17580854, 2022, 3, Downloaded from https://iaap-journals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/aphw.12359 by Nat Prov Indonesia, Wiley Online Library on [20/03/2023].

See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
Received: 6 August 2021 Accepted: 14 March 2022

DOI: 10.1111/aphw.12359

bs_bs_banner

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

The impact of a gratitude intervention on

mental well-being during COVID-19: A quasi-
experimental study of university students

Michael T. Geier | Jermaine Morris

Wingate University, Wingate, North

Carolina, USA Abstract
Previous research suggest that gratitude interventions
Correspondence
are effective in improving mental well-being, which
Michael T. Geier, Wingate University,
Wingate, NC, USA. might be beneficial to university students during the
Email: [email protected] COVID-19 pandemic. This quasi-experimental study
sought to investigate if a gratitude intervention will
lead to higher mental well-being of university students
during the COVID-19 pandemic. Participants (N = 47)
mental well-being was assessed before and after
10 weekly gratitude reflection journals and statistically
compared with a control group (N = 40). An analysis
of covariance (ANCOVA) was used to analyze the data.
The treatment group showed significantly higher well-
being after the gratitude intervention compared with
the control group (Cohen's d = 0.74). The treatment
group significantly increased (Cohen's d = 0.35) and
the control group significantly decreased (Cohen's
d = 0.41). Gratitude interventions may be effective in
improving the mental well-being of university students
even during a crisis such as the COVID-19 pandemic.
Gratitude interventions seem suitable for improving
mental well-being for temporary mental challenges of
university students such as a pandemic or other forms
of crisis.

This is an open access article under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs License, which permits
use and distribution in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited, the use is non-commercial and no modifications or
adaptations are made.
© 2022 The Authors. Applied Psychology: Health and Well-Being published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of International Associ-
ation of Applied Psychology.

Appl Psychol Health Well-Being. 2022;14:937–948. wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/aphw 937

 17580854, 2022, 3, Downloaded from https://iaap-journals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/aphw.12359 by Nat Prov Indonesia, Wiley Online Library on [20/03/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
938 bs_bs_banner
GEIER AND MORRIS

KEYWORDS
COVID-19, gratitude, intervention, mental health, mental well-
being, pandemic

INTRODUCTION

Mental well-being/health is a complex construct covering both affect (subjective experience

of happiness and life satisfaction) and psychological functioning and self-realization (Tennant
et al., 2007). Recent research showed that self-isolation/social distancing due to the
COVID-19 pandemic might lead to poor mental well-being (Smith et al., 2020; Wang
et al., 2020). Smith et al. (2020) conducted a study in the United Kingdom (N = 932) that
concluded that 36.8% of individuals that self-isolated/socially distanced reported a prevalence
of poor mental well-being. Mental well-being reported in the study was lower than pre-
pandemic data in the United Kingdom. Hence, the pandemic may lead to lower levels of
mental well-being (i.e. increased levels of anxiety and depression) (Smith et al., 2020; Wang
et al., 2020). One potential cause may be the intolerance of uncertainty in combination with
fear of COVID-19 (Satici et al., 2020). The risk of lower mental well-being during the
pandemic may be higher among younger adults. For instance, Smith et al. (2020) reported
that young age groups are associated with low levels of mental well-being. Furthermore,
Savage et al. (2020) conducted a longitudinal cohort study and found that university students
during the COVID-19 lockdown in the United Kingdom reported lower mental well-being
levels than before the lockdown.
Campion et al. (2020) mention that one reason for decreasing mental well-being may be that
mental health interventions have become more limited during the COVID-19 pandemic. They
state three challenges of the pandemic: (1) the prevention of increased mental disorders and the
reduction of mental well-being; (2) protect people with a mental disorder from COVID-19 and
the associated consequences; and (3) provide appropriate mental health interventions. This
study will align with the item (3) and take the approach of promoting mental well-being via an
intervention instead of treating illnesses (i.e. positive psychology) (Slade, 2010).
Based on previous research, mental well-being can be improved with gratitude interventions
(Carson et al., 2010; Emmons & McCullough, 2003; Emmons & Stern, 2013; Gabana
et al., 2019; Jackowska et al., 2016; Killen & Macaskill, 2015; Rash et al., 2011; Seligman
et al., 2005). There are two basic components in the definition of gratitude: (1) a positive per-
sonal outcome that is not necessarily deserved or earned and (2) the positive outcome is caused
by external sources (e.g. another person) (Emmons & McCullough, 2003). This definition was
derived from the definitions by Bertocci and Millard (1963) “the willingness to recognize the
unearned increments of value in one's experience” (p. 389) and Solomon (1977) “an estimate of
gain coupled with the judgment that someone else is responsible for that gain” (p. 316) (as cited
in Emmons & McCullough, 2003, pp. 377–378).
The purpose of this study is to explore a positive psychology intervention focusing on the
impact of gratitude on mental well-being (i.e. a gratitude intervention) during the COVID-19
pandemic. The use of gratitude journals during the COVID-19 pandemic has been proposed by
Fishman (2020) to enhance mental well-being. Although a multi-component positive psychol-
ogy approach is common (Seligman, 2018; Tejada-Gallardo et al., 2020), this study was designed
to take a single-component approach. More specifically, this study is based on the experimental
 17580854, 2022, 3, Downloaded from https://iaap-journals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/aphw.12359 by Nat Prov Indonesia, Wiley Online Library on [20/03/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
GRATITUDE AND MENTAL WELL-BEING bs_bs_banner
939

