We have all heard of atoms: the particles from which everything is made.

Democritus and his teacher,

Leucippus, fifth-century BCE Greek philosophers, are usually credited with first suggesting the idea of the
atom as the smallest indivisible particle from which all matter is made, but the modern understanding of
science in terms of atoms only really began in the 19th century with the work of John Dalton (1766-1844).
An understanding of atoms and atomic structure is now regarded as fundamental to chemistry, but we
usually talk about atomic theory, so does that mean that atoms may not really exist? We will not look
specifically at the evidence for the existence of atoms, but does the fact that everything in this book and
other scientific literature is explained by assuming the existence of atoms provide that evidence?

So, assuming that atomic theory is the best way of explaining the world around us, what do we know about
atoms? Atoms are most definitely small - there are many more atoms in a drop of water than there are stars
in the Milky Way, and there are probably more atoms in a glass of water than there are stars in the universe
(although no one is sure how many stars there are in the universe). We know that there are different types of
atoms, but how many are there? A simple answer would be as many as there are elements, but there are also
isotopes, and which isotope we are talking about can make a big difference to the properties of the element
and to the world - a country with a storage vault full of uranium-235 (which can be used for making nuclear
weapons) will be viewed very differently by other governments from one with uranium-238!
In this chapter you will:

• understand the terms element, compound and mixture

• understand the differences between heterogeneous and homogeneous mixtures

• understand how to separate the components of a mixture

• use kinetic molecular theory to understand the properties of solids, liquids and gases

• understand that temperature in K is proportional to the average kinetic energy of particles

• understand how to convert temperatures between K and °C

• use state symbols in chemical equations

• use kinetic molecular theory to explain changes of state.

,(t .... .,,1-
s.C Ii• _.,' ~

{ 1~
• ~ t'
!.
~,,.,.,;
11
'
.ii.,
. ,..,..___..,,
''· (
 1 The particulate nature of matter

An element can be defined in different ways and, for the

GUIDING QUESTIONS moment, we will define it in terms of its properties:
• What are the differences between elements,
compounds and mixtures? KEY POINT

• How can the components of a mixture An element is a chemical substance that cannot
be separated? be broken down into a simpler substance by
chemical means.
• How can kinetic molecular theory be used
to explain the properties of solids, liquids
and gases?
Gold only contains gold atoms and sulfur only contains
sulfur atoms, and because of this, these cannot be
broken down into anything simpler than gold atoms or
Introduction sulfur atoms using chemical reactions.
The song 'Woodstock', released in 1970, includes the In Chapter 2, we will look at the structure of atoms, and
words 'we are stardust' and, strangely enough, this is pretty this will allow us to define an element in terms of the
much true. The lightest elements (mostly hydrogen and particles that make up the atom:
helium with some lithium) were formed in the immediate
aftermath of the Big Bang, but the other elements that KEY POINT
we, and everything around us, are made of were formed
in stars. In this chapte1~we will look at the distinction An element is a pure substance in which each
between elements,compom1dsand mixtures,explain their atom has the same number of protons in the
properties in terms of kinetic molecular theory and look nucleus (see Chapter 2).
at how to separate the components of mixtures. The
distinction between elements, compounds and nuxtmes
is fundamental to an understanding of chemistry and, So, for example, gold is an element and all samples of
although in subsequent chapters we will mention very little pure gold contain only atoms that have 79 protons in
about nuxtures, it is in1portant to remember that most the nucleus.
substances in everyday life are actually mixtmes. The symbols for elements are shown in the
periodic table (Chapter 10, section 10. l). In a sample
of an element, the atoms may be present as individual
1.1 Elements, atoms (e.g. helium, He), be chemically bonded as
individual molecules (e.g. oxygen, 0 2, or ozone, 0) or be
chemically bonded as part of a giant structure (e.g. gold,
compounds Au, or carbon, C). Some representations of elements are
shown in Figure 1.1. The key thing to notice is that, in
and mixtures each part of Figure 1.1, all the atoms are the same.

-.~
Elements a b
c d~
ll
Elements are the primary constituents of matter. There
are 118 elements that have been discovered so far, and
these are shown in the periodic table. Of these, about
90 occur naturally in reasonable amounts, and the rest Figure 1.1: Some elements. a This could be a noble gas,
are present in only trace amounts or are artificially such as helium, which consists of just individual atoms.
made. By far the most abundant element in the universe b This could be gaseous oxygen, consisting of 0 2
is hydrogen, followed by helium, but in the Earth's crust molecules, in which the oxygen atoms are chemically
oxygen is the most abundant and astatine is the least bonded to each other. c This could be a metal, such as
abundant. Astatine has no stable isotopes and scientists gold. d This could be carbon - the lines represent bonds
estimate that, at any one time, there is probably less than between atoms.
30 g present in the whole of the Earth's crust.

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> CHEMISTRY FOR THE 18 DIPLOMA: COURSEBOOK

I
THEORY OF KNOWLEDGE

What is an element? The elements in a compound are chemically

The concept of an element is fundamental to combined, and therefore, compounds can
the study of chemistry, but, strangely enough, only be converted into their elements again by
chemists do not necessarily agree on the chemical reactions.
definition of an element. If we say that oxygen
is an element, that is fine, but do we mean
For example, hydrogen can be obtained from water by
an 0 atom, a sample of oxygen gas, which
reacting it with sodium, or hydrogen and oxygen could
contains 0 2 molecules, or even ozone, which
both be produced by electrolysis (passing electricity
contains 0 3 molecules?
through) of water.
The physical properties and chemical properties of a
Chemistry is partly a study of how chemical elements compound are different from those of the elements from
combine to make the world and the universe around which it is formed.
us. When different elements combine chemically, they
form compounds.
KEY POINTS

Chemical properties how a substance behaves

Compounds in a chemical reaction.
In water (H 20), a compound, there are always exactly Physical properties all the other properties
twice as many hydrogen atoms as oxygen atoms - this of a substance, such as melting point, density,
ratio never varies for a particular compound. If the ratio hardness and electrical conductivity.
is different, it is a different compound; for example,
if the ratio is 1:1, the compound is hydrogen peroxide
(H 2O 2) and not water. For example, hydrogen, an explosive gas, combines
with oxygen, a highly reactive gas, to form water, which
is a liquid at room temperature. Water reacts in very
different ways to hydrogen and oxygen (it has different
A compound is a pure substance formed when chemical properties) -you would not try to put a fire
two or more elements combine chemically in a out with hydrogen or oxygen!
fixed ratio. Similarly, when sodium (a highly reactive metal) is heated
with chlorine (a toxic gas), a white, crystalline substance,
The atoms (or ions) in a compound are chemically sodium chloride (common salt), is formed, which reacts
bonded to each other - this may be covalent bonding in very different ways to sodium and chlorine.
(see Chapter 7, section 7.1) or ionic bonding (see
Chapter 6, section 6.1). Some representations of the Mixtures
structures of compounds are shown in Figure 1.2.
Elements and compounds are pure substances, but most
a things around us are not pure, they are mixtures. We
breathe in air, which is a mixture; all the foods we eat are
mixtures; oxygen is carried around our body by blood,
another mixture.
Figure 1.2: Some representations of compounds. The The components of a mixture can be elements or
key thing to notice here is that more than one type of compounds - or even mixtures! Air is a mixture of mostly
atom is present in each structure. Sometimes the chemical elements (nitrogen, oxygen, argon) with smaller amounts
bonds (lines) will be shown and sometimes not. a Three of compounds (carbon dioxide, water vapour etc.).
different ways of showing the structure of water. b An ionic Representations of mixtures are shown in Figure 1.3.
compound, such as sodium chloride.

4 >
 1 The particulate nature of matter

a b chloride in I 00 cm 3 water, 10 g of sodium chloride in

100 cm 3 of water etc., up to the limit of solubility
(how much dissolves at a certain temperature).

Link
Figure 1.3: Some mixtures. a A mixture of gases. b An alloy.
Alloys are mixtures of metals with other metals
(or non-metals). In alloys, there is metallic bonding
throughout the structure (see Chapter 8, section 8.1), so
the components of the mixture are actually chemically
The components of a mixture are not chemically bonded to each other. An alloy is, however, still regarded
bonded together, so they retain their as a mixture because it will not have a fixed composition -
individual properties. the metals can be mixed together in various proportions.

Mixtures can be homogeneous

In a mixture of iron and sulfur, the two elements retain or heterogeneous
their individual chemical and physical properties, so
iron is magnetic and will react with dilute acids to form
hydrogen gas, and sulfur is yellow and burns in air to
form sulfur dioxide. When the mixture is heated and
A homogeneous mixture has the same (uniform)
forms the compound iron sulfide, this has a different
composition throughout the mixture - it consists
appearance, is not magnetic (Figure 1.4) and, for
of only one phase.
example, reacts with acids to form the extremely smelly
and toxic gas hydrogen sulfide - the compound has Solutions and mixtures of gases are
different properties to its elements. homogeneous mixtures.

A heterogeneous mixture does not have uniform

composition - it consists of separate phases.

The term phase can be used in different ways in

chemistry; here, it refers to a region that is the same
throughout, in terms of chemical composition and
physical properties. In a heterogeneous mixture, there
will be distinct boundaries between different phases.
Figure 1.4: The iron in a mixture of iron and sulfur (left)
retains its magnetic properties, but iron sulfide (right) is
An example of a homogeneous mixture is a solution.
not magnetic.
The concentration is the same throughout: if several
1 cm3 samples of a solution of sodium chloride are
taken from a beaker and evaporated separately to
dryness, the same mass of solid sodium chloride will be
recovered from each sample.
The components of a mixture can be mixed One example of a heterogeneous mixture is sand in a
together in any proportion. sample of water. Sand and water can be, distinguished
from each other - they are separate phases. Other
When atoms combine to form compounds, they do so in examples include mill<.and orange juice. Orange juice
fixed ratios (according to the formula of the compound), is a complex mixture, containing an aqueous phase
but there are no such limitations on making a mixture, with various substances dissolved or suspended in it.
and iron and sulfur can be mixed together in absolutely Suspended material in orange juice includes cellulose,
any proportions. Solutions are mixtures, and a solution proteins, lipids and pectins. If you leave some freshly
of sodium chloride could be made by dissolving I g squeezed orange juice to stand, some parts will settle out
of sodium chloride in I 00 cm3 of water, 2 g of sodium (but will it become completely clear?). Milk, as a colloid, is
discussed in detail in the Science in Context section next.

5 >
) CHEMISTRY FOR THE 1BDIPLOMA: COURSEBOOK

Mixtures of solids are always heterogeneous mixtures. When looking at mixtures that are liquids or gases, if
For example, a mixture of iron and sulfur is a the mixture is clear, so that you can see through it, it is
heterogeneous mixture. Even though the mixture may a homogeneous mixture; if it is cloudy/opaque, so that
have been made very carefully, so that there are the same some/all of the light is scattered as it passes through it,
masses of iron and sulfur in each cubic centimetre, the then the mixture is heterogeneous.
composition is not uniform because there are distinct
particles of iron and sulfur (you may need to use a
magnifying glass to see them), and each particle of iron
and sulfur represents a different phase.

SCIENCE IN CONTEXT
Solutions and mixtures Tea or coffee without milk are solutions. This is usually
easier to see with tea, but, if you dilute your black
coffee in a glass cup with some water, you will be able
to see that, although it is coloured, it is clear, so that
light passes through it without being scattered, and
therefore, it is a solution and a homogeneous mixture
(although, if you used a cafetiere or a not-very-good
filter, you may still have a few coffee grounds in it,
which would make it a heterogeneous mixture!). If you
add sugar and stir it well, the sugar dissolves, and so,
you still have a homogeneous mixture; however,
if you add milk (Figure 1.5), your coffee goes
cloudy - this is now a heterogeneous mixture. Milk is
a type of mixture called a colloid (or colloidal system)
and contains very small droplets of fat and solid
protein particles dispersed throughout an aqueous
phase. These particles scatter light (the Tyndall
effect) and, therefore, white coffee is not clear but
opaque. Other heterogeneous mixtures you will come
Figure 1.5: White coffee and doughnuts are
across in a coffee shop include whipped cream, hot
heterogeneous mixtures.
chocolate, doughnuts and muffins.

TEST YOUR UNDERSTANDING

1 Classify each of the following as an element, a compound or a mixture:

a water b oxygen

C potassium iodide d vanadium

e ammonia f air

9 hydrogen chloride h magnesium oxide.

6 >
 1 The particulate nature of matter

CONTINUED
2 Classify each of the diagrams shown as an 3 Classify each of the following as a
element, compound or mixture: heterogeneous or a homogeneous mixture:

-
b C e a a mixture of carbon dioxide gas and
helium gas

b a mixture of solid copper(II) oxide and solid

calcium carbonate

c potassium hydroxide solution

d mayonnaise.

Separating the components of a mixture The equation for the reaction is

CuO(s) + H 2SO/aq) ~ CuSO/aq) + Hp(l)
The components of a mixture can be separated from
each other by physical processes - physical processes
are things like filtration and distillation, which do not
Link
involve chemical reactions. Copper(Il) oxide is a base and reacts with sulfuric acid
in a neutralisation reaction (Chapter 19).
Filtration
In a chemistry laboratory, filtration is usually used to
INTERNATIONAL MINDEDNESS
separate an insoluble solid from a liquid, but it can also be
used to separate a solid from a gas. The apparatus most Diesel engines
often used for filtration is shown in Figure I .6. The solid
left in the filter paper is called the residue, and the liquid Diesel engines are used extensively in heavy-duty
that passes through the filter paper is called the.filtrate. The commercial vehicles, such as lorries and buses,
filter paper acts as a physical barrier to the pieces of solid as well as cars. One of the major environmental
but allows the liquid to pass through gaps between fibres. concerns with the use of vehicles with diesel
filter paper
engines is that they emit significantly more
particulate matter (soot) than gasoline (petrol)
engines, and this can be damaging to health.
residue filter funnel Diesel engines are, therefore, fitted with particulate
filters, to filter out as much of the particulate matter
as possible. Different countries have different
regulations on emissions from diesel vehicles.
filtrate -:.

Figure 1.6: Filtration can be used to separate a solid from Evaporation

a liquid. Evaporation can be used to remove a solventfrom a
solution to leave the solute. If a solution of sodium
Filtration is used as part of the process in the chloride is heated, water will evaporate/boil off to leave
solid sodium chloride (Figure I. 7).
preparation of copper(II) sulfate. Copper(II) sulfate
solution can be made by the reaction between copper(II)
oxide (a black solid that is insoluble in water) and dilute
sulfuric acid. Excess (more than enough to react with
all the sulfuric acid) copper(II) oxide is added to hot
sulfuric acid. The excess copper(ll) oxide is then filtered
off. In this case, copper(JT) oxide is the residue and
copper(II) sulfate solution is the filtrate.

