of the concentration of fish in a river.
• Because fish swim around, the fish concentration c will in general
be a function of position (x, y, z) and time (t).

The Partial Time Derivative 𝝏

𝝏𝒕
Equation of
Motion
Condition 1: Isothermal flows of incompressible Newtonian fluids
General form of equation of motion for constant 𝝆 and 𝝁)
Navier–Stokes
equation

Condition 2: Acceleration term is neglected

Stokes
equation

Condition 3: viscous forces are neglected Euler

equation
Common simplifications of the equation of motion:
Equation of
Continuity in
Cartesian Coordinate
(x, y, z) for A
Newtonian fluid

Equation of Motion
in Cartesian
Coordinate (x, y, z)
for A Newtonian
fluid with constant
ρ and µ
● An inclined surface of length L and width W is situated at an angle β to the
vertical direction as shown in Fig. (2.2-1). A Newtonian fluid is freely falling on
the surface as a film of thickness δ. Assuming the flow to be laminar,
determine the velocity profile, flow rate and shear force on the surface by the
fluid.
We now select as the “system” a shell that is thin in the
x direction; that is, a rectangular region of thickness Δx,
bounded by the planes z = 0 and z = L, and extending a
distance W in the y direction. This shell, depicted by the
shaded region in Fig. 2.2-2, is shown in more detail in
Fig. 2.2-3.
Assumptions:
1. Incompressible fluid (constant density, viscosity)
2. Steady flow (pressure, density and velocity component at each
point do not change with time)
3. Laminar flow (simple shear flow)
4. Fully developed flow
5. Newton's law of viscosity is applicable
6. Rectilinear Flow (fluid flow along straight line; vx=vy = 0 and vz =
f(x, y, z). We may further assume that vz does not depends upon y
coordinate and z coordinate. Thus, vz = vz(x)
7. Pressure is a function of x

Boundary Conditions:
1. At x=0; ????
2. At x=max; ????
Equation of
Continuity

Equation of
Motion
2.3 Laminar Flow of a Newtonian Fluid through a circular tube

● We consider then the steady-state, laminar flow of a fluid of constant density

ρ and viscosity µ in a vertical tube section of length L and radius R.
● The liquid flows downward under the influence of a pressure difference and
gravity.
● We postulate that vz = vz(r), vr = 0, vθ = 0, and p = p(z). Because we are
interested in determining the velocity component vz, we will set up and solve a
z momentum balance.
● We select as our system a cylindrical shell of thickness Δr and length L,
located at an arbitrary radial position r.
● A section of this shell is illustrated as the lightly shaded region in Fig. 2.3-1(b).
Cylindrical shell volume element:

z = L, r = Δr and θ = 2π
Volume = 2π L rΔr
Surface area = 2π rΔr
Flow cross−section area = 2π𝐿r
 Equation of Continuity and Motion in Cylindrical Coordinate (r, θ, z) for
A Newtonian fluid with constant ρ and µ

Equation of 𝝏𝝆 𝟏 𝝏 𝟏 𝝏 𝝏
+ 𝝆𝒓𝒗𝒓 + 𝝆𝒗𝜽 + 𝝆𝒗𝒛 = 𝟎
Continuity 𝝏𝒕 𝒓 𝝏𝒓 𝒓 𝝏𝜽 𝝏𝒛

𝒓−component:
𝝏𝒗𝒓 𝝏𝒗𝒓 𝒗𝜽 𝝏𝒗𝒓 𝝏𝒗𝒓 𝒗𝜽 𝟐 𝝏𝒑 𝝏 𝟏 𝝏 𝟏 𝝏𝟐 𝒗𝒓 𝝏𝟐 𝒗𝒓 𝟐 𝝏𝒗𝜽
𝝆 + 𝒗𝒓 + + 𝒗𝒛 − =− +𝝁 (𝒓𝒗𝒓 ) + 𝟐 + − + 𝝆𝒈𝒓
𝝏𝒕 𝝏𝒓 𝒓 𝝏𝜽 𝝏𝒛 𝒓 𝝏𝒓 𝝏𝒓 𝒓 𝝏𝒓 𝒓 𝝏𝜽𝟐 𝝏𝒛𝟐 𝒓𝟐 𝝏𝜽
Equation of Motion