study by Emmons and McCullough (2003), which explored the influence of grateful thinking
on psychological well-being in a single-component approach. Participants were asked to write
10 weekly (positive) gratitude journals and showed heightened psychological well-being com-
pared with the other experimental conditions (hassles (negative) and event (neutral)). This
quasi-experimental study will explore the impact of 10 weekly gratitude journals on the mental
well-being of university students during the COVID-19 pandemic. During the pandemic, most
universities engage in online education; hence, the gratitude intervention delivery is internet-
based.

T H E O R E T I C A L FR A M E W O R K A N D H Y P O T H E S I S :
GRATITUDE I NTERVENTIONS AND MENTAL WELL-BEING

The study by Emmons and McCullough (2003), which this study is based on, provided evidence
that the intervention of 10 weekly gratitude journals leads to higher levels of mental well-being
(i.e. a more positive outlook of one's life as a whole and more positive expectations concerning
the upcoming week). Because the publication of the study by Emmons and McCullough (2003),
there have been many other experimental studies outlining the positive effects of gratitude
interventions on mental well-being. For instance, gratitude interventions demonstrated to have
positive effects on being thankful for more things in their lives, life satisfaction, environmental
mastery, and social feelings (Carson et al., 2010), self-esteem and life satisfaction (Rash
et al., 2011), higher levels of eudemonic well-being and decreased levels of perceived stress
(Killen & Macaskill, 2015), improvement in subjective well-being resulting in increased sleep
quality and reductions in blood pressure (Jackowska et al., 2016), and increases in well-being
(state gratitude, sport satisfaction, social support) and significant decreases in ill-being (psycho-
logical distress and athlete burnout) (Gabana et al., 2019).
Although there seems to be amble support that gratitude interventions positively affect
mental well-being, there also have been challenges to the efficacy of gratitude interventions
(Wood et al., 2010). Davis et al. (2016) conducted a series of meta-analyses investigating the
efficacy of gratitude interventions across three outcomes (gratitude, anxiety, psychological
well-being). They concluded that gratitude interventions generally have limited effects. Other
recent meta-analyses concluded that gratitude interventions have a small effect on depression
(Cregg & Cheavens, 2021; Dickens, 2017) and anxiety (Cregg & Cheavens, 2021).
Dickens (2017) states explicitly that the effect of gratitude interventions may be limited for
university students as they are potentially less invested in the practice when the intervention
is part of the course. Adults show the best results if they volunteer for these self-
improvement interventions.

Hypothesis 1. During the COVID-19 pandemic and in an online education set-

ting, university students who engage in 10 weekly gratitude reflection journals
(treatment group) will have significantly higher self-reported mental well-being
levels than students who do not engage in weekly gratitude reflection journals
(control group).

Hypothesis 2. The intervention of 10 weekly gratitude reflection journals will have

a small to medium effect size when comparing the treatment group with the control
group.
 17580854, 2022, 3, Downloaded from https://iaap-journals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/aphw.12359 by Nat Prov Indonesia, Wiley Online Library on [20/03/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
940 bs_bs_banner
GEIER AND MORRIS

METHOD

Sample

This was a quasi-experimental study utilizing a convenience sample. The data was collected at
a medium-sized, private university located in the Southeastern Unites States during the Fall
semester of 2020 (online education due to the COVID-19 pandemic started in Spring 2020). The
sample consisted of students in four courses of the School of Business. Two business strategy
undergraduate courses, one organizational behavior undergraduate course, and one organiza-
tional behavior graduate course.