7 >
> CHEMISTRY FOR THE 18 DIPLOMA: COURSEBOOK

This technique is called solvent extraction, and we talk

\ ii\ ') about a solute partitioning itself between two solvents.

evaporating solution
dish separatory funnel

Figure 1.7: Evaporation of the solvent can be used Figure 1.8: A separatory funnel is used in the extraction of
to obtain a solute from a solution. If larger crystals are caffeine from tea.
required, only some of the water should be boiled off and
then the solution should be left to crystallise.
Link
Solvation
Dichloromethane and water form a heterogeneous
Solvation can be used to separate a mixture of two or mixture rather than a homogeneous one (a solution).
more substances, due to differences in solubility. A general rule for solubility is 'like dissolves like'. The
For example, a mixture of solid copper(II) oxide intermolecular forces between dichloromethane molecules
(insoluble in water) and sodium chloride (soluble in (dipole-dipole interactions) are very different to those
water) can be separated by putting the mixture into a between water molecules (hydrogen bonds). Caffeine
beaker of warm distilled/deionised water and stirring is more soluble in dichloromethane than in water. The
to make sure that all the sodium chloride has dissolved. intermolecular forces are more similar between caffeine
The mixture is filtered: copper(II) oxide is the residue (dipole-dipole interactions) and dichloromethane
and sodium chloride solution is the filtrate. Copper(II) (dipole-dipole interactions) than between caffeine
oxide is washed with distilled water to remove any (dipole-dipole interactions) and water (hydrogen bonds).
traces of sodium chloride solution and then dried in a Intermolecular forces will be discussed in Chapter 7.
warm oven (distilled water will evaporate). Solid sodium
chloride can be obtained from the solution by heating it
in an evaporating dish until all the water evaporates.
The word salvation is used here because it is
Note that distilled/deionised water must be used because
used on the 18 syllabus, but it is not actually the
tap water contains dissolved solids and, when heated,
correct word. Salvation will be discussed further
will leave a residue of these solids, so that the copper(II)
in Chapter 7. The process here is probably best
oxide and sodium chloride obtained will not be pure.
described as dissolving.
Application of solvation to the extraction of caffeine
A common laboratory experiment is the extraction of
caffeine from tea. The basic principles of the technique
Distillation
are that tea leaves are boiled with water to make an Distillation could be used, for example, to separate water
aqueous solution, which is shaken with dichloromethane from a sodium chloride solution. The sodium chloride
(an organic liquid with the formula CH 2Cl 2) in a solution is heated, water evaporates and condenses
separatory funnel (Figure 1.8). Dichloromethane is again in the condenser, so that it can be collected in the
not soluble in water and remains as a separate phase collection vessel (water here is called the distillate).
in the separatory funnel. Caffeine is more soluble in Suitable apparatus for distillation is shown in Figure 1.9.
dichloromethane than in water and distributes itself
If heating is continued for a long enough time, only
between the water layer and the dichloromethane layer,
solid sodium chloride will be left in the round-bottomed
with much more in the dichloromethane layer. The
flask, and all the water will be in the collection vessel.
dichloromethane layer can then be run off and the
solvent evaporated to leave caffeine (a white solid). The difference between distillation and evaporation
is that, in distillation, the solvent is boiled off, but

8 >
 1 The particulate nature of matter

then condensed again, so that it can be collected. Distillation can also be used to separate a mixture of
So, evaporation would generally be used when it is the two liquids, as long as there is a large enough difference
solute that is the desired product and distillation when it between their boiling points (about 70 °C).
is the solvent (or solvent and solute) that is required.
The liquid with the lower boiling point (more volatile)
will go into the vapour phase more easily and will be
collected in the collection vessel (Figure 1.9), whereas
the liquid with the higher boiling point will be left in the
round-bottomed flask. If the boiling points of the two
liquids are too close, then complete separation will not
be obtained, and a mixture will distil over.
This technique is used extensively in organic chemistry
for extracting the more volatile liquid product of a
reaction from the reaction mixture and for purifying a
liquid product of a reaction. When used for purification,
the pure liquid is collected in the collection vessel,
and any non-volatile impurities will be left in the
round-bottomed flask. The purity of the liquid could
be tested by using chromatography (see the Paper
water in chromatography section next).

solution (e.g. Recrystallisation

sodium chloride distillate Recrystallisation is a technique used to purify solids
solution)
which contain relatively small amounts of impurities.

theat
The solid is dissolved in the minimum volume of hot
solvent to produce a (close to) saturntcd solution.
The solution is then filtered hot (usually under vacuum
for speed) to remove any insoluble impurities. The
Figure 1.9: The experimental set-up for distillation.
solution is then allowed to cool, and crystals form
because solids are less soluble in cold solvent. The
impurities are present in much smaller quantities and
so remain dissolved in the solvent. The mixture is then
Distillation (simple distillation) can be used to filtered to remove the crystals, which are then washed
separate the solute and solvent from a solution with a small amount of ice-cold, pure solvent (to remove
(where the solute was a solid) or to separate a any residual impure solvent) and dried (Figure 1.10).
mixture of two liquids with sufficiently different
Drying can either be carried out at room temperature
boiling points.
(under vacuum) or in a warm oven, depending on the
crystals (could they decompose if heated?). Drying means
allowing any residual solvent on the crystals to evaporate
INTERNATIONAL MINDEDNESS off. We can check that the crystals are dry by weighing
Fresh water
them, allowing them to dry for a further period of time,
and then weighing them again; if the masses are the same
Seawater is a mixture, and distillation can be the crystals are dry. If the mass is lower when the crystals
used to obtain water without salt from seawater. are weighed again, they must be left to dry for longer - at
The process of removing salt from seawater is the end of this further period, they are weighed again
called desalination. Desalination is very important - this is repeated until consecutive masses are the same.
in some parts of the world, where sufficient This technique is called d1ying to constant mass.
freshwater is not available, for example, in
The purity of the crystals can be tested by measuring the
parts of Southwest Asia and North Africa.
melting point. If the substance is pure, it should have a
Water obtained by desalination can be used for
well-defined melting point. If the crystals are impure,
human consumption, agriculture or in industry.
they will melt at a lower temperature and over a range

9 >
) CHEMISTRY FOR THE 1B DIPLOMA: COURSEBOOK

pure crystals

u impure
crystals
dissolve in
minimum
filter solution
u
allow to
crystallise
--+
filter off
crystals
amount of
hot solvent

Figure 1.10: Recrystallisation

of temperatures. Recrystallisation couH then be carried • The paper is suspended in a container with a small
out again to further purify the crystals. amount of solvent at the bottom, so that the end
of the paper dips into the solvent (the original
Paper chromatography sample spot must be above the top of the solvent;
Paper chromatography may be used, for example, to otherwise it will just dissolve into the solvent).
separate the various dyes in coloured inks, to separate
• The container is closed, so that the atmosphere
a mixture of sugars or amino acids or to test the purity
becomes saturated with the solvent- this prevents
of a substance. The experimental set-up for paper
evaporation of the solvent from the surface of
chromatography is shown in Figure 1.11.
the paper.
I closed container I I closed container I • The solvent is drawn up the paper by capillary action.
• The process is stopped when the solvent front is
solvent front
about 1 cm from the top of the paper. A pencil line
-,-- - chromatography is drawn to record the position of the solvent front

v·•
paper
and the paper is dried.
1.-- At the simplest level, the number of spots present on a

~.
components
of mixture
~
chromatogram indicates the number of components of the
mixture (although other tests might need to be done, to
check whether a particular spot is indeed a pure substance).
spoto f pencil
mixtur e 1 line pencil line KEY POINT

Chromatography can be used to test the purity

solvent solvent
of the product of a reaction. The presence of
Figure 1.11: A paper chromatography experiment.
more than one spot indicates that the substance
The process of the solvent travelling up the paper to
is impure.
produce a chromatogram is called development.
It can take quite a bit of research and trial and error to
To carry out a paper chromatography experiment: find a suitable solvent for chromatography that provides
• A line is drawn with a pencil (not a pen, as the good separation of the components of the mixture.
inks may move with the solvent) across a piece of The polarity (see Chapter 7) of the substances influences
chromatography paper about 1 cm from the bottom. the choice of solvent, but there are also other factors
involved. The solvent does not have to be a pure liquid,
• A sample of the mixture is placed on the pencil line and very often mixtures are used.
and allowed to dry.

10 )
 1 The particulate nature of matter

All chromatography techniques involve a stationary

phase and a mobile phase. The components in a mixture 1.2 Kinetic molecular
are separated because of their differences in affinity for
the stationary and mobile phases. This is explained in
Chapter 7.
theory
Kinetic molecular theory (often just called kinetic theory)
Location of spots is a model that was developed originally to explain the
properties of gases, but it is usually also extended to
If the substances to be separated are colourless
(e.g. amino acids or sugars), then some method must desc1ibe liquids and solids. Within this model, we describe
be used to locate the spots on the paper. The spots all matter as being made up of individual particles that
may be located using a locating agent. Amino acids, are in constant motion (hence, the word 'kinetic').
which are colourless, may be located by spraying
with ninhydrin, which makes them show up as pink NATURE OF SCIENCE
or purple spots. For organic solutes exposing the
paper to iodine vapour (the spots become brown) or Models are used throughout science. A model
spraying the plate with concentrated sulfuric acid then is a way of making sense of the world around
heating it (the spots appear as brown-black). The spots us. Models may either be qualitative, as here, or
may also be located by exposing the paper to iodine quantitative (involving numbers and equations).
vapour (the spots become brown) or by the use of an The validity of a particular model can be tested
ultraviolet lamp, as some substances fluoresce under by looking at how closely predictions made using
ultraviolet light. the model agree with experimental observations.

TEST YOUR UNDERSTANDING The three states of matter most commonly encountered
4 Select a technique that could be used are solid, liquid and gas, and these differ in terms
to separate the components of the of the arrangement and movement of particles. The
following mixtures: particles making up a substance may be individual
atoms or molecules or ions. Simple diagrams of the
a sand from water three states of matter are shown in Figure 1.12, in which
the individual particles are represented by spheres.
b potassium chloride from a potassium
chloride solution

c different indicators in universal

indicator solution

d a mixture of ethoxyethane
(CH3CHpCH 2 CH3 , boiling point Figure 1.12: The three states of matter.
34 °C} and 1-(hexyloxy)hexane
(CH3(CH)p(CH) 5 CH3 , boiling point
220 °C).

5 Explain how you would separate a mixture In diagrams showing the states of matter,
of potassium bromide (soluble in water) and remember the following:
calcium carbonate (insoluble in water).
Solid: the particles should be arranged
6 Explain how you would separate iodine regularly and touching.
from an aqueous iodine solution, given that • Liquid: the particles are arranged randomly
iodine is much more soluble in hexane than but still mostly touching.
in water, and hexane is immiscible with water.
Immiscible means that hexane and water do • Gas: the particles are arranged randomly
not mix - they form separate layers. and are shown far apart.

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) CHEMISTRY FOR THE 18 DIPLOMA: COURSEBOOK

Solids Liquids Gases

Distance between particles close together close but further apart than in solids far apart
Arrangement regular random random
Shape fixed shape no fixed shape; no fixed shape;
take the shape of the container fill the container
Volume fixed fixed not fixed
Movement vibrate move around each other move around in all directions
Speed of movement slowest faster fastest
Energy lowest higher highest
Forces of attraction strongest weaker weakest
Table 1.1: Properties of the three states of matter.

Solid: the particles are generally regularly arranged and,

due to relatively strong forces of attraction between
them, are only able to vibrate about mean positions. The kelvin is the SI unit of temperature.
As the forces between the particles are relatively strong,
solids have fixed shapes.
Liquid: the particles have weaker forces between them, SI stands for Systeme International and is the
and so ai·e able to move around each other. As the forces internationally accepted system of units used in science.
between the particles are weaker than those in solids, Within the SI, seven base units are defined by reference
liquids flow (are fluid) and take the shape of the container to seven fundamental constants (such as the speed of
they are in. There are, however, still forces between the light in a vacuum and the Planck constant), which have
particles, so they stay together and do not fill the container. agreed specific values. Other SI base units include the
Gas: the particles are assumed to have no forces between second, the metre and the mole.
them (see Chapter 5) and move around randomly in all The absolute, or Kelvin, scale of temperature starts at
directions. There are no forces between the particles, so absolute zero, which is the lowest temperature possible.
they are free to move around anywhere in a container, and All molecular motion does not actually stop at absolute
thus, 'fill' the container. To give you some idea of how zero (this would contravene the Heisenberg uncertainty
quickly the particles in a gas are moving: the average speed principle), but it is the temperature at which everything
of molecules in air (mostly nitrogen and oxygen) at 25 °C would be in its lowest energy state. It is not possible to
and atmospheric pressure is almost 500 ms- 1; the particles actually reach absolute zero, but scientists have managed
collide, on average, every 150ps (1.5 x 10-10 s) and only to get very close - below one nanokelvin!
travel about 7 x 10-sm between collisions.
The properties of the three states of matter are
summarised in Table I . l .
Absolute zero the lowest temperature possible,
Temperature corresponds to O Kor -273.15 °C (often taken
as -273 °C).
There are two temperature scales that are used conunonly
in everyday life: the Fahrenl1eit scale (melting point of A change of 1 °C is the same as a change of 1 K.
ice= 32 °F and boiling point of water= 212 °F), which is
used predominantly in the USA and a few other countries,
and the Celsius or centigrade scale (melting point of
ice = 0 °C and boiling point of water = 100 °C), which
is used in the rest of the world. In science, however, we A temperature change in °C is the same as one
much more commonly use the absolute, or Kelvin, scale in K.
of temperature. For calculations involving temperatures in L
science, it is usually essential to use temperatures in kelvin.

12 )
 1 The particulate nature of matter

nitrogen ammonia water The particles in gases and liquids are constantly colliding
boiling point melting point boiling point and, therefore, the particles will not all be moving at the
same speed, and there will be a spread of kinetic energies
0 77 273 temperature in K
for the particles, which is why we use the term average
I

'
I

'
I kinetic energy.The distribution of kinetic energies in
-2?3 -196 -76 0 100 temperature in °C
I
a sample of gas at two different temperatures is shown
I I
absolute water (ice) in Figme 1.14. At higher temperature, there are fewer
zero melting point particles with lower kinetic energy and more particles with
higher kinetic energy, and so, the average kinetic energy
Figure 1.13: Some temperatures in Kand °C. of the particles is greater. This will be explored more in
Chapter 17.
Figure 1.13 compares some temperatures in K and 0 C.
lower
The fact that a change of 1 °C is the same as a change temperature higher
of 1 K makes it quite straightforward to convert
temperatures between the two scales. ~'€ ~
"'
a.
0
KEY POINTS C
0
·-e
To convert °C into K, add 273.15. ~
u..

To convert K into °C, subtract 273.15.

