SOLUTION TO 403 EXAM 2021/2022

The major challenges of the electrical power systems in Nigeria can be divided into three:
a) Problems in the Generation Sector: The problems in the generation sector are:
i) Inadequate generation availability.
ii) Inadequate and delayed maintenance of facilities.
iii) Insufficient funding of power stations.
iv) Obsolete equipment, tools, safety facilities and operational vehicles.
v) Inadequate and obsolete communication equipment.
vi) Lack of exploration to tap all sources of energy from the available resources.
vii) Low staff morale.
b) Problems in the Transmission Sector: The problems in the transmission sector are:
i) It is funded solely by the Federal government whose resource allocation cannot
adequately meet all the requirements;
ii) It is yet to cover many parts of the country.
iii) Its current maximum electricity wheeling capacity is 4,000 MW which is awfully
below the required national needs.
iv) Some sections of the grid are outdated with inadequate redundancies as opposed
to the required mesh arrangement.
v) The Federal government lacks the required funds to regularly expand, update,
modernize and maintain the network.
vi) There is regular vandalization of the lines, associated with low level of
surveillance and
security on all electrical infrastructure.
vii) The technologies used generally deliver very poor voltage stability and profiles.
viii) There is a high prevalence of inadequate working tools and vehicles for operating
and maintaining the network.
ix) There is a serious lack of required modern technologies for communication and
monitoring.
x) The transformers deployed are overloaded in most service areas.
xi) In adequate spare-parts for urgent maintenance.
xii) Poor technical staff recruitment, capacity building and training programme.
 c) Problems in the Distribution and Marketing Sector: The problems in the distribution
sector are:
i) Weak and Inadequate Network Coverage.
ii) Overloaded Transformers and bad Feeder Pillars.
iii) Substandard distribution lines.
iv) Poor Billing System.
v) Unwholesome practices by staff and very poor Customer relations.
vi) Inadequate logistic facilities such as tools and working vehicles.
vii) Poor and obsolete communication equipment.
viii) Low staff morale and lack of regular training.
ix) Insufficient funds for maintenance activities.

The solutions to the Electrical power systems in Nigeria are:

a) A detailed national load demand study should be carried out with a view to providing
reliable information on the current practical and detailed power requirements and a
futuristic forecast for the next 25 years. (The World Bank is currently supporting some
work on this);
b) A detailed and practicable Power generation, transmission and distribution master plan
for Nigeria for today and the next 25 years should be produced;
c) A detailed cost implication on a phased development and operating the power supply
system on state-by-state basis is required;
d) Strategic roles of the States and Local Governments in the implication of the National
Master Plan must be explicitly stated;
e) A cost sharing formula for all tiers of Government to fully participate in the development
of national power supply must evolve;
f) The institutional arrangement on how the Power Sector will function with the Federal
Government as the central implementation organ, working in tandem with the States and
Local Governments should evolve; and
g) The clear roles of the States in the energy sector, specifically required to serve as the state
monitoring facility on resource contributions, utilization and system efficiency should be
strategized.
h) Regular maintenance of the equipment is also essential for the long life expectancy of the
electric power equipment.
i) appropriate operation of electrical plants as a means to prolong the lifespan of the
equipment.
j) Proper commissioning of the electrical plants before usage.

REFERENCE MATERIAL:
a) Nigeria Electricity Issues and challenges
b) Electricity Generation and the Present Challenges in the Nigerian Power Sector
 Structural Comparison Between Thermal and Hydro Power Generation scheme

Thermal Power Generation Hydro Power Generation

Huge Boiler: acts as a furnace, transferring heat from Dams: Dams made of earth or concrete are built across river beds to
the burning fuel to row upon row of water tubes, which create storage reservoirs. Reservoirs can compensate for the reduced
entirely surround the flames. Water is kept circulating precipitation during dry seasons and for the abnormal flows that
through the tubes by a pump. accompany heavy rains and melting snow. Dams permit us to regulate
the water flow throughout the year, so that the powerhouse may run at
close to full capacity

Drum: Drum containing water and steam under high Conduits, Penstock and Scroll-Case: conduits lead the water from
pressure produces the steam required by the turbines. It the dam site to the generating plant. They may be open canals or
also receives the water delivered by boiler-feed pump. tunnels carved through rock. The conduits feed one or more penstocks
(huge steel pipes), which bring the water to the individual turbines.
The penstocks channel the water into a scroll- case that surrounds the
runner (turbine) so that water is evenly distributed around its
circumference

Buners: supply and control the amount of gas, oil, or Draft Tube and Tailrace: Water that has passed through the runner
coal injected into the boiler. Coal is pulverized before it moves next through a carefully designed vertical channel, called draft
is injected. Similarly, heavy bunker oil is preheated and tube. The draft tube improves the hydraulic efficiency of the turbine.
injected as an atomized jet to improve surface contact It leads out to the tailrace, which channels the water into the
(and combustion) with the surrounding air. downstream river bed.