Participants

The four participating classes had a total of 114 students. Eighty-nine students participated in
the study. An informed consent was obtained from all participants. The data included incom-
plete records. A complete record consisted of a pre-intervention mental well-being assessment
(T1), 10 gratitude journals, and a post-intervention mental well-being assessment (T2). A total
of two records were removed as two participants stopped participation during the gratitude
intervention also did not complete the post-intervention mental well-being assessment, leading
to a final sample of N = 87. The overall response rate was 76.3%, which was determined using
N = 87 and 114 potential participants. The student standings were 77.0% undergraduate stu-
dents (all seniors) and 23.0% graduate students. The sample consisted of 44.8% females and
56.2% males.

Data collection procedure

The two organizational behavior classes were the treatment group (N = 47). The two business
strategy classes served as the control group (N = 40). The control group and treatment group
completed a mental well-being assessment before and after the gratitude intervention of the
treatment group. For the treatment group, at the beginning of the course, participants were
given assignments for 10 weekly gratitude reflection journals via the internet-based Learning
Management System. The assignment was based on Emmons and McCullough's (2003) grati-
tude condition. The instructions provided, identical to Emmons and McCullough (2003), were:

There are many things in our lives, both large and small, that we might be grateful
about. Think back over the past week and write down on the lines below up to five
things in your life that you are grateful or thankful for. (p. 379)

Examples of gratitude experiences listed by participants were as follows: “thankful for my

health and the good health of my family and friends in the midst of COVID,” “hear birds
chirping at sunrise,” “for my supportive family,” “I have several distant family members that
contracted COVID-19. I am grateful that they all successfully recovered from the virus and are
doing well,” “the joy I get from spending time with my children,” “catching up with an old
neighbor,” and “a negative result on my COVID test.” The control group did not get any
assignments.
 17580854, 2022, 3, Downloaded from https://iaap-journals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/aphw.12359 by Nat Prov Indonesia, Wiley Online Library on [20/03/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
GRATITUDE AND MENTAL WELL-BEING bs_bs_banner
941

Measure: Mental well-being ratings

Mental well-being was assessed using the Warwick-Edinburgh Mental Well-being Scale
(WEMWBS) by Tennant et al. (2007). The WEMWBS consists of 14 items. Sample items are
“I've been feeling optimistic about the future,” “I've been dealing with problems well,” and “I've
been feeling close to other people.” Participants were asked to rate the frequency of experienc-
ing each statement over the past 2 weeks using a 5-point Likert scale from 1 (none of the time)
to 5 (all of the time). The overall Cronbach's alpha for the WEMWBS was .89.
The measure was used twice for all participants (treatment group and control group) to
assess the participants' mental well-being. The assessment was given to all participants the
week before the first gratitude assignment (T1, September 2020) and the week after the last
gratitude journal (T2, November 2020).

Demographic variables

The demographic variables were gender, based on Smith et al. (2020), and class standing
(i.e. undergrad and graduate), based on Savage et al. (2020) and Smith et al. (2020).

A N A LY S E S

The descriptive statistics were performed in R (R Core Team, 2020), including mean total score,
means and standard deviations (Sproull, 1995), and reliability of the instruments (Sekaran &
Bougie, 2011). A normality check of the data was performed using an Anderson-Daring
(AD) test (Razali & Wah, 2011). The test revealed that the data was normally distributed. Based
on the results of the AD test and the hypothesis emphasizing the difference in treatment effect
between groups, inferential statistics employed a parametric analysis of covariance (ANCOVA),
including effect size (Fritz et al., 2012; Van Breukelen, 2006). The ANCOVA assumptions were
tested and met according to Keselman et al. (1998) and Van Breukelen (2006). The data
supporting this study's findings are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable
request.

RESULTS

Descriptive statistics and reliabilities

Table 1 displays the mean total score, means, standard deviations, and reliabilities of mental
well-being for the treatment and control groups. The demographic variables data for the treat-
ment and control groups are shown in Table 2. T-tests were performed to analyze if there is a
difference in mental well-being at T1 based on the demographic variables (gender and class
standing) for the sample as a whole. None of the t-tests was significant, indicating no difference
in mental well-being at T1 based on the demographic variables. Correlations for the demo-
graphic variables with mental well-being at T2 for the sample as a whole were calculated. None
of the demographic variables showed significant correlations with mental well-being at T2.
Hence, none of the demographic variables will be used as a control variable for hypotheses
 17580854, 2022, 3, Downloaded from https://iaap-journals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/aphw.12359 by Nat Prov Indonesia, Wiley Online Library on [20/03/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
942 bs_bs_banner
GEIER AND MORRIS

T A B L E 1 Means, standard deviations, and alpha coefficients

Variable Mean total score M SD Cronbach's alpha

1. MWB C T1 51.0 3.64 0.36 .88
2. MWB T T1 51.4 3.67 0.48 .88
3. MWB C T2 49.0 3.50 0.45 .86
4. MWB T T2 53.5 3.82 0.54 .92

Note: N = 87. Control variables (student standing and gender) not shown.
Abbreviations: MWB, mental well-being; T, treatment condition; C, control group; T1, before 10-week gratitude journal; T2,
after 10-week gratitude journal of the treatment group.