Q-1-----------------
0 Kinetic energy
WORKED EXAMPLE 1.1
Figure 1.14: The distribution of kinetic energies in a sample
Convert a temperature of 25.00 °C into kelvin. of gas is called the Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution.
Answer
To do this, we add 273.15 to the temperature in °C: If two gases are at the same temperature, their particles
25.00 + 273.15 = 298.15 K will have the same average kinetic energy. This does not
mean that the average speed of the particles is the same.
Kinetic energy is calculated using the following equation:
WORKED EXAMPLE 1.2 E k =!.mv
2
2
Convert a temperature of 350.50 K into 0 C. where 111is the mass of the particle and vis the speed.
Answer This means that, the lighter the particles, the higher the
To do this, subtract 273.15 from the temperature in K: average speed at a particular temperature. The average
350.50 - 273.15 = 77.35 °C speed of carbon dioxide molecules (relative mass 44.01)
at 25 °C is about 380 m s- 1, whereas the average speed of
hydrogen molecules (relative mass 2.02) is about 1770 m s- 1•

1.3 Temperature and TEST YOUR UNDERSTANDING

kinetic energy 7 Convert each of the following temperatures
in °C to temperatures in K.
P.OINTS
a 35.00 °C b 500.00 °c
Temperature is a measure of the average (mean)
kinetic energy (Ek) of the particles in a substance.
C -100.00 °C d -145.00 °c

The higher the temperature, the higher the

average kinetic energy of the particles.

13 >
) CHEMISTRY FOR THE 18 DIPLOMA: COURSEBOOK

CONTINUED l<EY POINT

8 Convert each of the following temperatures A substance will be:

in K to temperatures in °C.
• a solid if the temperature is below its
a 323.15 K b 100.85 K melting point

c 50.00 K d 500.20 K • a liquid if the temperature is between its

melting point and its boiling point
9 What is wrong with the temperatures -50 K
and -300 °C? • a gas if the temperature is above its
boiling point

1.4 Changes of state So, for example, bromine melts at-7.2 °C and boils
at 58.8 °C; therefore, below-7.2 °C bromine will be a
When one state of matter becomes another state of solid, between - 7 .2 °C and 58.8 °C it will be a liquid,
matter, we describe this as a change of state. Changes and above 58.8 °C it will be a gas. There is no universally
of state are summarised in Figure 1.15. Converting one accepted definition of 'room temperature', but it is
state of matter into another usually involves heating (the often taken as 25 °C, and so bromine is one of only two
change of state is an endothermic process) or cooling elements that is a liquid at room temperature.
the substance (the change of state is an exothermic
The change of state from liquid to gas is called
process) but can also be achieved by changing pressure. vaporisation and can happen in two ways - boiling and
Endothermic and exothermic processes will be evaporation. Boiling and evaporation are not the same
considered in Chapter 12.
thing - boiling only occurs at a certain temperature (the
heating - energy is supplied boiling point), but evaporation of the liquid can occur at
particles gain energy any temperature between the melting and boiling points.
sublimation ~ +-- deposition
Using state symbols in equations
-- -
II -
1111
~
0 0
melting vaporisation
--
s.olit'l
" JI
- freezing condensation 0
ga_,
0
State symbols are used in chemical equations to indicate
the physical state that the substances are in.

cooling - energy taken out

particles lose energy

Figure 1.15: Changes of state. The state symbols are:

(s)= solid
Sublimation is the change of state when a substance
goes directly from the solid state to the gaseous state, (I)= liquid
without going through the liquid state. Both iodine and
solid carbon dioxide (dry ice) sublime at atmospheric (g) = gas
pressure. The reverse process is called deposition. (aq) = aqueous (dissolved in water)
Tbe temperatures at which a substance changes state are
called its melting point (change from solid to liquid) and
boiling point (change from liquid to gas). We saw the following chemical equation
in the previous section on Filtration:
CuO(s)+ H 2 SO4 (aq) ➔ CuSO 4 (aq)+H 2 O(l)
This indicates that solid oopper(II) oxide (CuO)
reacts with sulfuric acid, which is an aqueous solution
(dissolved in water) to form an aqueous solution of
copper(II) sulfate and liquid water.

14 >
 1 The particulate nature of matter

Changes of state may be described using equations The average kinetic energy of the particles increases,
including state symbols, for example: until the boiling point of the liquid is reached. At this
point (80 °C), the continued supply of heat energy
Melting of ice to form water: Hp(s) ➔ Hp(])
is used to overcome the forces of attraction between
Boiling/evaporation of liquid bromine: Br/1) ➔ Br/g) the particles completely and the temperature of the
Sublimation of iodine: 1/s) ➔ I/g) substance remains constant, until all the liquid has
been converted into gas. Once all the liquid has been
How to write balanced chemical equations will be converted to a gas, the continued supply of heat energy
discussed in Chapter 16. increases the average kinetic energy of the particles and,
therefore, the temperature of the gas. The particles move
around faster, as the temperature of the gas increases.
Temperature and changes
of state
If a pure substance is heated slowly, from below its Changes of state which involve overcoming
melting point to above its boiling point, a graph of (breaking) forces of attraction between particles
temperature against time can be obtained (Figure 1.16). are endothermic - heat energy is required to
100 overcome these forces. Changes of state which
90 boiling involve forming forces of attraction between
point= 80 °C boiling gas
80 -----------------------~---..,--- particles are exothermic - heat energy is
liquid and gas released when these forces are formed.
~ 70 melting
~ 60 point= SO°C liquid present
~ /_ _____ melting
50
Q)

~ 40 TEST YOUR UNDERSTANDING

~ 30 liquid and solid
present 10 State the names of the following changes
20
of state:
10
o-+--~--~-~--~-~----~ a from solid to liquid
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
b from solid to gas
Time/minutes
C from gas to liquid
Figure 1.16: A heating curve showing changes of state.
d from gas to solid.
As a solid is heated, its particles vibrate more vigorously. 11 Use data in the table to determine whether
The particles gain kinetic energy and the temperature each of the elements will be a solid, liquid
of the solid rises. At 50 °C, the solid in Figure 1.15 or gas at the specified temperature:
begins to melt - at this stage, there is solid and liquid
present together, and the temperature remains.constant
until all the solid has melted. All the heat energy being
supplied is used to partially overcome the forces of Magnesium 650 1090
attraction between particles, so that they can move
around each other. Another way of saying this is Fluorine -220 -188
that, at the melting point, all the heat energy being Polonium 254 962
supplied goes into increasing the potential energy of the Mercury -39 357
substance (overcoming forces between particles) and
not to increasing the kinetic energy, so the temperature a magnesium at 100 °C
does not change.
b fluorine at -200 °C
When all the solid has melted, the continued supply of
heat energy causes the kinetic energy of the particles to C polonium at 1000 °C
increase, so that the particles in the liquid move around d mercury at 25 °C.
each other more quickly and the temperature increases.

15 )
> CHEMISTRY FOR THE 1B DIPLOMA: COURSEBOOK

SELF-ASSESSMENT CHECKLIST
Think about the topics covered in this chapter. Which parts are you most confident with?
Which topics require some extra practice?

I et· Needs Nearly Confident

can... 5 e ion more work there to move on

explain the terms element, compound and mixture, and

1.1
distinguish between them
explain the difference between heterogeneous and
1.1
homogeneous mixtures and give examples of each
explain the different methods for separating the
components of a mixture and suggest a suitable method 1.1
for separating a particular mixture
explain the properties of solids, liquids and gases in
1.2
terms of kinetic molecular theory
state the relationship between temperature in K and the
1.3
average kinetic energy of particles
convert temperatures between K and °C 1.3
use state symbols in chemical equations 1.4
explain changes of state in terms of kinetic
1.4
molecular theory.

To what extent do you feel that you have met many of the ideas in this chapter before? Can you highlight
specific areas that are new to you? Are you confident with these areas? Can you use your knowledge to
identify heterogeneous and homogeneous mixtures around your home or school? Do you think that you
could explain the difference between elements, compounds and mixtures to another student?

EXAM-STYLE QUESTIONS
You can find questions in the style of 1Bexams in the digital coursebook.

16 >
In this chapter you will:

• describe the structure of an atom

• understand the terms atomic number (Z) and mass number (A)

• calculate the numbers of protons, neutrons and electrons in atoms and ions

• understand the term isotope

• understand that isotopes of an element have the same chemical properties but different physical properties

• calculate the relative atomic mass (A~ from the relative abundances of isotopes

• calculate the relative abundance of an isotope from the relative atomic mass
) CHEMISTRY FOR THE 18 DIPLOMA: COURSEBOOK

GUIDING QUESTIONS 2.1 The structure

• What is the structure of the atom?
of atoms
• What makes an atom of one element
Figure 2.1 shows a simple representation of an atom.
different from an atom of another element?
The electrons are often shown in shells orbiting the
• Are all atoms identical in a sample of nucleus. The arrangement of electrons in atoms will be
an element? discussed in Chapter 3.

• How do we compare the masses of atoms?

proton

Introduction
The smallest part of an element that can still be
recognised as that element is an atom. There are
currently, therefore, 118 different atoms (ignoring
isotopes), and the world around us is made from
different combinations of these atoms chemically
Figure 2.1: A simple representation of a lithium atom
bonded to each other. Actually, only a few of these
(not to scale).
different types of atoms make up most of the things
around us; for instance, over 98% of the mass of the
human body comes from just six different types of atom The actual mass of a proton is 1.67 x 10-27 kg and the
(0, C, H, N, Ca, P). Things get even stranger when charge on a proton is +I .6 x 10-19 C (coulomb, C, is the
you realise that these atoms are only different because unit of charge); howeve1~it is not very often that we
they are made up of different combinations of three need these actual values, and most of the time we are
subatomic ('smaller than an atom') particles, and so the much more interested in the mass and charge of these
whole world around us is made up of combinations of particles relative to each other. Relative masses and
just three things: protons, neutrons and electrons. charges are shown in Table 2.1; because the values are
relative, there are no units.

Particle Relative mass Relative charge

Atoms consist of a central positively charged proton 1 +1
nucleus made up of protons and neutrons, where
neutron 1 0
most of the mass is concentrated. The negatively
charged electrons occupy the space outside electron 5 X 1Q- 4 -1
the nucleus. Table 2.1: The properties of protons, neutrons and electrons.
Protons and neutrons, the particles that make up
the nucleus, are sometimes called nucleons. From these values, it can be seen that virtually all the
mass of the atom is concentrated in the nucleus. If we
consider a uranium-238 atom, which has 92 protons,
146 neutrons and 92 electrons, we can calculate that

18 )
 2 The nuclear atom

approximately 0.02°/.i of the mass is due to the electrons. could use the atomic number of an element instead of
When a sodium atom loses an electron to form a 1+ ion its name. However, the name is usually simpler and more
(Na+), its mass changes by 0.002%. ln most discussions commonly used in everyday speech.
about the masses of atoms, we can, therefore, regard
the mass of an electron as negligible (essentially zero)
compared to the mass of the atom.
Most of the volume of the atom is due to the electrons
- the nucleus is very small compared with the total size
of the atom. The diameter of an atom is approximately
1 x 10- 10 m and that of a nucleus between about
1 x 10- 14 rn and 1 x 10- 15 m, meaning that a nucleus is
about 10 000 to 100 000 times smaller than an atom.
So, if the nucleus were the size of the full stop at the
end of this sentence, the atom would be between 3 and
30 m across.

THEORY OF KNOWLEDGE
Figure 2.2: Bars of the element with atomic number 79.
None of these particles can be observed directly.
These particles were originally 'discovered'
by the interpretation of experimental data. The number of electrons in an atom
Do we know or believe in the existence of
The overall charge on an atom is zero and, therefore,
these particles?
since the charge on an electron (-1) is equal but opposite
If we looked at a science textbook of 200 years to the charge on a proton (+1), an atom must contain
ago, there would be no mention of protons, equal numbers of these. So, if we consider a carbon
electrons and neutrons. If we could look at a atom, which has atomic number six, we can work out
chemistry textbook of 200 years in the future, that it contains six protons in the nucleus and, therefore,
would there be any mention of them? Are these there must also be six electrons in the atom.
particles a true representation of reality, or a Atomic number is defined in terms of protons rather
device invented by scientists to make sense of than electrons because electrons are lost or gained when
experimental data and provide an explanation of ions are formed in chemical reactions.
the world around us?

Link
The elements are arranged in order of atomic number in
Atomic number the periodic table, see Chapter 10.

P.OINiTS
Mass number
Atomic number (Z) is the number of protons in
the nucleus of an atom.

number of electrons in an atom=

Mass number (A) is the total number of protons
number of protons= the atomic number
plus neutrons in the nucleus of an atom;
therefore: number of neutrons in an atom=
mass number - atomic number
The atomic number (Z) defines an element - it is unique
to that particular element. For example, the element
with atomic number 6 is carbon and that with atomic If a titanium atom has a mass number of 48 and an
number 79 is gold (Figure 2.2). This means that we atomic number of 22, we can work out that there must
be 48 - 22 = 26 neutrons in the nucleus.

19 )
) CHEMISTRY FOR THE 18 DIPLOMA: COURSEBOOK

The nuclear symbol for Working out the numbers

an atom of protons, neutrons and
The nuclear symbol of an element shows the atomic electrons in ions
number, the mass number and the symbol of the element
(Figure 2.3). KEY POINTS
element Ions are charged particles that are formed when
symbol
an atom loses or gains (an) electron(s):
cation a positive ion
mass number --@
anion a negative ion

atomic number --@ A positive ion (cation) is formed when an atom loses
(an) electron(s), so that the ion has more protons(+)
Figure 2.3: The nuclear symbol for an atom.
than electrons(-). A negative ion (anion) is formed
when an atom gains (an) electron(s), so that the ion has
For example, the nuclear symbol for sodium is ~;Na, so more electrons(-) than protons(+). It is important to
we can see that sodium has an atomic number of 11 and remember that protons are never lost/gained from the
a mass number of 23. nucleus in chemical reactions - charges arise when the
From the atomic numbe1~we can deduce that a sodium number of electrons changes.
atom must contain 11 protons. Because the atom is An Na+ ion has a positive charge because it has one more
neutral, there must also be 11 electrons surrounding proton than electrons. Sodium has an atomic number
the nucleus. of 11, so the nucleus must contain 11 protons and the
charge on the nucleus (nuclear charge) must be l l+.
From the mass number, we can deduce the number of
Because the overall charge is 1+, there must only be 10
neutrons in the nucleus: number of neutrons= 23 - 11 = 12
electrons (total charge 10-) in the atom: 11+ + I 0- = 1+
(Figure 2.4).
(Figure 2.5).
11 protons
+ 12 neutrons 11 protons positive charge:
+ 12 neutrons

~
the atom has lost
an electron therefore

9YNa
11 protons and 11 electrons
Figure 2.4: The number of subatomic particles in the 11 protons
Na atom. Figure 2.5: The number of subatomic particles in the
Na• ion.