θ−component:
𝝏𝒗𝜽 𝝏𝒗𝜽 𝒗𝜽 𝝏𝒗𝜽 𝝏𝒗𝜽 𝒗𝒓 𝒗𝜽 𝟏 𝝏𝒑 𝝏 𝟏 𝝏 𝟏 𝝏𝟐 𝒗𝜽 𝝏𝟐 𝒗𝜽 𝟐 𝝏𝒗𝒓
𝝆 + 𝒗𝒓 + + 𝒗𝒛 + =− +𝝁 (𝒓𝒗𝜽 ) + 𝟐 + + 𝟐 + 𝝆𝒈𝜽
𝝏𝒕 𝝏𝒓 𝒓 𝝏𝜽 𝝏𝒛 𝒓 𝒓 𝝏𝜽 𝝏𝒓 𝒓 𝝏𝒓 𝒓 𝝏𝜽𝟐 𝝏𝒛𝟐 𝒓 𝝏𝜽

z−component:
𝝏𝒗𝒛 𝝏𝒗𝒛 𝒗𝜽 𝝏𝒗𝒛 𝝏𝒗𝒛 𝝏𝒑 𝟏 𝝏 𝝏𝒗𝒛 𝟏 𝝏𝟐 𝒗 𝒛 𝝏𝟐 𝒗 𝒛
𝝆 + 𝒗𝒓 + + 𝒗𝒛 =− +𝝁 𝒓 ) + 𝟐 + + 𝝆𝒈𝒛
𝝏𝒕 𝝏𝒓 𝒓 𝝏𝜽 𝝏𝒛 𝝏𝒛 𝒓 𝝏𝒓 𝝏𝒓 𝒓 𝝏𝜽𝟐 𝝏𝒛𝟐
Navier-Stokes equation

These differential
equations are called
Navier-Stokes equations.
They were first derived
by M. Navier (1827) and
S.D. Poisson (1831).
Shell Momentum Balance: What is it?

● When fluid flow occurs in a single direction everywhere in a system,

shell balances are useful devices for applying the principle of
conservation of momentum.
● An example is the incompressible laminar flow of fluid in a straight,
circular pipe.
● Other examples include flow between two wide parallel plates or flow
of a liquid film down an inclined plane
● In the above situations, fluid velocity varies across the cross-section
only in one coordinate direction and is uniform in the other direction
normal to the flow direction.
93
Unidirectional Flow : Shell Momentum Balance

● Shear Stress Distribution (normal to flow direction)

● Velocity Distribution (normal to flow direction)
● Volumetric Flow Rate
● Average Velocity (across the flow cross-section)

95
● An inclined surface of length L and width W is situated at an angle β to the
vertical direction as shown in Fig. (2.2-1). A Newtonian fluid is freely falling on
the surface as a film of thickness δ. Assuming the flow to be laminar,
determine the velocity profile, flow rate and shear force on the surface by the
fluid.
We now select as the “system” a shell that is thin in the
x direction; that is, a rectangular region of thickness Δx,
bounded by the planes z = 0 and z = L, and extending a
distance W in the y direction. This shell, depicted by the
shaded region in Fig. 2.2-2, is shown in more detail in
Fig. 2.2-3.
Shear stress: No
pressure component
 Most general form for 𝜏 in Cartesian coordinates must be

Normal
Stress

Shear
Stress

𝜘 is dilatational viscosity: the second coefficient

of viscosity is concerned with the viscous
forces generated by compression (or dilatation)
From
lecture
notes of
Section A

105
106
107
108
From
lecture
notes of
Section A

109
From
lecture
notes of
Section A

110