T A B L E 2 Demographic variables data for the treatment and control groups

Variable Male Female Undergraduate Graduate

1. Control group 67.5% 32.5% 100.0% 0.0%
2. Treatment group 44.7% 55.3% 57.4% 42.6%

testing. Further, a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed to explore a difference
in mental well-being across the four participating classes at T1 due to the non-randomized
research design. The result of the ANOVA was not significant, indicating that there is no differ-
ence in mental well-being at T1 across the four participating classes.

Hypotheses testing: The impact of gratitude on mental well-being

A one-way between-subjects ANCOVA was performed to examine the hypotheses (between-

group changes). The one-way between-subjects ANCOVA revealed that there was a statistically
significant difference in T2 mental well-being scores between the control and treatment groups.
After adjustment for T1 mental well-being score, there was a statistically significant difference
in T2 mental well-being score between the groups, F(1, 84) = 13.25, p < .001. The effect size
(Cohen's d) was medium 0.74 95% CI [0.30, 1.18] for the mean difference of the treatment group
to the control group at T2. Post hoc analysis was performed with a Bonferroni adjustment. The
mean mental well-being score was statistically significantly greater in the treatment group
(3.81 ± 0.11) compared with the control group (3.52 ± 0.12), p < .001. There was support for
Hypothesis 1 that 10 weekly gratitude reflection journals significantly improved mental well-
being for university students during the COVID-19 pandemic compared with university stu-
dents that did not engage in the intervention. There was also support for Hypothesis 2 as the
effect size was medium.

Supplemental analysis

A supplemental analysis will be performed with a focus on within-group changes. Meta-

analytical findings indicate that gratitude interventions have small to medium effects on mental
well-being (Cregg & Cheavens, 2021; Davis et al., 2016; Dickens, 2017). The supplemental anal-
ysis will investigate the changes within the control and treatment groups.
 17580854, 2022, 3, Downloaded from https://iaap-journals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/aphw.12359 by Nat Prov Indonesia, Wiley Online Library on [20/03/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
GRATITUDE AND MENTAL WELL-BEING bs_bs_banner
943

A paired t-test was performed to compare the mental well-being of the control group T1 ver-
sus T2. The results from T1 (M = 3.64, SD = 0.36) and T2 (M = 3.50, SD = 0.45) indicate that
the group that did not receive an intervention of 10 weekly gratitude journals resulted in a sig-
nificant decrease in mental well-being, t(39) = 2.57, p = .014. The effect size (Cohen's d) was
small .41 95% CI [ .73, .08] for the mean difference of the control group between T1 and T2.
Furthermore, a paired t-test was performed to compare the level of mental well-being for
the treatment group T1 versus T2. The results from T1 (M = 3.67, SD = 0.48) and T2
(M = 3.82, SD = 0.54) indicate that the level of mental well-being is significantly higher, t(46)
= 2.42, p = .01. The effect size (Cohen's d) was small .35 95% CI [.06, .65] for the treatment
group's mean difference between T1 and T2.

DISC USS I ON

Previous research provided evidence of the effectiveness and positive influence of gratitude
interventions (Carson et al., 2010; Emmons & McCullough, 2003; Emmons & Stern, 2013;
Gabana et al., 2019; Jackowska et al., 2016; Killen & Macaskill, 2015; Rash et al., 2011; Seligman
et al., 2005). This study confirmed that a gratitude intervention effectively improves the mental
well-being of university students during the COVID pandemic. The treatment group showed
significantly higher well-being after the 10 weekly gratitude reflection journals. This study
explored a single-component positive psychology intervention approach. The impact of the grat-
itude intervention was significantly positive and of medium effect size (Cohen's d = 0.74) com-
paring the treatment group with the control group after the 10 weekly gratitude reflection
journals.
The supplemental analysis confirms results in the study by Savage et al. (2020) that students'
mental well-being is declining during the COVID-19 pandemic without intervention (Cohen's
d = 0.41; small effect size). Furthermore, the supplemental analysis showed that the within-
group effect size of the gratitude intervention was small (Cohen's d = 0.35). This finding con-
firms recent research that gratitude interventions, specifically in a single-component interven-
tion approach, have a small effect (Cregg & Cheavens, 2021; Davis et al., 2016; Dickens, 2017;
Wood et al., 2010).