An 0 2- ion has two more electrons than protons. Because

the element is oxygen, the atomic number is 8 and
The mass number is always the larger number there are 8 protons in the nucleus - the nuclear charge
(except ;H, where the numbers are the same). is 8+. To give an overall charge of 2-, there must be
Hydrogen-1 is the only atom that does not 10 electrons, with a total charge of I0-: 8+ + I0- = 2-
contain a neutron. (Figure 2.6).

20 )
 2 The nuclear atom

+ 8 protons negative charge:

+ 8 neutrons the atom has gained
two electrons therefore 2.2 Isotopes
there are 10 electrons

~
Not all atoms of an element are identical. For instance,
there are two different chlorine atoms in a naturally

0
occurring sample of chlorine. The symbols for these are
;;Cl and ~;er.They must have the same atomic number

~
(number of protons) - otherwise they would not be
chlorine - but they have different masses due to different
numbers of neutrons in the nucleus.
8 protons
35
Cl: 17 protons 18 neutrons
Figure 2.6: The number of subatomic particles in the
37
0 2- ion. Cl: 17 protons 20 neutrons
These different forms of chlorine are called isotopes.
A 12Mg 2+ ion contains two more protons than electrons.
Therefore, there are 12 protons and 10 electrons.
:~pcontains 15 protons, 18 electrons and 16 neutrons.
3
-

TEST YOUR UNDERSTANDING

1 Complete the following sentence: 4 State the number of protons, neutrons and
electrons in the following atoms:
Atoms contain a ..................... charged nucleus
composed of .................. and ................ a ~;Na b 1~N
2 Complete the following sentences (you may
need to use more than one word in each gap):
C ;~cl d 2:~u
e ;;As f s1Br
Electrons have a ..................... charge and are 35
found ................................................... 5 State the number of protons, neutrons and
Virtually all the mass of an atom is due to the electrons in the following ions:
............................................................
a ;Li+ b ~H+
3 State whether each of the following statements
is TRUE or FALSE: C 31p3- d ~:s2-
15
a The atomic number has the symbol A, and e ;w f i~ca2+
the mass number has the symbol Z.
g 1;;i- h 1:~ce3+
b Mass number - atomic number= number
of neutrons in the nucleus. 6 Sort the following atoms/ions into
three categories:
C Protons and neutrons together are
called nucleons. A more electrons than neutrons

d The charge on a neutron is equal in size but B same number of electrons and neutrons
opposite in sign to the charge of a proton. C more neutrons than electrons.
e All atoms have no overall charge. 1 2
~~Na+ ~0 - ~:st 1!F- ;iCr ;iCo3+
f If an atom has an atomic number of 20, 3H- 32s2- 76Br- 26Al3+ 71 Ass+
it must be a calcium atom. 1 16 35 13 33
7 What is the nuclear charge of a ;;cI atom?

21 )
) CHEMISTRY FOR THE 1BDIPLOMA: COURSEBOOK

Isotopes are different atoms of the same element Isotopes have the same chemical properties
(same atomic number/number of protons in (they react in exactly the same way) but different
the nucleus) with different mass numbers, i.e., physical properties (e.g. different melting points
different numbers of neutrons in the nucleus. and boiling points).

All elements have isotopes, but only some isotopes are

stable and occur in a natural sample of that element.
Physical and chemical
Usually, one isotope is far more abundant than the properties of isotopes
others, and the mass number of the most common
isotope is quoted. Isotopes react in the same way because they have the
same numbers of electrons, and chemical reactions
The numbers of protons, neutrons and electrons in some depend on the number and arrangement of electrons
isotopes are shown in Table 2.2. and not on the composition of the nucleus. For example,
both protium ('H) and deuterium (2H or D) would react
Isotope Protons Neutrons Electrons in the same way with nitrogen:
;H 1 0 1

~H 1 1 1
But because isotopes have different masses, they have
;H 1 2 1 different physical properties, such as melting point,
boiling point and density.
,!C 6 6 6 For example, the boiling point of 1H2 is -253 °C,
,~c whereas that of 2H 2 (D) is -250 °C. Heavy water (DP)
6 7 6
has a melting point of 3.8 °C and a boiling point of
,:c 6 8 6 101.4 °C, whereas ordinary water (Hp) has a melting
point of 0 °C and a boiling point of 100 °C. Because of
;;Cl 17 18 17 differences in densities, ice made from heavy water will
;~Cl 17 20 17 sink when put into normal water, but ice cubes made
from normal water will float when put into normal
Table 2.2: The numbers of subatomic particles in water or heavy water.
some isotopes.
It is not straightforward to explain why isotopes should
have different boiling points but, at this level, it should
When talking about isotopes, we distinguish between be sufficient to state that the different mass of an isotope
them by including the mass numbe1~ so, for instance, affects how much energy is required to convert it from a
we might talk about chlorine-37 or uraniurn-235. liquid into a gas.
The isotopes of hydrogen are sometimes given
different names and symbols: hydrogen- I is called
protium, hydrogen-2 is deuterium (D), and hydrogen-3
is tritium (T).

22 )
 2 The nuclear atom

TEST YOUR UNDERSTANDING

8 What is the definition of isotopes? 10 State the number of protons, neutrons and
electrons in each of the following:
9 The following table shows the number of
protons, electrons and neutrons in a series of 1 1
a ~B ~B
atoms and ions.
...
_._..._
- n
l ■■ •I•ll ~ . .......
.;;. .., -
■ au.~ ■■■■ a1 ■ a..-...
-
1-1•....11- ■■ - l ■ a..-
b f!Si ~!Si f~Si

11 A television program made reference to

D 27 30 25
'palladium-46'. Why does this show a lack of
X 43 54 42 understanding of the science?
Q 35 44 35
12 Complete the following sentence (you may
L 27 32 26
need more than one word in some gaps):
M 35 46 36 Isotopes have the same ................... properties
z 54 78 54 because they have ................................... but
different .............. properties because they have
a Which symbols represent isotopes?
b Which symbols represent positive ions?

SCIENCE IN CONTEXT

Radioisotopes are radioactive isotopes and have be used in a nuclear reactor. The process by which
lots of uses in medicine and other fields. For this is done is called enrichment. Different reactors
example, carbon-14 is used to date objects that require uranium that has been enriched to different
were once alive, cobalt-60 is used in radiotherapy extents, but most require the fuel to be enriched to
to kill cancer cells and technetium-99m is used contain at least 3% uranium-235. Nuclear weapons
widely as a radioactive tracer in medical imaging to require uranium that has been enriched to contain at
diagnose illnesses. least 90% uranium-235.
Probably the most well-known radioisotopes are The different physical properties of isotopes are
those of uranium. There are two main naturally exploited in the enrichment of uranium. Before
occurring isotopes of uranium: uranium-235 enrichment can occur, uranium must be converted
and uranium-238. The isotope that undergoes into a volatile form: uranium hexafluoride, UF6 .
fission (when a nucleus breaks apart into smaller UF6 has a fairly low boiling point, and one of the
nuclei) in a reactor in a nuclear power station is enrichment techniques relies on the fact that
uranium-235, but the problem is that the natural gaseous 235 UF6 molecules diffuse slightly faster
abundance of this isotope is only 0.7%. The (because of their lower mass) through a porous
proportion of uranium-235 present in a sample, membrane than 238 UF6 molecules.
therefore, generally has to be increased before it can

23 )
) CHEMISTRY FOR THE 18 DIPLOMA: COURSEBOOK

each isotope in the sample - the weighted average.

Relative atomic masses The proportion of an isotope in a naturally occurring
If you look at a periodic table, you will usually find that sample is called the natural abundance. We will illustrate
mass numbers are not quoted but rather relativeatomic how to calculate the relative atomic mass with a worked
masses. Depending on which periodic table you look at, example involving just two isotopes, but the method can
these can be stated to different numbers of decimal places be extended to any number of isotopes, for instance,
- those in the 1B data booklet are stated to two decimal tin has ten naturally occurring stable isotopes and the
places. These are not the masses of individual atoms but method would work in exactly the same way but would
rather average masses, taking into account the proportion just take a bit longer!
of each isotope in a naturally occurring sample. This type
of average is called the weighted average or weighted mean. WORKED EXAMPLE 2.1
It is inconvenient to work with the actual average mass Lithium has two naturally occurring isotopes:
of an atom, for instance, that of oxygen is 2.66 x I 0-26 kg,
6
so we use a scale of relative masses based on the mass of Li: natural abundance 7°/.i
a carbon-12 atom, which is assigned a mass of exactly 7
12.00. This allows much easier comparison between the Li: natural abundance 93%
masses of atoms because the numbers are much simplet~ Calculate the relative atomic mass of lithium.
for example, the relative atomic mass of oxygen is 16.00.
Relative atomic mass is given the symbol A, Imagine we have I 00 Li atoms: 7 will have mass 6
and 93 will have mass 7. The average mass of these
atoms is:
KEY POINT
(7 X 6) + (93 X 7) = 6.93
The relative atomic mass (A) of an element is 100
the weighted average of the 'masses of the atoms
of the isotopes compared to ~ of the mass of a Therefore, the A, of Li is 6.93.
1
carbon-12 atom.

The relative atomic mass of Mg is 24.3 I. A natural

sample of magnesium is made up of a mixture of Does the question specify to how many decimal
isotopes and, on average, an Mg atom is 24.31 times as places the answer should be given? You will lose
1
heavy as 12of a carbon-12 atom. a mark if you do not get this correct.
One-twelfth of a carbon-12 atom has a relative mass
of 1,00. This is basically the same as the mass of a 1H
atom (actually 1.008 on this scale), so we are essentially How to calculate the relative proportion
comparing everything to the mass of a hydrogen atom.
A magnesium atom is approximately 24 times as heavy of the isotopes in a sample given the
as a 1H atom. relative atomic mass
Although we assign 12C a mass of 12.00, if you look at a The method for this is best understood with a worked
periodic table, you will see that the relative atomic mass example and uses basically the same ideas as above but
of carbon is 12.01. This is because a naturally occurring working backwards from the relative atomic mass, with
sample does not just contain 12C but also contains about a little bit of extra algebra thrown in. It only works
1% uc. when there are two isotopes in the sample, unless you
are given more information.
How to calculate relative atomic mass
given the percentages of the isotopes
present in a sample
What we are doing here is finding the average mass
of an atom by taking into account the proportion of

24 )
 2 The nuclear atom

WORKED EXAMPLE 2.2

Iridium has a relative atomic mass of 192.22 and consists of iridiurn-191 and iridiurn-193 isotopes.
Calculate the percentage composition of a naturally occurring sample of iridium.
Answer
We will assume that we have 100 atoms and that x of these will have a mass of 191.
This means that there will be (100 - x) atoms with a mass of 193.
The total mass of these 100 atoms will be 19lx + 193(100- x).
The average mass of the 100 atoms will be l 9 lx+ 193(100-x)
100
. h . ,. II 191x+193(100-x)
Th eref,ore, we can wnte t e equat10n as 10 ows: ------- 192.22
100
Rearranging this we get, x = 39
This means that the naturally occurring sample of iridium contains 39% iridium-191 and
61% iridium-193.
Alternatively, this calculation can be summarised in an equation, which can be useful for
multiple-choice questions:
A, - mass number of lighter isotope
-~~------~~--~--x 100 = % of heavier isotope
difference in mass number of two isotopes
192.22-191
In the example here: -----x 100 = 61%
193-191

INTERNATIONAL MINDEDNESS

The relative abundances of the isotopes of particular reflect the range of variations that occur and not just
elements are not the same everywhere on Earth, the limitations of the instruments used to determine
and both physical and chemical processes can the values. This can also mean that the orange juice
cause variations to occur. This means that the you drink in the morning may have a very slightly
relative atomic mass values for some elements can different isotopic composition than your coffee.
vary, depending on where a sample comes from. Variations in isotopic abundances within countries
The uncertainties on the internationally accepted and between them have also been used to track the
values for relative atomic masses for several migratory routes of animals.
elements (including hydrogen, carbon and oxygen)

25 )
> CHEMISTRY FOR THE IB DIPLOMA: COURSEBOOK

TEST YOUR UNDERSTANDING

13 Bromine has two naturally occurring isotopes, 16 Krypton has six naturally occurring isotopes, and
and their masses and natural abundances are their masses and natural abundances are shown
shown in the table. in the table.

... ... - •.•• 1.,~

78Kr
.
0.35
.... ..
• ll...;1e111ue • ·10~
50.69
49.31 aoKr 2.25
a2Kr 11.6
Calculate the relative atomic mass of bromine to a3Kr 11.5
two decimal places.
a4Kr 57.0
14 Chromium has four naturally occurring isotopes, a6Kr 17.3
and their masses and natural abundances are
shown in the table. Calculate the relative atomic mass of krypton to
..
IL'"f'ell•J• ~
~
.-- •••.. •.. .. 10'm,
•••••••r.;1■ 11111i:::l •
two decimal places .
17 a Indium has two naturally occurring isotopes:
socr 4.35 indium-113 and indium-115. The relative
s2cr 83.79 atomic mass of indium is 114.82. Calculate
s3cr 9.50 the natural abundance of each isotope.
s4cr 2.36 b Gallium has two naturally occurring
isotopes: gallium-69 and gallium-71. The
Calculate the relative atomic mass of chromium relative atomic mass of gallium is 69.723.
to two decimal places. Calculate the natural abundance of
each isotope.
15 Silicon has three naturally occurring isotopes
and their details are given in the table. c Copper has two naturally occurring isotopes:

- e1.-e e1:..

2ssi
..... ...... . ..
.. ·1Wi> copper-63 and copper-65. The relative
atomic mass of copper is 63.546. Calculate
the natural abundance of each isotope.
92.2
29Si d The relative atomic mass of a sample of
4.7
strontium is 87.71. There are four naturally
3osi 3.1 occurring isotopes. The natural abundance
of 84Sr is 0.56% and that of 88Sr is 82.58%
Calculate the relative atomic mass of silicon to Calculate the natural abundances of 86Sr
two decimal places. and 87Sr.

26 >
 2 The nuclear atom

The mass spectrum of an element and

relative atomic mass (;~~6)--area under peak
-- -
The proportion of each isotope present in a sample of
an element can be measured using an instrument called
amass .1pectrometer (Figure 2.7).
~
----
[lj
C
Mg
"'
tl
C
:::,
.0
<i:

11.3
10.1

0--'--------------------
24 25 26
Mass: charge ratio (m / z)

Figure 2.8: The mass spectrum of magnesium showing the

amounts of the different isotopes present.