Condenser: causes the steam to condense by letting it Powerhouse: The powerhouse contains the synchronous generators,
flow over cooling pipes. Cold water from an outside transformers, circuit breakers, etc., and associated control apparatus.
source, such as a river or lake, flows through the pipes, Instruments, relays, and meters are contained in a central room where
thus carrying away the heat. It is the condensing steam the entire station can be monitored and con- trolled. Finally, many
that creates the vacuum other devices (too numerous to mention here) make up the complete
hydropower station.

REFERENCE MATERIAL: Electrical Machines, Drives and Power Systems:Theodore Wildi

 Wind Power Calculation

REFERENCE MATERIAL: Electrical Machines, Drives and Power Systems:Theodore Wildi

Advantages of per-unit system

a) One advantage of the per-unit system is that by properly specifying base quantities, the
transformer equivalent circuit can be simplified. The ideal transformer winding can be
eliminated, such that voltages, currents, and ex- ternal impedances and admittances
expressed in per-unit do not change when they are referred from one side of a transformer
to the other.
b) Advantage of the per-unit system is that the per-unit impedances of electrical equipment
of similar type usually lie within a narrow numerical range when the equipment ratings
are used as base values.

REFERENCE MATERIAL: Power System Analysis And Design - J Duncan Glover

 Components of High Voltage Transmission line

a) Conductors: Conductors for high-voltage lines are always bare. Stranded copper
conductors, or steel-reinforced aluminum cable (ACSR) are used. ACSR conductors are
usually preferred be- cause they result in a lighter and more economical line. Conductors
have to be spliced when a line is very long. Special care must be taken so that the joints
have low resistance and great mechanical strength.
b) Insulators: Insulators serve to support and an- chor the conductors and to insulate them
from ground. Insulators are usually made of porcelain, but glass and other synthetic
insulating materials are also used. For voltages above 70 kV, suspension-type insulators
are used, strung together by their cap and pin metallic parts. The number of insulators
depends upon the voltage: for 110 kV, we generally use from 4to7; for230kV, from 13 to
16.
c) Supporting Structures: The supporting structure must keep the conductors at a safe
height from the ground and at an adequate distance from each other. For voltages below
70 kV, we can use single wooden poles equipped with cross-arms, but for higher volt-
ages, two poles are used to create an H-frame. The wood is treated with creosote or
special metallic salts to prevent it from rotting. For very high-voltage lines, steel towers
are used, made of galvanized angle-iron pieces that are bolted together.

REFERENCE MATERIAL: Electrical Machines, Drives and Power Systems:Theodore Wildi

REFERENCE MATERIAL: Power System Analysis And Design - J Duncan Glover
 Reactive Compensation Techniques

A reactive compensation technique is to use two lines in parallel, one beside the other.
Note that doubling the size of the conductors would not help, because for such a line it is the
reactance and not the resistance of the conductors that determines the maximum power that can
be transmitted. Additional lines are also useful to provide system security in the event that a
parallel line trips out, due to a disturbance. Thus, if one line is lost, the sched- uled power can
still be carried by the remaining line. Another method uses capacitors in series with the three
lines to artificially reduce the value of 𝑋𝐿.

REFERENCE MATERIAL: Electrical Machines, Drives and Power Systems:Theodore Wildi

REFERENCE MATERIAL: Power System Analysis And Design - J Duncan Glover
REFERENCE MATERIAL: Electric Machinery Fundamentals - Chapman.

REFERENCE MATERIAL: Electric Machinery Fundamentals - Chapman.

REFERENCE MATERIAL: Electric Machinery Fundamentals - Chapman.

Given constant 𝐼𝐹 = 2. 2𝐴

𝐼𝑆𝐶 = 118𝐴

202
𝑉𝐴𝐺|ϕ = 𝑉
3

Unsaturated value of synchronous reactance

𝑉𝐴𝐺|ϕ
𝑍𝑢𝑛𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 = 𝐼𝑆𝐶

202
= = 0. 988 Ω/ϕ
118 3

2
3𝑉 ϕ, 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒
𝑍𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 = 𝑠𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒

220
𝑉ϕ,𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 = = 127. 02𝑉
3

𝑆𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 = 45𝐾𝑉𝐴

2
3 × 127.02
𝑍𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 = 3 = 1. 0756
45×10

0.988
𝑋𝑢𝑛𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 = 1.0756
= 0. 91855 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡

Saturated Value of synchronous Reactance

𝑉𝑂𝐶|ϕ
𝑍𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 = 𝐼𝑆𝐶

Rated Voltage = 220V, Field Current = 2.84A, 𝐼𝑆𝐶 = 152𝐴

127.02
= 152
= 0. 83565 Ω/ϕ

0.83565
𝑋𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 = 1.0756
= 0. 7769 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡
Short Circuit Ratio

The rated voltage 220V requires a field current of 2.84A The rated line and armature current of
the generator is
3
𝑃 45×10
𝐼𝐿 = = = 118. 0𝐴
3𝑉𝐿 3×220

The field current at 118A is 2.2A

2.84
SCR = 2.2
= 1. 291

REFERENCE MATERIAL: Electric Machinery Fundamentals - Chapman.