Theoretical implications

In a greater sense, this study adds more evidence to the importance of the field of positive psy-
chology. Positive psychology studies positive emotions, positive character traits, and enabling
institutions (Seligman et al., 2005) utilizing positive interventions that may relieve human suf-
fering, weaknesses, and disorder. This study utilized a positive psychology intervention that
resulted in the participants' improved mental well-being. A positive psychology intervention
demonstrates medium and positive effects during a pandemic when comparing the treatment
group with the control group and small and positive effects on mention well-being within the
treatment group.
There was a decline in mental well-being without intervention during the COVID-19 pan-
demic (Savage et al., 2020; Smith et al., 2020; Wang et al., 2020), confirmed by this study's con-
trol group. The decline in mental well-being has been documented in previous crises, such as
the financial crisis in 2007 in the United States and spreading worldwide in the following years
 17580854, 2022, 3, Downloaded from https://iaap-journals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/aphw.12359 by Nat Prov Indonesia, Wiley Online Library on [20/03/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
944 bs_bs_banner
GEIER AND MORRIS

(Guardiola et al., 2015; Van Hal, 2015). For instance, Van Hal (2015) recommends that
policymakers support psychological coping mechanisms during a crisis due to the risk of
increased suicides. Hence, the research on interventions preventing a decline in mental well-
being during a crisis is essential.

Practical implications

Campion et al. (2020) state that the challenge of providing appropriate mental health interven-
tions during a pandemic might be one reason for decreasing mental well-being during the
COVID-19 pandemic. Self-help internet-based positive psychology interventions are popular
(Bolier et al., 2013) and might be an opportunity to improve mental well-being in a situation
with limited access to help, such as a pandemic. However, internet-based interventions are not
necessarily simpler than face-to-face interventions. They are different modes of communication.
Previous research findings guide the approach of self-help internet-based interventions.
Internet-based interventions should have guided professional support to yield similar effective-
ness as face-to-face interventions (Cuijpers & Kleiboer, 2017). Bolier et al. (2013) also recom-
mend interactive support and add that an intervention should be based on individual needs
rather than a “one-size-fits-all” approach.
The effectiveness of the gratitude interventions may be short-term. In the Seligman
et al. (2005) study, the boost in happiness and decreased depressive symptoms were maintained
at follow-up assessments up to 1 month later. However, by 3 months, participants in the grati-
tude condition were no happier or less depressed than they had been at baseline. Therefore,
gratitude interventions seem suitable for temporary challenges such as a pandemic or other
forms of crisis to minimize a decline in mental well-being potentially.
Finally, a multi-component positive psychology approach should be considered
(Seligman, 2018; Tejada-Gallardo et al., 2020). The scope of a multi-component approach is to
target both perspectives of well-being: hedonia (pleasure maximization and pain avoidance)
and eudaimonia (realization of one's true inner potential and virtue as a pathway to experienc-
ing a meaningful and fulfilling life) (Tejada-Gallardo et al., 2020). Although even a multi-
component approach yields small effects, there is evidence that the effects of a multi-
component approach remain significant in the short and long term.

Limitations and future research

There were five limitations of the study. First, the participation in the intervention was not ran-
domly assigned across all participants. Although measures were taken to verify that there was
no significant difference group in mental well-being at T1, a quasi-experiment has an inherent
risk of selection bias in which the intervention/treatment group may differ from the baseline/
control group (Cook et al., 2002). Further, studies without randomization limit the study's abil-
ity to conclude a causal association between an intervention and an outcome concerning the
overall treatment effect's mechanism (how the changes in outcomes occur) (Gopalan
et al., 2020). A randomized approach would have been more suitable. Second, the ANCOVA
approach can introduce bias if there is measurement error and a non-randomized research
design (Jamieson, 2004). Third, there was no measure of gratitude and, therefore, no assessment
of impact or cause and effect due to gratitude can be made. Fourth, there was no additional
 17580854, 2022, 3, Downloaded from https://iaap-journals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/aphw.12359 by Nat Prov Indonesia, Wiley Online Library on [20/03/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
GRATITUDE AND MENTAL WELL-BEING bs_bs_banner
945