The relative atomic mass (A) can be calculated from

a mass spectrum. For example, using data about the
abundance of the isotopes in a sample of magnesium,
as shown in Figure 2.8, we get
Figure 2.7: Setting up a mass spectrometer. /4 = (78.6x24)+(10.lx25)+(11.3x26) = _
24 3
100
The readout from a mass spectrometer is called a mass
spectrum (plural: mass spectra). In the mass spectrum of
an element, we get one peak for each individual isotope. Link
The height of each peak (more properly, the area under
Mass spectrometry can also be used to provide
each peak) is proportional to the number of atoms of
information about the structures of molecules.
this isotope in the sample tested. The mass spectrum of
This is discussed in Chapter l I.
magnesium is shown in Figure 2.8.
The scale on the x-axis in a mass spectrum is the
mass:charge ratio (mlz or mle).
To pass through a mass spectrometer, atoms are
bombarded with high-energy electrons to produce
positive ions (the mass of an electron is negligible, so
it can be ignored when calculating the relative atomic
mass). Sometimes more than one electron is knocked
out of the atom, which means that the ions behave
differently (as if they have smaller masses - a 24 Mg 2+ ion
24
would behave as if it had a mass of
2 = 12), hence, the
use of mass:charge ratio. We can generally ignore this
and assume that the horizontal scale refers to the mass
of the isotope.

27 )
> CHEMISTRY FOR THE 18 DIPLOMA: COURSEBOOK

TEST YOUR UNDERSTANDING

18 Determine the relative atomic mass of each element to two decimal places from the mass spectra
in Figure 2.9.

~
0
72.17
~
---
---
u
QJ

C
Nd
~ Rb "'
-a
C
"'
~ 27.83
::,
..0
27.13
::, <(
..0
<(

85 87 142 143 144 145 146 148 150

Mass:charge ratio {m / z) Mass:charge ratio {m / z)

Figure 2.9: Mass spectra of two elements.

SELF-ASSESSMENT CHECKLIST

Th.ink about the topics covered in this chapter. Which parts are you most confident with?
Which topics require some extra practice?

I cf Needs Nearly Confident

can... 5e ,on more work there to move on

state the relative masses and charges of protons, neutrons

2.1
a·n d ele·r
et ons
describe t he structure of the atom in terms of the locations
2.1
of protons , neutrons and electrons
explain th e terms mass number (A) and atomic number (Z) 2. I
write then uclear symbol for an atom given values of A and Z 2.1
work out t he number of protons, neutrons and electrons
2.1
in atoms
work out the number of protons, neutrons and electrons in ions 2.1
explain th e term isotope 2.2
explain wl1y isotopes have the same chemical properties 2.2
give exam ples of physical properties that are different
for isotop es
2.2

determine the relative atomic mass of a sample of

2.2
an elemen t given the natural abundances
determine the natural abundance of the isotopes
in a sampl e given the relative atomic mass
2.2

28 >
 2 The nuclear atom

CONTINUED

Needs Nearly Confident

I can ... Section
more work there to move on
name the instrument used to find the isotopic
> composition of an element, so that its relative atomic
mass can be determined
2.2

> use mass spectra to determine the relative atomic mass

(A,) of an element.
2.2

REFLECTION
Would you feel more confident with the material by reading through the key points again?

Do you need more practice on the mathematical parts of the topic?

Try to explain the following to another student:

• the structure of an atom

• how a gold atom differs from a copper atom

• the difference between mass number and atomic number

• isotopes .

EXAM-STYLE QUESTIONS
You can find questions in the style of 1Bexams in the digital coursebook.

29 >
In this chapter you will:

• describe the emission spectrum of hydrogen

• understand how the lines in the emission spectrum of hydrogen arise

• describe the relationship between wavelength, frequency, energy and colour in the electromagnetic spectrum

• write full and condensed electron configurations for atoms and ions up to Z = 36

• understand what orbitals are and draw diagrams of sand p orbitals

• draw orbital diagrams for atoms and ions up to Z = 36

 3 Electron configurations

everyone. These are all electromagnetic radiation,

GUIDING QUESTIONS which is a form of energy. Electromagnetic radiation
(Figure 3. I) is usually described as waves that travel
• How are electrons arranged in atoms
at the speed of light in a vacuum (3.0 x 108 111 s- 1).
and ions?
Although visible light, microwaves, etc. are given
• How can atoms give out light? different names, they are all basically the same thing -
they just vary in their frequency/energy/wavelength.
• Why does it take different amounts of energy
to remove electrons from different atoms? Frequency is the number of waves (passing a particular
point) per second (measured in Hertz, Hz), whereas
wavelength is the distance between corresponding points
(e.g. peaks or troughs) of consecutive waves (measured
Introduction in m, cm, etc.).

Chemistry is about the movement of electrons. In The frequency, wavelength and energy of
chemical reactions, electrons are either transferred electromagnetic radiation are related by the following
between atoms or the electrons are rearranged so that equations:
they are shared between different atoms, therefore an 1
understanding of the electronic structure of atoms is frequency oc -----
wavelength
fundamental to an understanding of chemistry. The
electron was discovered in 1897 by J. J. Thomson of frequency oc energy
Cambridge University, UK- this was the first of the
subatomic particles revealed and was the beginning of 1
energy oc -----
a period of intense development in theories of atomic wavelength
structure. Thomson proposed a model of the atom,
which is often referred to as the plum-pudding model. So, the longer the wavelength, the lower the energy and
This was followed by Rutherford's nuclear atom and frequency of the radiation; and the higher the frequency,
then the Bohr model, which still has its uses today. the higher the energy.
Modern models of the structure of an atom describe it Visible light is just one part of the electromagnetic
in terms of quantum theory. spectrum. White light is the name given to the normal
visible light that surrounds us every day. White light
is made up of light of all the colours of the visible
3.1 The electromagnetic spectrum. In order of increasing energy, the colours of
the spectrum are:
spectrum red < orange < yellow < green < blue < indigo < violet
Visible light, microwaves (cooking and Wi-Fi), Although electromagnetic radiation is usually described
ultraviolet (what you try to protect yourself from as a wave, it can also display the properties of a particle,
by putting on sun cream), etc. are familiar terms to and we sometimes talk about particles of electromagnetic

increasing frequency

increasing energy

radio waves microwaves infra red visible light ultraviolet X-rays y-rays

increasing wavelength

Figure 3.1: The electromagnetic spectrum.

31 >
> CHEMISTRY FOR THE 1B DIPLOMA: COURSEBOOK

radiation called photons. A beam of light could, therefore,

be regarded as a stream of photons. A higher energy
photon corresponds to higher frequency or shorter
wavelength electromagnetic radiation.
Energy of photon oc frequency
1
Energy of photon oc
wave1engt11
Figure 3.3: A representation of the atomic emission
spectrum of hydrogen.

3.2 The hydrogen atom

KEY POINT
spectrum The lines in an emission spectrum get closer
When hydrogen gas at low pressure is subjected to a very together (converge) at higher frequency/energy.
high voltage, the gas glows pink (Figure 3.2). The glowing
gas can be looked at through a spectroscope, which
contains a diffraction grating (or prism) which separates This is a line spectrum, as opposed to a continuous
the various wavelengths of light emitted from the gas. spectrum, which consists of all the colours merging into

- each other (Figure 3.4).

Each element has its own unique emission spectrum,
and this can be used to identify the element.
hydrogen at -~
low pressure increasing energy/frequency
I

/4 I.....____I _spectros-cope ______._.I

I
I'
111'

I'
ii I

Figure 3.4: A continuous spectrum .

•
discharge
tube
• line spectrum - only certain frequencies/
Figure 3.2: Observing the emission spectrum of hydrogen.
wavelengths of light present
• continuous spectrum - all frequencies/
Because light is emitted by the gas, this is called an
wavelengths of light present.
emission spectrum. Although hydrogen is usually present
as H2 molecules, collisions with high-energy electrons
in the discharge tube cause the molecules to split up
into H atoms. The spectrum we study here is due to the The Bohr model of the atom
hydrogen atoms in the tube.
The Bohr model of the atom (also called the Rutherford-
In the visible region, the spectrum consists of a series of Bohr model), which was developed towards the
sharp, bright lines on a dark background (Figure 3.3). beginning of the 20th century, provides an explanation
of the lines in the hydrogen atom emission spectrum.
In this model, atoms consist of a central nucleus with
electrons moving around the nucleus in circular orbits
(Figure 3.6).

32 >
 3 Electron configurations

SCIENCE IN CONTEXT
You may have already encountered atomic emission
spectra without realising it, if you have carried out
a flame test. If you sprinkle some sodium chloride
into a non-luminous Bunsen burner flame, you
will see a bright yellow-orange colour -you are
observing the emission spectrum of sodium atoms.
With potassium salts, you get a lilac colour, and red
with lithium salts. Each different atom has a unique
emission spectrum, and elements such as rubidium,
caesium and helium were discovered when lines
were observed in a spectrum that could not be
accounted for by any existing element. The names Figure 3.5: A true neon sign is red.
of these three elements reflect the nature of this
discovery - rubidium and caesium come from Latin 'Neon signs', however, come in a variety of colours
words for red and blue-grey, respectively, after the and most of these do not actually contain neon -
colours of lines in their spectra, and helium was other colours are obtained generally by using argon
named after the Greek god of the sun because and mercury and by coating the inside of the tubes
it was discovered through observation of the with a phosphor that produces the required colour.
spectrum of the sun.
The emission spectrum of mercury is also exploited
Outside the laboratory, you may have also seen
in the fluorescent tubes that are familiar from many
emission spectra in neon signs. Neon glows bright
offices and industrial buildings. Mercury is, however,
red when it is subjected to a high voltage in a
extremely toxic, and the use of mercury in lighting is
discharge tube (Figure 3.5).
controversial and subject to legislation.

The energy of an electron in a particular orbit is increasing energy

constant, so these orbits can also be regarded as energy ___
n =4
levels (sometimes referred to as shells). Only certain =3
orbits (energy levels) can exist so that the electron within
an atom can only have certain amounts of energy. These
allowed energy levels are different for atoms of different
elements. An electron in an orbit closer to the nucleus
has lower energy than an electron in an orbit further
from the nucleus.
The energy levels are labelled with a number, n nucleus
(the principal quantum number). The level closest electron
to the nucleus has n ==I and the numbers increase as
you go outwards from the nucleus. Figure 3.6: The Bohr model of a hydrogen atom
(not to scale).

33 )
) CHEMISTRY FOR THE 18 DIPLOMA: COURSEBOOK

The electron is in the lowest

energy level. This is called electron in higher
the ground state. energy level

+ ENERGY
•
the electron gains
energy and moves
to a higher energy level

electron in lowest The electron is in a higher energy

energy level level than the ground state.
This is called an excited state.

Figure 3.7: An electron can be promoted to a higher energy level in a discharge tube.

As it moves from a level at energy E 2 (higher energy) to

How an emission spectrum E 1 (lower energy), the extra energy (£ 2 - E 1) is given out
is formed in the form of a photon of light. This forms a line in the
emission spectrum.
The electron in a hydrogen atom is usually in the lowest
possible energy level (n = 1), closest to the nucleus - this
is the ground state. Passing an electric discharge through
hydrogen gas causes an electron to be promoted to a The ground state is the lowest possible energy
higher energy level - this is an excited state (Figure 3.7). state for an atom. For hydrogen, this occurs
The electron is unstable in this higher level and will fall when the electron is in the lowest energy level
to a lower energy level (not necessarily the lowest level) (n = 1), closest to the nucleus.
(Figure 3.8). The excited state is a higher energy state of an
electron energy is £2 atom. For hydrogen, the electron gains energy -
(high energy) it is promoted to a higher energy level.

In reality, a great number of these transitions are

required to produce a line that we can see.
The electron can have either energy £ 1 or E 2 - it cannot
have any amount of energy in between, and so, the
amount of energy (E 2 - EJ must be given out in one go,
as a photon of light.

electron energy is £ 1
(lower energy)
Each line in the emission spectrum comes from
Figure 3.8: When an electron falls from a higher to a lower the transition of an electron from a higher energy
energy level on an atom, a photon of light is emitted. level to a lower energy level.

34 )
 3 Electron configurations

The transitions between energy levels can also be shown a energy level 5
5
as in Figure 3.9.
4

6 3
5
>-
4 ~
QI
C
QI
>- 3 01
2
~ C
these transitions
QI
C
·.;; would all produce
QI
en
"'
~ lines in the emission
V
C 2 spectrum
·.:;; £
(there are others)
"'
~
V
£
energy level 1

Figure 3.9: How the lines arise in the emission spectrum --=---------5
of hydrogen. The transitions down to level 2 are shown -+-+-+-+-'1'-111-=------4

because these are the ones that produce lines in the visible
region of the electromagnetic spectrum.

The line spectrum as evidence

for energy levels for an
electron in an atom Figure 3.10: a Electrons in energy levels: only transitions
between two discrete energy levels are possible, and a line
The fact that a line spectrum, rather than a continuous spectrum is produced. b If the electrons in an atom could
spectrum, is produced provides evidence for electrons have any energy, all transitions would be possible. This
being in discrete energy levels: i.e., electrons in an atom would result in a continuous spectrum.
are only allowed to have certain amounts of energy. If an
electron in an atom could have any amount of energy, it
could gain any amount of energy in a discharge tube and Different series of lines
give this energy out again, so that all frequencies of light
would be emitted - a continuous spectrum (Figure 3.10). Figure 3.11 shows a representation of the emission
spectrum of hydrogen across the infrared, visible and
ultraviolet regions. The series in each region consists of
a set of lines that get closer together at higher frequency.
Each series is named after its discoverer.

-+-----infrared----++---visible ----++---ultraviolet---

-+3 -+ 2 -+1
Paschen Balmer Lyman
series series series

Figure 3.11: A representation of the emission spectrum of hydrogen. The colours and lines in the spectrum in the infrared
and ultraviolet regions are just for illustrative purposes.

35 )
> CHEMISTRY FOR THE 18 DIPLOMA: COURSEBOOK

one electron, would have spectra similar to hydrogen,

but not exactly the same because the number of protons
The names of the series do not have to be
in the nucleus influences the electron energy levels
learned for the examination.
(energy of electrons). The simple model of energy levels
presented here cannot be used to explain the spectra of
atoms with more than one electron because repulsion
Figure 3 .12 shows how the different series arise. between electrons affect electron energy levels in atoms.