mental well-being assessment after T2 (i.e. the week after the last journal), which was not possi-
ble due to term/semester limitations. A follow-up would be desired after 30 days, 3 months, and
6 months (Seligman et al., 2005) to determine the effectiveness of the intervention more thor-
oughly. Lastly, the convenience sample was a specific cross-section of a general population lim-
ited to university seniors and graduate students in the United States. Findings in gratitude
interventions might not generalize to other cultures (Mendonça et al., 2018; Mercon-Vargas
et al., 2018; Naito & Washizu, 2015).
Although crisis-type research opportunities during the pandemic are going to diminish,
research needs to continue to improve mental well-being in critical conditions. A pandemic/
crisis is an increased risk concerning mental well-being (Smith et al., 2020; Wang et al., 2020).
Hence, experimental research should continue in extraordinary settings. Furthermore, Cam-
pion et al. (2020) mention the difficulty of administering intervention in times of crisis. Further,
the delivery method of interventions needs to be explored more thoroughly. Ye et al. (2014)
explored the effectiveness of internet-based interventions and found them to be effective. Shel-
don and Yu (2021) concluded that texting gratitude is effective. However, some form of human
support seems to be needed (Bolier et al., 2013; Cuijpers & Kleiboer, 2017). More understanding
is needed in these alternatives to face-to-face interventions. Finally, according to Watkins
et al. (2017), joy is a discrete positive emotion related to gratitude. Gratitude may be necessary
for experiences of joy. During a crisis, negative emotions may be experienced. Positive emotions
may undo negative emotions (Fredrickson, 2001), improving mental well-being. The interaction
of gratitude and other positive emotions should be explored in more detail. Moreover, positive
emotions may mediate the relationship between gratitude and mental well-being.

C O N C L U S IO N S

Mental well-being declines during a crisis (Guardiola et al., 2015; Savage et al., 2020; Smith
et al., 2020; Van Hal, 2015; Wang et al., 2020). A decline in mental well-being can lead to
increased levels of anxiety and depression (Smith et al., 2020; Wang et al., 2020) and even the
risk of increased suicide (Van Hal, 2015). As confirmed in this study, gratitude interventions
are one protentional path to minimize the negative effects of a crisis on mental well-being.
Gratitude interventions have small to medium positive effects on mental well-being (Cregg &
Cheavens, 2021; Davis et al., 2016; Dickens, 2017; Wood et al., 2010) and might be short-term
(Seligman et al., 2005). However, during a crisis, which is temporary, simply maintaining men-
tal well-being could be one way to cope more effectively with a crisis.

CONFLICT OF INTERESTS
There is no conflict of interest.

E TH IC S ST A T EME N T
The research proposal was reviewed by the Universities RRB and approved. Ethical principles
were followed in this study.

DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT

The data supporting this study's findings are available from the corresponding author upon rea-
sonable request.
 17580854, 2022, 3, Downloaded from https://iaap-journals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/aphw.12359 by Nat Prov Indonesia, Wiley Online Library on [20/03/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
946 bs_bs_banner
GEIER AND MORRIS

ORCID
Michael T. Geier https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4228-2328