4
Convergence
I 3 The lines in the emission spectrum get closer together at
Paschen higher frequency/energy (Figure 3.13).
series

2 increasing energy/frequency
Balmer
series

convergence limit

Lyman
Figure 3.13: A representation of the Lyman series (electron
series
falling to n = 1) of hydrogen in the ultraviolet region of the
Figure 3.12: The different series of lines arise when electromagnetic spectrum.
electrons fall to different energy levels.
Eventually, the lines merge to form a continuum. The
point at which this occurs is called the convergence limit.
KEY POINT Beyond this point, the electron can have any energy, and
so, must be free from the influence of the nucleus, i.e.,
The different series of lines in an emission the electron is no longer in the atom (Figure 3.14).
spectrum occur when electrons fall back down to
different energy levels. electron can have electrons falling
any energy from outside
the atom
outside the atom
So, for instance, the lines in the Balmer series arise when -------------------------------
inside the atom
electrons fall from various higher energy levels to level 2, -------+!iitt+lrt---5
and the Lyman series arises when the electron falls to level 1. ------....-+tiitt+lrt---4
-------+-+tiitt+irt--3
All the transitions that occur in the visible region of electron can only have
the spectrum (those we can see) involve electrons faJling certain amounts of energy
down to energy level 2 (creating the Balmer series). -----+---+-+-+<<-++<>t--2

All transitions down to energy level 1 occur in the

ultraviolet region. So, for example, the transition n = 5
to n = 2 occurs in the visible region of the spectrum and
the transition n = 2 ton= l occurs in the UV region.
UV radiation has higher energy than visible light;
therefore, we can deduce that the energy difference
between energy level I and energy level 2 in a hydrogen
atom is bigger than that between energy level 2 and any
other higher energy level. Figure 3.14: The blue arrow represents the transition
giving rise to the convergence limit in the Lyman series
The atomic emission spectrum of hydrogen is relatively
(electron falling from the limit of outside the atom ton= 1)
simple because hydrogen atoms contain only one
for hydrogen.
electron. Ions such as He+ and Li 2+, which also contain

36 >
 3 Electron configurations

TEST YOUR UNDERSTANDING

3.3 Electron
1 Arrange the following in order of

a increasing energy
configurations
b decreasing wavelength. Main energy levels
ultraviolet radiation, infrared radiation, As we extend the Bohr model to atoms other than
microwaves, orange light, green light hydrogen, we will change the words we use slightly and
talk about main energy levels (shells) rather than just
2 Describe how a line in the Lyman series of energy levels. The word 'main' is being used here because
the hydrogen atom spectrum arises. we will see later that these energy levels are divided up
into sub-levels.
3 Draw an energy level diagram showing the
first four energy levels in a hydrogen atom, As we saw previously, these main energy levels are
and mark with an arrow on this diagram one labelled with a number, n. The level closest to the
electron transition that would give rise to nucleus has n = 1, and the numbers increase as we go
the following: outwards from the nucleus. The maximum number
of electrons in each main energy level is given by 2n2 •
a a line in the ultraviolet region of
The maximum number of electrons in each main energy
the spectrum level is shown in Table 3 .1.
b a line in the visible region of
the spectrum Main energy level number 1 2 3 4 5
Maximum number
c a line in the infrared region of 2 8 18 32 50
of electrons
the spectrum.

Table 3.1: Distribution of electrons in the main energy levels.

NATURE OF SCIENCE

Advances in technology are often accompanied

by advances in science - Bunsen's development
Electrons fill the main energy levels from
of his burner with a high-temperature flame in
the lowest energy to the highest (from the
the 1850s enabled spectroscopic analysis of nucleus out).
substances.

Scientific theories often develop from a need

So, the first main energy level must be completely full
to explain natural phenomena. For instance,
(two electrons) before an electron can be put into the
Niels Bohr, building on the work of Rutherford,
second main energy level, and the second main energy
proposed the model for the atom in which
level must be completely full (eight electrons) before
electrons orbit the nucleus and only exist in
an electron can be put into the third main energy level.
certain allowed energy levels to try to explain the
Some electron configurations are shown in Figure 3.15.
line spectra of hydrogen and other elements.

2, 1
2,8,1

Figure 3.15: Electron configurations of some atoms,

showing the number of electrons in each main energy level.

37 >
) CHEMISTRY FOR THE 18 DIPLOMA: COURSEBOOK

This scheme for working out the number of electrons Main Sub-levels Maximum number
in each main energy level works for elements with energy of electrons in
atomic number up to 18, but breaks down after that level each sub-level
as the electron configuration of potassium (Z = 19) is
2,8,8,1 (or 2.8.8.1) and not 2,8,9 (Figure 3.16). The third s p d f
main energy level is only filled to eight before electrons 1 1s 2
are put into the fourth main energy level (we will see
why below). 2 2s 2p 2 6
3 3s 3p 3d 2 6 10
4 4s 4p 4d 4f 2 6 10 14

Table 3.2: The sub-levels in each main energy level up to

level 4.

Within any main energy level (shell), the ordering of the

sub-levels (subshells) is always s < p < d < f. The relative
energies of the sub-levels (subshells) are shown in Figure
3.17. It is important to notice that the 4s sub-level is
lower in energy than the 3d sub-level.
4p
3d
Figure 3.16: The electron configuration of potassium,
showing electrons in main energy levels.
------------4s
3p

:,..
3s
E!'
Full electron configurations (lJ
C
(lJ
<ii
O') >
C
·;;; 2p sub-level (lJ

The Bohr model failed to explain experimental

"'
~
observations such as the emission spectra of atoms with
more than one electron and the variation in ionisation
V
£ 2s }l
C
·ro
energy across a period in the periodic table; therefore, E
a more sophisticated model had to be developed. This
was based on treating the electron in the atom as a wave.
This more sophisticated theory led to the concepts of ls
sub-energy levels and orbitals.
Figure 3.17: The ordering of the energy levels and sub-
levels within an atom. The sub-levels within a main energy
Energy sub-levels and orbitals level are shown in the same colour.

Each main energy level in an atom is made up of

sub-levels (subshells). The first main energy level consists The Aufbau (building-up)
solely of the ls sub-level, the second main energy level
is split into the 2s sub-level and the 2p sub-level. principle
The sub-levels in each main energy level up to 4 are
The Autbau principle is the name given to the process of
shown in Table 3.2.
working out the electron configuration of an atom.

38 )
 3 Electron configurations

Electron configurations of atoms with The full electron configuration of sodium is, therefore,
ls 2 2s 22p 6 3s 1 (Figure 3.18).
1-18 electrons

The number of electrons in each sub-level must

Electrons fill sub-levels from the lowest energy
be written as a superscript.
level upwards - this gives the lowest possible
energy overall.

Condensed electron configurations

So, the full electron configuration of sodium
The full electron configuration of sodium can be
(11 electrons) can be built up as follows:
abbreviated to [Ne] 3s1,where the electron configuration
• The first two electrons go into the ls of the previous noble gas atom is assumed and
sub-level ➔ 1s2; this sub-level is now full. everything after that is given in full. This is known as a
• The next two electrons go into the 2s condensed electron configuration.
sub-level ➔ 2s2;this sub-level is now full. [1s2 2s2 2p6] 3s 1
• The next six electrons go into the 2p from neon
sub-level ➔ 2p6; this sub-level is now full. The full and condensed electron configurations for the
• The last electron goes into the 3s sub level ➔ 3s 1
•
first 18 elements are shown in Table 3.3.

Atom Atomic number Full electron configuration Condensed electron configuration

H 1 1s1 1s1
He 2 1s2 1s2
Li 3 1s2 2s1 [He] 2s1
Be 4 1s2 2s2 [He] 2s2
B 5 1s2 2s2 2p 1 [He] 2s2 2p 1
C 6 1s2 2s2 2p 2 [He] 2s2 2p 2
N 7 1s2 2s2 2p 3 [He] 2s2 2p 3
0 8 1s2 2s2 2p 4 [He] 2s2 2p 4
F 9 1s2 2s2 2p 5 [He] 2s2 2p 5
Ne 10 1s2 2s2 2p 6 [He] 2s2 2p 6
Na 11 1s2 2s2 2p 6 3s 1 [Ne] 3s1
Mg 12 1s2 2s2 2p 6 3s2 [Ne] 3s2
Al 13 1s2 2s2 2p 6 3s2 3p 1 [Ne] 3s2 3p 1
Si 14 1s2 2s2 2p 6 3s2 3p 2 [Ne] 3s2 3p 2
p 15 1s2 2s2 2p 6 3s2 3p 3 [Ne] 3s2 3p 3
s 16 1s2 2s2 2p 6 3s2 3p 4 [Ne] 3s2 3p 4
Cl 17 1s2 2s2 2p 6 3s2 3p 5 [Ne] 3s2 3p 5
Ar 18 1s2 2s2 2p 6 3s2 3p 6 [Ne] 3s2 3p 6

Table 3.3: The electron configurations of the first 18 elements. Remember that the atomic number tells you the number of
electrons in a neutral atom.

39 )
) CHEMISTRY FOR THE 1B DIPLOMA: COURSEBOOK

3s
Atom Atomic Full electron Condensed
number configuration electron
2p configuration
>,.
en
a:;
•• • • •• K 19 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 2 [Ar] 4s 1
C
Q)
en
2s 3p 6 4s 1
C
·.;;
n:s Ca 20 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 2 [Ar] 4s 2
['!
3p 6 4s 2
u
-~ sodium
Table 3.4: The electron configurations of potassium and
1s calcium atoms.

Figure 3.18: The arrangement of electrons in energy levels

From Figure 3 .17, we can see that the next lowest sub-
for a sodium atom.
level, once 4s has been filled, is 3d, and so, the electron
configuration of scandium (Z = 21) is ls 2 2s2 2p 6 3s2 3p6
Electron configurations of atoms with 4s2 3d'.
19-36 electrons The electron configuration of scandium is sometimes
Once the 3p sub-level has been filled, there are now written as 1s2 2s2 2p 6 3s2 3p 6 3d 1 4s2 to keep the sub-levels
8 electrons (2 in the 3s and 6 in the 3p sub-levels) in in a main energy level together.
the third main energy level, but the third main energy Once the 3d sub-level has been filled, the electrons
level can hold a total of 2 x 32 = 18 electrons, so there is then go into the 4p sub-level. The electron
room for another 10 electrons in this main energy level. configurations of atoms with 21-36 electrons are
However, if you look at Figure 3.17, you can see that the shown in Table 3.5.
next lowest sub-level is 4s, so the next two electrons go
into there. The electron configurations of potassium and
calcium are shown in Table 3.4.

Atom Atomic number Full electron configuration Condensed electron configuration

2 2 6 2 6 2 1
Sc 21 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d [Ar] 4s 2 3d 1
Ti 22 1s2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 2 3p 6 4s 2 3d 2 [Ar] 4s 2 3d 2
V 23 1s2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 2 3p 6 4s 2 3d 3 [Ar] 4s 2 3d 3
Cr 24 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 2 3p 6 4s 1 3d 5 [Ar] 4s 1 3d 5
Mn 25 1s2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 2 3p 6 4s 2 3d 5 [Ar] 4s 2 3d 5
2 2 6 2 6 2 6
Fe 26 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d [Ar] 4s 2 3d 6
2 2 6 2 6 2 7
Co 27 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d [Ar] 4s 2 3d 7
Ni 28 1s2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 2 3p 6 4s 2 3d 8 [Ar] 452 3d 8
Cu 29 152 252 2p 6 3s 2 3p 6 4s 1 3d 10 [Ar] 4s 1 3d 10
Zn 30 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 2 3p 6 4s 2 3d 10 [Ar] 4s 2 3d 10
Ga 31 1s2 252 2p 6 352 3p 6 4s 2 3d 10 4p 1 [Ar] 4s 2 3d 10 4p 1
Ge 32 1s2 252 2p 6 3s 2 3p 6 4s 2 3d 10 4p 2 [Ar] 4s 2 3d 10 4p 2
As 33 1s 2 252 2p 6 3s 2 3p 6 4s 2 3d 10 4p 3 [Ar] 4s 2 3d 10 4p 3
Se 34 1s 2 252 2p 6 3s 2 3p 6 4s 2 3d 10 4p 4 [Ar] 4s 2 3d 10 4p 4
2 2 6 6 2 10 5
Br 35 1s 2s 2p 3s 2 3p 4s 3d 4p [Ar] 452 3d 10 4p 5
2 2 6 2 6 2 10 6
Kr 36 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d 4p [Ar] 4s 2 3d 10 4p 6
Table 3.5: The full and condensed electron configurations of atoms with between 21 and 36 electrons.

40 >
 3 Electron configurations

Chromium and ·copper are exceptions The period (horizontal row) number tells you the highest
energy main energy level occupied.
There are a small number of exceptions to the rules
for filling sub-levels, i.e., electron configurations that
WORl<ED EXAMPLE 3.1
are not quite as expected. Two of these exceptions are
chromium and copper, which, instead of having electron Deduce the full electron configuration of selenium (Se).
configurations of the form [Ar] 4s2 3d have only one
0
,

electron in the 4s sub-level: Answer

1 5
24Cr: [Ar] 4s 3d This can be done most easily from the periodic table
Cu: [Ar] 4s 1 3d 10 in Figure 3 .19 - just follow the arrows from the
29
beginning until you reach the element you are
The reasons for this are complex and beyond the level interested in. For selenium (Se), we have
of the syllabus, but, in general, having the maximum
number of electron spins the same within a set of H➔ He ls 2
degenerate (same energy) orbitals gives a lower energy Li ➔ Be 2s2 B ➔ Ne 2p6
(more stable) situation. Orbitals and electron spin are
discussed next. Na ➔ Mg 3s2 Al ➔ Ar 3p 6

K ➔ Ca 4s2 Sc ➔ Zn 3d 10 Ga ➔ Se 4p 4
Using the periodic table to work out
(remember to go down 1 for the main energy level in
electron configurations the d block - it is 3d, not 4d here).
The periodic table (Figure 3.20) is divided into blocks
(s, p, d, f) according to the highest energy sub-level that Therefore, the electron configuration of selenium is
contains electrons. For instance, Li and Ca are in the s ls 2 2s2 2p 6 3s2 3p 6 4s 2 3d 10 4p 4 •
block because they have electron configurations
[He] 2s 1 and [Ar] 4s2 , so the s sub-level is the highest
energy level occupied, but N is in the p block because it A way to remember the order in which
has the electron configuration [He] 2s2 2p3, and so, a p the sub-levels are filled
sub-level is the highest energy level occupied.
If you have not got a periodic table, you can remember
All elements in the same group (vertical colulllll) will the order in which the sub-levels are filled by using
have the same number of electrons in the highest the following trick. Draw out the sub-levels in each
occupied main energy level (we normally say outer-shell main energy level with all the s sub-levels above each
electron corifiguration). So, for instance, the electron other and all the p sub-levels above each other, as in
configurations of the elements in Group 1 (Li ➔ Cs) all Figure 3.20. Starting at ls, follow the diagonal arrows to
end in ns 1 and those of elements in Group 14 all end in give the ordering of the sub-levels.
ns2 np 2 •

41 )
> CHEMISTRY FOR THE 1B DIPLOMA: COURSEBOOK

2 ---number of group number -10 = ------+ 13 14 15 16 17 18

1
0 electrons in
outer shell
number of electrons
in outer shell ~

------------------------------------------1s 2
2 .- number of electrons in s sub-level number of-----. 1 2 3 4 5 6
period 2s2 electrons in ::-2p6
number 2 Li Be p sub-level B C N 0 F Ne
gives 3s 2 number of electrons in d sub-level ::-3p6
number 3 Na Mg 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Al Si p s Cl Ar
of highest
main
- 4s 2 ::-3d10 ~ 4p6
4 K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
energy
level y
occupied 5 Rb Sr Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
L____
6 Cs Ba La Hf Ta w Re 0s lr Pt Au Hg TI Pb Bi Po At Rn
s-block d-block p-block

Figure 3.19: Electron configurations can be worked out from the periodic table. Some exceptions to the general rules for
filling sub-levels are highlighted in pink. Helium has the electron configuration 1s2 and so has no p electrons - despite this, it
is usually put in the p block to be in the same group as the other noble gases (Group 18).