R EF E RE N C E S
Bertocci, P. A., & Millard, R. M. (1963). Personality and the good: Psychological and ethical perspectives. McKay.
Bolier, L., Haverman, M., Westerhof, G. J., Riper, H., Smit, F., & Bohlmeijer, E. (2013). Positive psychology inter-
ventions: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled studies. BMC Public Health, 13(119). https://doi.org/10.
1186/1471-2458-13-119
Campion, J., Javed, A., Sartorius, N., & Marmot, M. (2020). Addressing the public mental health challenge of
COVID-19. The Lancet Comment, 7(8), 657–659. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2215-0366(20)30240-6
Carson, J., Muir, M., Clark, S., Wakely, E., & Chander, A. (2010). Piloting a gratitude intervention in a commu-
nity mental health team. Group, 20(3), 73–87. https://doi.org/10.1921/095182410X576868
Cook, T. D., Campbell, D. T., & Shadish, W. (2002). Experimental and quasi-experimental designs for generalized
causal inference. Houghton Mifflin.
Cregg, D. R., & Cheavens, J. S. (2021). Gratitude interventions: Effective self-help? A meta-analysis of the impact
on symptoms of depression and anxiety. Journal of Happiness Studies, 22(1), 413–445. https://doi.org/10.
1007/s10902-020-00236-6
Cuijpers, P., & Kleiboer, A. M. (2017). Self-directed approaches to the treatment of depression. In The Oxford
handbook of mood disorders (pp. 469–473).
Davis, D. E., Choe, E., Meyers, J., Wade, N., Varjas, K., Gifford, A., Quinn, A., Hook, J. N., Van Tongeren, D. R.,
Griffin, B. J., & Worthington E. L., Jr. (2016). Thankful for the little things: A meta-analysis of gratitude
interventions. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 63(1), 20–31. https://doi.org/10.1037/cou0000107
Dickens, L. R. (2017). Using gratitude to promote positive change: A series of meta-analyses investigating the
effectiveness of gratitude interventions. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 39(4), 193–208. https://doi.org/
10.1080/01973533.2017.1323638
Emmons, R. A., & McCullough, M. E. (2003). Counting blessings versus burdens: An experimental investigation
of gratitude and subjective well-being in daily life. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 69(8), 846–855. https://doi.
org/10.1002/jclp.22020
Emmons, R. A., & Stern, R. (2013). Gratitude as a psychotherapeutic intervention. Journal of Personality and
Social Psychology, 84(2), 377–389. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.84.2.377
Fishman, M. (2020). The silver linings journal: Gratitude during a pandemic. Journal of Radiology Nursing, 39(3),
149–150. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jradnu.2020.05.005
Fredrickson, B. L. (2001). The role of positive emotions in positive psychology. The broaden-and-build theory of
positive emotions. The American Psychologist, 56(3), 218–226. https://doi.org/10.1037//0003-066x.56.3.218
Fritz, C. O., Morris, P. E., & Richler, J. J. (2012). Effect size estimates: Current use, calculations, and interpreta-
tion. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 141(1), 2–18. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0024338
Gabana, N. T., Steinfeldt, J., Wong, J., Chung, Y. B., & Svetina, D. (2019). Attitude of gratitude: Exploring the
implementation of a gratitude intervention with college athletes. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 31(3),
273–284. https://doi.org/10.1080/10413200.2018.1498956
Gopalan, M., Rosinger, K., & Ahn, J. B. (2020). Use of quasi-experimental research designs in education research:
Growth, promise, and challenges. Review of Research in Education, 44(1), 218–243. https://doi.org/10.3102/
0091732X20903302
Guardiola, J., Picazo-Tadeo, A. J., & Rojas, M. (2015). Economic crisis and well-being in Europe: Introduction.
Social Indicators Research, 120(2), 319–322. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-014-0594-x
Jackowska, M., Brown, J., Ronaldson, A., & Steptoe, A. (2016). The impact of a brief gratitude intervention on
subjective well-being, biology and sleep. Journal of Health Psychology, 21(10), 2207–2217. https://doi.org/10.
1177/1359105315572455
Jamieson, J. (2004). Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) with difference scores. International Journal of Psycho-
physiology, 52(3), 277–283. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2003.12.009
Keselman, H. J., Huberty, C. J., Lix, L. M., Olejnik, S., Cribbie, R. A., Donahue, B., Kowalchuk, R. K.,
Lowman, L. L., Petoskey, M. D., Keselman, J. C., & Levin, J. R. (1998). Statistical practices of educational
 17580854, 2022, 3, Downloaded from https://iaap-journals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/aphw.12359 by Nat Prov Indonesia, Wiley Online Library on [20/03/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
GRATITUDE AND MENTAL WELL-BEING bs_bs_banner
947

researchers: An analysis of their ANOVA, MANOVA, and ANCOVA analyses. Review of Educational
Research, 68(3), 350–386. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543068003350
Killen, A., & Macaskill, A. (2015). Using a gratitude intervention to enhance wellbeing in older adults. Journal of
Happiness Studies, 16(4), 947–964. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-014-9542-3
Mendonça, S. E., Merçon-Vargas, E. A., Payir, A., & Tudge, J. R. (2018). The development of gratitude in seven
societies: Cross-cultural highlights. Cross-Cultural Research, 52(1), 135–150. https://doi.org/10.1177/
1069397117737245
Mercon-Vargas, E. A., Poelker, K. E., & Tudge, J. R. (2018). The development of the virtue of gratitude: Theoreti-
cal foundations and cross-cultural issues. Cross-Cultural Research, 52(1), 3–18. https://doi.org/10.1177/
1069397117736517
Naito, T., & Washizu, N. (2015). Note on cultural universals and variations of gratitude from an east Asian point
of view. The Journal of Behavioral Science, 10(2), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.14456/ijbs.2015.38
R Core Team. (2020). R: A language and environment for statistical computing. R Foundation for Statistical Com-
puting. Retrieved from https://www.R-project.org/
Rash, J., Matsuba, M. K., & Prkachin, K. M. (2011). Gratitude and well-being: Who benefits the most from a grat-
itude intervention? Applied Psychology: Health and Well-Being, 3(3), 350–369. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1758-
0854.2011.01058.x
Razali, N., & Wah, Y. (2011). Power comparisons of Shapiro-Wilk, Kolmogorow-Smirnov, Lilliefors and
Anderson-Darling tests. Journal of Statistical Modeling and Analytics, 2(1), 21–31.
Satici, B., Saricali, M., Satici, S. A., & Griffiths, M. D. (2020). Intolerance of uncertainty and mental wellbeing:
Serial mediation by rumination and fear of COVID-19. International Journal of Mental Health and Addic-
tion., 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11469-020-00305-0
Savage, M. J., James, R., Magistro, D., Donaldson, J., Healy, L. C., Nevill, M., & Hennis, P. J. (2020). Mental
health and movement behaviour during the COVID-19 pandemic in UK university students: Prospective
cohort study. Mental Health and Physical Activity, 19(100357), 100357. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mhpa.2020.
100357
Sekaran, U., & Bougie, R. (2011). Research methods for business: A skill building approach. John Wiley and Sons.
Seligman, M. (2018). PERMA and the building blocks of well-being. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 13(4),
333–335. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2018.1437466
Seligman, M. E. P., Steen, T. A., Park, N., & Peterson, C. (2005). Positive psychology progress: Empirical valida-
tion of interventions. American Psychologist, 60(5), 410–421. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.60.5.410
Sheldon, K. M., & Yu, S. (2021). Methods of gratitude expression and their effects upon well-being: Texting may
be just as rewarding as and less risky than face-to-face. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 1–11. https://doi.
org/10.1080/17439760.2021.1913639
Slade, M. (2010). Mental illness and well-being: The central importance of positive psychology and recovery
approaches. BMC Health Service Research, 10(26), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1186/1472-6963-10-26
Smith, L., Jacob, L., Yakkundi, A., McDermott, D., Armstrong, N. C., Barnett, Y., L opez-Sanchez, G. F.,
Martin, S., Butler, L., & Tully, M. A. (2020). Correlates of symptoms of anxiety and depression and mental
wellbeing associated with COVID-19: A cross-sectional study of UK-based respondents. Psychiatry Research,
291(113138), 113138. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2020.113138
Solomon, R. C. (1977). The passions. Anchor Books.
Sproull, N. (1995). Handbook of research methods. (2nd ed.). Scarecrow Press, Inc.
Tejada-Gallardo, C., Blasco-Belled, A., Torrelles-Nadal, C., & Alsinet, C. (2020). Effects of school-based mul-
ticomponent positive psychology interventions on well-being and distress in adolescents: A systematic
review and meta-analysis. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 49(10), 1943–1960. https://doi.org/10.1007/
s10964-020-01289-9
Tennant, R., Hiller, L., Fishwick, R., Platt, S., Joseph, S., Weich, S., Parkinson, J., Secker, J., & Steward-Brown, S.
(2007). The Warwick-Edinburgh mental well-being scale (WEMWBS): Development and UK validation.
Health and Quality of Life Outcomes, 5(63), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1186/1477-7525-5-63
Van Breukelen, G. J. P. (2006). ANCOVA versus change from baseline had more power in randomized studies
and more bias in nonrandomized studies. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, 59(9), 920–925. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.jclinepi.2006.02.007
 17580854, 2022, 3, Downloaded from https://iaap-journals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/aphw.12359 by Nat Prov Indonesia, Wiley Online Library on [20/03/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
948 bs_bs_banner
GEIER AND MORRIS

Van Hal, G. (2015). The true cost of the economic crisis on psychological well-being: A review. Psychology
Research and Behavior Management, 8, 17–25. https://doi.org/10.2147/PRBM.S44732
Wang, C., Horby, P. W., Hayden, F. G., & Gao, G. F. (2020). A novel coronavirus outbreak of global health con-
cern. Lancet (London, England), 395(10223), 470–473. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30185-9
Watkins, P. C., Emmons, R. A., Greaves, M. R., & Bell, J. (2017). Joy is a distinct positive emotion: Assessment of
joy and relationship to gratitude and well-being. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 13(5), 522–539. https://
doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2017.1414298
Wood, A. M., Froh, J. J., & Geraghty, A. W. (2010). Gratitude and well-being: A review and theoretical integra-
tion. Clinical Psychology Review, 30(7), 890–905. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2010.03.005
Ye, X., Bapuji, S. B., Winters, S. E., Struthers, A., Raynard, M., Metge, C., Kreindler, S. A., Charette, C. J.,
Lemaire, J. A., Synyshyn, M., & Sutherland, K. (2014). Effectiveness of internet-based interventions for chil-
dren, youth, and young adults with anxiety and/or depression: A systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC
Health Service Research, 14(313). https://doi.org/10.1186/1472-6963-14-313

How to cite this article: Geier, M. T., & Morris, J. (2022). The impact of a gratitude
intervention on mental well-being during COVID-19: A quasi-experimental study of
university students. Applied Psychology: Health and Well-Being, 14(3), 937–948. https://
doi.org/10.1111/aphw.12359