TEST YOUR UNDERSTANDING

4 Give the full electron configurations of the 5 Give the condensed electron configurations of
following atoms: the following atoms:

a N b Si a 0 b Cl
C Ar d As C Mn d Ga
e V f Cr e Br f Cu

start here
Orbitals
A more advanced model of the behaviour of electrons
in an atom regards the electrons as waves. Solutions of
a complex equation, called the Schrodinger Equation,
are mathematical functions that allow us to define the
regions of space occupied by electrons within atoms.
An orbital is a region of space in which there is a high
probability of finding an electron.

KEY POINTS
Figure 3.20: Follow the arrows to get the order in which
Electrons occupy atomic orbitals in atoms.
sub-levels are filled.
An orbital can contain a maximum of
two electrons.

42 >
 3 Electron configurations

There are four different types of atomic orbital: s, p, d The p orbitals have a 'dumb-bell' shape (Figure 3.23).
and f.
a b
The first main energy level (maximum number of
electrons= 2) consists of a ls orbital, and this makes up the
entire ls sub-level. This is sphe1ical in shape (Figure 3.21a).

a b

Figure 3.21: a The shape of a 1s orbital; b the electron

density in a 1s orbital.
Figure 3.23: a The shape of a 2p orbital; b the electron
density in a 2p orbital.
The ls orbital, like all other atomic orbitals, is centred
on the nucleus (Figure 3.21b). The electron is moving all
the time, and the intensity of the colour here represents Three p orbitals make up the 2p sub-level. These lie
the probability of finding the electron at a certain at 90° to each other a,nd are labelled p_,,Py and p2
distance from the nucleus. The darker the colou1~the (Figure 3.24). The Px orbital points along the x-axis, the
greater the probability of the electron being at that Py orbital points along the y-axis, etc. The three 2p
point. This represents the electron density. The electron orbitals all have the same energy - they are described
can be found anywhere in this region of space (except as degenerate.
the nucleus - at the centre of the orbital), but it is most
likely to be found at a certain distance from the nucleus.
The second main energy level (maximum number of
electrons= 8) is made up of the 2s sub-level and the 2p
sub-level. The 2s sub-level just consists of a 2s orbital,
whereas the 2p sub-level is made up of three 2p orbitals.
The 2s orbital is spherical in shape (like all others
orbitals) and bigger than the ls orbital (Figure 3.22).
Px Py

2sorbltal Figure 3.24: a The three p orbitals that make up a

p sub-level pointing at 90° to each other.

Figure 3.25 shows the orbitals that make up the 2s and

2p sub-levels in the second main energy level.
1sorbital

Figure 3.22: A cross-section of the electron density of the

1sand 2s orbitals together.

Figure 3.25: The 2s and 2p sub-levels in the second main

energy level.

43 )
) CHEMISTRY FOR THE 18 DIPLOMA: COURSEBOOK

The third main energy level (maximum 18 electrons)

consists of the 3s, 3p and 3d sub-levels. The 3s sub-
level is just the 3s orbital, the 3p sub-level consists of Each orbital has a certain defined amount
three 3p orbitals, and the 3d sub-level is made up of of energy.
five 3d orbitals. One of the five 3d orbitals is shown in
Figure 3.26a.
The fourth main energy level (maximum 32 electrons) The energy of an orbital depends on the following:
consists of one 4s, three 4p, five 4d and seven 4f orbitals. • The atom - both the number of protons in the
The seven 4f orbitals make up the 4f sub-level. One of nucleus and the number of other electrons influence
the f orbitals is shown in Figure 3.26b. the energy of orbitals. The energy of a ls orbital in
a hydrogen atom is, therefore, different from that of
a 1s orbital in a helium atom.
• The electron configuration - different numbers
of electrons cause different amounts of repulsion
between electrons. The energy of, for example, a
2p orbital in a sodium atom (Na) is different from
that of a 2p orbital in a sodium ion (Na+).
• The chemical environment of the atom - the energy
Figure 3.26: One of the five 3d orbitals (a} and one of the f of the ls orbital of C in CH 3Cl is not the same as
orbitals in the 4f sub-level (b}. the energy of the ls orbital of C in CC14 •

THEORY OF KNOWLEDGE
The diagrams of atomic orbitals that we have seen
Within any subshell, all the orbitals have the
here are derived from mathematical functions that
same energy (they are degenerate).
are solutions to the Schrodinger equation. Exact
solutions of the Schrodinger equation are only
possible for a system involving one electron, i.e.,
For example, the three 2p orbitals are degenerate and
the hydrogen atom. It is not possible to derive
the five 3d orbitals are degenerate.
exact mathematical solutions for more complex
The number of orbitals in each main energy level is atoms. What implications does this have for the
shown in Table 3.6. limit of scientific knowledge? When we describe
more complex atoms in terms of orbitals, we
Main energy level (shell) s p d f are actually just extending the results from the
hydrogen atom and gaining an approximate view
1 1
of the properties of electrons in atoms.
2 1 3
3 1 3 5
4 1 3 5 7
Table 3.6: The number of orbitals in each energy level.
3.4 Putting electrons
into orbitals
As well as moving around in space within an orbital,
We do not do much with elements containing
electrons also have another property called spin.
f electrons at this level, but you should We use a single-headed arrow to represent an electron
remember that the f subshell is made up of having spin in one direction
seven f orbitals and contains up to 14 electrons.

44 )
 3 E_lectronconfigurations

[TI
or in the opposite direction
When an electron is alone in an orbital, it is
rn called an unpaired electron.

Each box represents an orbital.

There are two rules that must be considered for Orbital diagrams
understanding how electrons occupy orbitals:
We are now in a position to use the Aufbau
1 The Pauli exclusion principle:Remember: the
principle to draw orbital diagrams that show the
maximum number of electrons in an orbital is 2.
full electron configurations of atoms. Figure 3.27a
There are two further rules that must be considered
and b shows orbital diagrams for oxygen and silicon
for understanding how electrons occupy orbitals: if
atoms, respectively.
there are two electrons in an orbital, they must have
opposite spins:
orbital

[Il] lX1 In exam papers, the orbitals/sub-levels may

sometimes be shown all on the same level.
✓
2 Hund's rule:electrons fill orbitals of the same Partial orbital diagrams for some transition metal atoms
energy (degenerate orbitals) to give the maximum are shown in Figure 3.28.
number of electrons with the same spin.
So, the electrons fill the orbitals of a p sub-level as shown: 2p4

2s 2 11
Ll111I
p sub-level ~I~I 1111I
~11 1111111 1s 2 [] aO
p4 ps p6
[]
11
Ll111I 11
Ll1
Ll1I 11
Ll1 LI
Ll1 3p2

The direction of electron spin (as long as the maximum

number have the same spins - parallel spins) or which
3s 2 1111I
of the p orbitals an electron goes into (they are all the 2p6 []
same energy) make no difference to the overall energy,
so other arrangements for the p 2 electron configuration
>-
e'
QJ
C
QJ
2s 2 1~1
L1~1
L1~1
LI
O'I
are also acceptable. C
·;;;
"'
1s2 1]]
l'!
p2 p2 p2 u
.!: []
11I 11I I 1111I I LILI Figure 3.27: Electron configurations of a oxygen and b silicon.
✓ ✓ ✓
By contrast, these higher energy situations do not occur: 4s2 3d 3
V [Ar] rru11
1111I I I
2p sub-level 2p sub-level 4s1 3d 5

IO}<[J ij)H::)
Px Py Pz Px Py Pz
Cr [Ar] []1111111111I
4s2 3d 8
Ni [Ar] [j] 11
Ll1
Ll1
Ll111I
Figure 3.28: Orbital diagrams for three transition metal atoms,
showing how the electrons occupy the 4s and 3d orbitals.

45 )
) CHEMISTRY FOR THE 1BDIPLOMA: COURSEBOOK

The arrangement of electrons in a Cr atom cannot actually Formation of negative ions

be predicted by this treatment, which would not give us
information about whether the spin of the electron in the When an electron is added to an atom to form a negative
4s orbital will be the same or different from those of the 3d ion, we just follow the rules of the Aufbau principle.
electrons. But, in general, electrons with the same spin tend The electron configuration of some atoms and negative
to stay further apart, and so there is less repulsion between ions are shown in Table 3.7.
them, giving a lower energy situation. It is unlikely that you
would be required to know that at this level. Atom Full electron Ion Full electron
configuration configuration
TEST YOUR UNDERSTANDING p 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 2 3p 3 p3-
1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 2 3p 6

6 Draw orbital diagrams for the following

s 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 2 3p 4 52- 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 2 3p 6
atoms, showing electrons in boxes: Cl 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 2 3p 5 c1- 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 2 3p 6
Table 3.7: Full electron configurations of some negative ions.
a N b S
c Cr d Fe.
7 Deduce how many unpaired electrons are Formation of positive ions
present in an atom of each of the following: When an atom loses electrons, the highest energy
b p
electrons are easiest to remove and are, therefore, lost
a B
first. The general rule is that electrons are removed in
C Ca d Mn the reverse order to which we have just learned to put
them into orbitals; in other words, 'last in, first out'.
e As.
Figure 3.29 shows how electrons are removed from a
magnesium atom to form positive ions.

Electron configurations of ions 352 35 1

Ions are formed when atoms lose or gain electrons. [l] [TI
11
~11~I
~11
2P 11~11~I
~112P
66
11
~11~I2P 6 11~11
~11 ~11I2 P5
[l] 25 2
[l] 25 2
[l] 25
2
[l] 252

[l] 15 2
[l] 15 2
[l] 15
2
[l] 152

Positive ions (cations) are formed when atoms Mg+ Mg2+ Mg3+
Mg
lose electrons.
Figure 3.29: Orbital diagrams showing the removal of
Negative ions (anions) are formed when atoms
successive electrons from a Mg atom. In reality, the energies
gain electrons.
of all the orbitals would change as electrons were
removed. Mg does not form a 1+ or a 3+ ion in chemical
reactions/compounds.
Link
A cation moves towards the cathode (negative electrode) Transition metal ions
in an electrolytic cell and an anion moves towards the The transition metals are the elements in the d block, in
anode (positive electrode) - see Chapter 20. the middle of the periodic table, and represent a slight
departure from the 'last in, first out' rule for
ionisation energy.

46 >
 3 Electron configurations

3.5 Ionisation energy

The 4s electrons are removed before the
3d electrons. The relationship between the
energy of a photon and the
Although the sub-levels are filled in the order of 4s and frequency or wavelength of
then 3d, the 4s electrons are always removed before the
3d electrons. electromagnetic radiation
Some condensed electron configurations of transition- Light, and other forms of electromagnetic radiation,
metal atoms and ions are shown in Table 3.8. exhibit the properties of both waves and particles - this
is known as wave-particle duality.
Atom Condensed Ion Condensed The energy (E) of a photon is related to the
electron electron frequency of the electromagnetic radiation:
configuration configuration
E=hf
V [Ar] 4s2 3d 3 v2+ [Ar] 3d 3
where
Cr [Ar] 4s1 3d 5 Cr 3+ [Ar] 3d 3
Fe [Ar] 4s2 3d 6 Fe3 + [Ar] 3d 5 f is the frequency of the light (Hz or s- 1)

Cu [Ar] 4s1 3d 10 Cu 2+ [Ar] 3d 9

his the Planck constant (6.63 x 10-34 J s)
The wavelength of the light is related to the frequency
Table 3.8: The condensed electron configurations of some
using the equation:
transition metal atoms and ions.
c=f?,,,
where
From Ga to Kr
?,,,is the wavelength of the light (m)
For these elements, the 4p electrons are lost before the 4s c isthe speed of light (3.0 x 108 ms- 1)
electrons, which are lost before the 3d electrons. Therefore,
The two equations E = hf and c = f},.,can be
the electron configurations of Ga and Ga 3+ are:
combined:
Ga: ls 2 2s2 2p 6 3s2 3p6 3d 10 4s 2 4p 1 E=hc
?,,,
Ga 3+: 1s2 2s2 2p 6 3s2 3p6 3d 10
This relates the energy of a photon to its wavelength.

TEST YOUR UNDERSTANDING Ionisation energy and the

8 Write the full electron configurations of the convergence limit in the
following ions:
hydrogen emission spectrum
b 0 2-
We saw earlier in the chapter that the lines got closer
d Mn2+ e Co 3+ together in the hydrogen emission spectrum until they
9 Write condensed electron configurations for reached the convergence limit. The convergence limit
each of the following ions: in the Lyman series represents an electron falling from
the limit of where it is in/outside the atom (level oo in
a s2- b Ge 4+ c Zn2+ Figure 3.30) to level I.
d V3+ e Ni2+ Knowing the frequency of light emitted at the
convergence limit of the Lyman series enables us to
work out the ionisation energy of a hydrogen atom - the
energy for the process:

47 >
> CHEMISTRY FOR THE 1B DIPLOMA: COURSEBOOK

The ionisation energy for hydrogen represents the outside the atom
00
minimum energy for the removal of an electron (from inside the atom=!===~"if
--t---+-5
energy level 1 to 00 ) (Figure 3.30), and the frequency
--t---+-4
(or wavelength) of the convergence limit in the Lyman
series allows us to calculate the quantity of energy given ----+-3
out when an electron falls from the limit of in/outside
the atom to energy level 1 (oo to I). These are the same
--t---+-2
quantities of energy.
The ionisation energy of hydrogen can be obtained only
from a study of the series of lines when the electron falls
back to its ground state (normal) energy level - in other
words, only the Lym.an series, where the electron falls
back down to level 1.

Figure 3.30: The convergence limit and ionisation in a

hydrogen atom. Note: the arrows go in opposite directions.

WORKED EXAMPLE 3.2

If the wavelength of the convergence limit in the Lyman series for hydrogen is 91.46 nm
calculate the ionisation energy of hydrogen in kJ mo1- 1.

Answer

The wavelength is given in nanometres, but must be converted to metres (because the speed
of light, c, is in ms- 1). The meaning of 'nano' is given in the data booklet: nano refers to 10-9 _
Therefore, to convert nm tom, multiply by I 0- 9 _

Wavelength at the convergence limit is: 91.46 x I0- 9 , that is 9.146 x I0- 8 m

c =p,.,therefore J = c;IJ,,
f = 3.00 X 10s = 3.28 X 101sHz
9.146 X 10-s
E=hf
Therefore, E =6.63 x 10-34 x 3.28 x l 0 15= 2.17 x 10- 1s J

This represents the minimum amount of energy required to remove an electron from just one
atom of hydrogen, but we are required to calculate the total energy required to remove one
electron from each atom in 1 mole of hydrogen atoms - therefore we must multiply by the
Avogadro constant (6.02 x l 023 mo1- 1 - see Chapter 4).

The energy required is 2.17 x 10- 18x 6.02 x 1023 = 1.31 x 106 J mo1- 1•

Dividing by 1000 gives the answer in kJ moJ- 1, so the ionisation energy of hydrogen is
1.31 x 103 kJ mo1- 1•

48 >
 3 Electron configurations

The second ionisation energy for a particular element is

TEST YOUR UNDERSTANDING always higher than the first, and this can be explained in
10 In the emission spectrum of deuterium (2 H), two ways:
the frequency of the convergence limit in the 1 Once an electron has been removed from an atom,
series of lines where the electron falls to a positive ion is created. A positive ion attracts a
n = 1 is 3.29 x 10 15 Hz. Calculate the negatively charged electron more strongly than a
ionisation energy of deuterium in kJ mol- 1 • neutral atom does. More energy is, therefore, required
to remove the second electron from a positive ion.
11 In the emission spectrum of a helium ion
(He+), the wavelength of the convergence 2 Once an electron has been removed from an atom,
limit in the series of lines where the electron there is less repulsion between the remaining electrons.
falls ton= 1 would be 22.81 nm. Calculate They are, therefore, pulled in closer to the nucleus
the ionisation energy of a helium ion in (Figure 3.31). If they are closer to the nucleus, they are
kJ mol- 1 • more strongly attracted and more difficult to remove.
Similarly, the third ionisation energy for a particular
element is always higher than the second ionisation
energy, etc.
Successive ionisation energies
The first ionis.ttionenergyfor an element is the minimum
amount of energy required to remove an electron from a
Successive ionisation energies
gaseous atom - the energy for the following process: and main energy levels
M(g) ➔ M+(g) + e-
The graph in Figure 3.32 shows the energy required
The full definition is the energy required to remove one to remove each electron in turn from a gaseous
electron from each atom in one mole of gaseous atoms potassiLLDlatom.
under standard conditions (see Chapter 13).
From the graph, we can see that the first electron is
relatively easy to remove, then there is a jump to a group
of eight electrons, then another jump to a further group
You must remember to include the state symbols.
of eight electrons and then finally a jump to a group of
two electrons. This pattern corresponds to the mLD1ber
of electrons in main energy levels (shells) in potassium -
The second ionisation energy is M+(g) ➔ M 2+(g) + e- 2,8,8, 1 - with the large jumps in the graph occurring

The nth ionisation energy is M<11 1>(g)➔ M 11+(g) + e-

nucleus repulsion between

electrons less repulsion between
electrons - electrons pulled
•~ only repulsions
~n closer to nucleus
between outer

\
electrons shown

\ electron

•--+--•----+-----.7
- removed

attraction between electron

and nucleus

Figure 3.31: When an electron is removed from an atom, the remaining electrons are drawn closer to the nucleus due to
reduced repulsion.

49 )
> CHEMISTRY FOR THE 18 DIPLOMA: COURSEBOOK

6.0

5.5

8 electrons
5.0

'E
0 4.5

:'2
....._
LU
4.0
0
01
_Q 3.5

3.0

2.5

2.0
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 1 18 19
Number of ionisation energy

Figure 3.32: Successive ionisation energies (IEs) for potassium. Plotting log 10 of these numbers reduces the range.
The 1st ionisation energy of potassium is 418 kJ mol-1, whereas the 19th is 475 000 kJ mol- 1 . It would be very difficult to plot
these values on a single graph with a linear scale.

when an electron is removed from a different main

energy level (shell). THEORY OF KNOWLEDGE

Remember that the electrons (negatively charged) are held A log scale is used in Figure 3.34 to allow all the
in the atom by electrostatic attraction to the positively data to be plotted on one graph, but, although
charged nucleus. The outermost electron in potassium is on one level, this has made the data easier to
furthest from the nucleus and, therefore, least strongly interpret and supports the explanations that have
attracted by the nucleus, so this electron is easiest (least been given, it has also distorted the data. The
energy is required) to remove. It is also shielded (screened) difference between the 1stand 2nd ionisation
from the full attractive force of the nucleus by the other energies of potassium is about 2600 kJ mol-1,
18 electrons in the atom (Figure 3.33). but the difference between the 18th and 19th
ionisations energies is over 30 000 kJ mol- 1 -
the first one is regarded as a large jump but the
second one is not!

• How can the way in which data are

presented be used by scientists to support

0
their theories?
• Is scientific knowledge objective or is it a
matter of interpretation and presentation?
The arguments for and against human-made
climate change are a classic example of where
the interpretation and presentation of data are
key in influencing public opinion.

Figure 3.33: The outer electron in a potassium atom is

shielded from the full attractive force of the nucleus by the
inner shells of electrons (shaded in blue).

so >
 3 Electron configurations

Shielding
Complete shells (main energy levels) of electrons
between the nucleus and a particular electron reduce
the attractive force of the nucleus for that electron.
The outer electron is said to be shielded or screened by
·the inner electrons. If we look at a potassium atom,
@)@) 10th electron
we can see that there are three full shells of electrons 9th electron
between the outermost electron and the nucleus
which shield the outer electron from the full attractive Figure 3.35: The tenth electron is substantially harder to
force of the nucleus. The charge on the nucleus of a remove because it is in a different main energy level, closer
potassium atom is 19+, but because of the shielding by to the nucleus.
inner electrons the nuclear charge experienced by the
outermost electron is effectively lower. If the shielding by The ionisation energy now rises steadily as the electrons
the inner shells were perfect, the effective nuclear charge are removed successively from the same main energy
felt by the outer electron would be 1+ (I 9+ in the nucleus level. There is no significant change in shielding, but, as
but 18 shielding electrons cancel out 18+). This shielding the positive charge on the ion increases, it becomes more
is not perfect, however, and the effective nuclear charge difficult to remove a negatively charged electron (less
felt by the outermost electron is higher than 1+. electron-electron repulsion, so the electrons are pulled
in closer to the nucleus).
An alternative view of shielding is that the outer
electron is attracted by the nucleus but repelled by the
inner electrons. There is another large jump in ionisation energiesbetween
the ninth and tenth electrons (Figure 3.35) because the
ninth electron is the last to be removed from the third main
Removing the remaining electrons from energy level, but the tenth is the first to be removed from
the second level.The tenth electron is significantlycloser to
a potassium atom the nucleus and is less shielded than the ninth electron.
Once the first electron has been removed from a
potassium atom, the next electron is considerably more
difficult to remove (there is a large jump between first
and second ionisation energies). This is consistent with Many students use the term effective nuclear
the electron being removed from a new main energy charge incorrectly and get it mixed up with 'nuclear
level (shell). This electron is closer to the nucleus and, charge'. It is, therefore, usually better to avoid
therefore, more strongly attracted (Figw·e 3.34). It is also mentioning effective nuclear charge in the exam j
shielded by fewer electrons (the ten electrons in the inner and just talk about nuclear charge and shielding.
main energy levels highlighted in blue), because electrons
in the same shell do not shield each other very well (they
do not get between the electron and the nucleus).
Graphs of successive ionisation
.
energies
Graphs of successive ionisation energy give us
electron closer
to nucleus than
information about how many electrons are in a
outermost shell particular energy level. Consider the graphs for silicon
and phosphorus shown in Figure 3.36.
For silicon, there is a large jmnp in the ionisation energy
between the fourth and fifth ionisation energies. The first
Figure 3.34: An electron in the third main energy level
four electrons are removed from the outermost shell (third
(shell) requires more energy to remove than one in the
main energy level), but the fifth electron is removed from
fourth (outermost) main energy level.
the second main energy level (shell)- the electrons in the
second main energy level are closer to the nucleus and less
shielded so they are significantlymore strongly attracted

51 )
> CHEMISTRY FOR THE 18 DIPLOMA: COURSEBOOK

5.5
electrons removed from 2nd
0 main energy level (shell)
E 5,0
:;1
--...
>.
\
0,
4.5
<ii
C
Qi
C
0 4.0 ~ large jump between 4th and 5th
·.:; ionisation energies
:ll
·1: 3.5
go / ~electrons removed from 3rd
r£ main energy level (shell)
..Q 3.0

2.5
0 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Number of ionisation energy

b 6.0

0' 5.5 electrons removed from 2nd

E main energy level (shell)
:;1 5.0
--...
>.
0,
4.5
\
<ii
C
Qi
C 4.0 large jump between 5th and 6th
0
·.:;
ionisation energies
:ll 3.5
·1: rr
g2 3.0 _./□
CJ
'-"- electrons removed from 3rd
0,
..Q main energy level (shell)
2.5

2.0
0 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Number of ionisation energy

Figure 3.36: a The successive ionisation energies of silicon. b The successive ionisation energies of phosphorus.

to the nucleus and require significantly more energy to 5000

remove. It can, therefore, be deduced that silicon has four 4500 4348
electrons in its highest main energy level (outer shell) and is
in Group 14 of the periodic table. For phosphorus, it can be 4000
seen that the large jump comes after the fifth electron is 'E
0
3500 "---...electrons removed from
removed, so it must have five electrons in its outer shell :;1 3s sub-level (subshell)
--...
(highest main energy level) and be in Group 15. The 5, 3000
<ii
connection between group number and the number of C
Qi 2500
C
electrons in the outer shell of an atom is shown in Table 3.9. 0
.:; larger jump between
2000
"'
V, sub-levels (subshells)
·1:
..Q 1500
Group number 1 2 13 14 15 16 17 18
Electrons in 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1000 785
0
~ electrons removed from
outer shell 3p sub-level (subshell)
500
Table 3.9: The number of electrons in the highest main 0
energy level in the s and p blocks of the periodic table. 0 2 3 4 5
Number of ionisation energy

If a graph of ionisation energy (rather than log 10 ionisation Figure 3.37: The first four ionisation energies of silicon.
energy) is plotted for the removal of the first few electrons
from a silicon atom, more features can be seen (Figure 3.37).

52 )
 3 Electron configurations

For example, there is a larger jump in the ionisation outside the atom
--------------------------00
energy between the second and third ionisation energies.
The full electron configuration of silicon is
ls 2 2s2 2p 6 3s2 3p2 . The first two electrons are
removed from the 3p sub-level (subshell), whereas
the third electron is removed from the 3s sub-level.
The 3p sub-level is higher in energy than the 3s sub-level
and, therefore, less energy is required to remove the
electron (Figure 3.38). ---i-------3p
--o>--------3s
This provides evidence for the existence of sub-energy
levels (subshells) in an atom. --------2p
--------2s
Another way of thinking about why it takes Jess energy
to remove a 3p electron than a 3s electron is that the
3p electrons are shielded, to a certain extent, by the 3s
electrons, which means the electrons in the 3p sub-level --------1s
are not attracted as strongly by the nucleus and are, Figure 3.38: More energy is required to remove an electron
therefore, relatively easier to remove. from the 3s sub-level of silicon than from the 3p sub-level.

TEST YOUR UNDERSTANDING

12 a Write an equation for each of the ...
- -. e1u - .. • iO(tl.Ulii'I!iJfl
following processes:
--
.... -- 1r4I
1

... . .,., -
~ - - 1- - - .
the first ionisation energy of calcium
.. .. ... t'.
•
ii the second ionisation energy
of chlorine 1 1085 736 1400
2 2349 1448 2851
iii the tenth ionisation energy of iron
3 4612 7719 4570
iv the 29th ionisation energy of copper.
4 6212 10522 7462
b Which of the processes in question 1Oa will 5 37765 13606 9429
require the most energy?
6 47195 17964 53174
13 The table shows the successive ionisation of
some elements. Deduce which group in the 14 The 9th to 12th ionisation energies of two
periodic table each element is in. successive elements in the periodic table are
shown in the table. Suggest possible identities
for the elements.

9th 10th 11 th 12th

A 32 000 35 000 170 000 190 000
T 32 000 38 000 43 000 200 000

53 )
) CHEMISTRY FOR THE 1BDIPLOMA: COURSEBOOK

SELF-ASSESSMENT CHECKLIST

Think about the topics covered in this chapter. Which parts are you most confident with?
Which topics require some extra practice?

Needs Nearly Confident

I can ... Section
more work there to move on

describe the emission spectrum of hydrogen 3.2

explain how the lines in the emission spectrum of 3.2
hydrogen arise
describe the relationship between wavelength, frequency, 3.1
energy and colour in the electromagnetic spectrum
write full and condensed electron configurations for 3.3
atoms and ions up to Z = 36
explain the term orbital and draw diagrams of s and 3.3
p orbitals
draw orbital diagrams for atoms and ions up to Z = 36 3.4
understand that the ionisation energy for hydrogen can
3.5
be deduced from the emission spectrum
calculate the first ionisation energy from the wavelength
3.5
or frequency of the convergence limit
explain successive ionisation energy data and deduce
3.5
from it the group an atom is in

What is the most difficult part of this topic? Do you think that you would be able to draw a
To what extent do you feel that you are able graph of how second ionisation energy varies down
to do the questions but are unsure about the a group or across a period?
underlying theory? Try to explain to another student
how the hydrogen emission spectrum arises. Does
your attempt at an explanation highlight any gaps in
your knowledge?

EXAM-STYLE QUESTIONS

You can find questions in the style of 1Bexams in the digital coursebook.

54 )
• understand the terms relative atomic mass and relative formula mass
• understand what a mole is
• calculate molar masses
• calculate amounts of a substance in mol from masses and vice versa
• carry out calculations involving amounts of a substance in mol, masses and number of particles
• understand what empirical and molecular formulas are
• deduce empirical and molecular formulas from experimental data
• understand what is meant by the concentration of a solution
3
• carry out calculations involving concentrations in mol dm- 3 and g dm-

• understand Avogadro's law

• solve problems involving gases using Avogadro's law.
> CHEMISTRY FOR THE 18 DIPLOMA: COURSEBOOK

hydrogen atom is 1.01 and that of an oxygen atom

GUIDING QUESTIONS is 16.00, so we can immediately see the relationship
between them. Because these masses are relative, they
• How do we work out the numbers of
have no units.
particles in a sample of a substance?
• How do we work out the formula of a
compound from experimental data? Relative atomic mass (A)r
• How do we work out concentrations
of solutions?
P.OINT

• In what ratio do gases react together? The relative atomic mass (A) of an element is the
average mass of the naturai'ly occurring isotopes
of the element relative to the mass of X2of an
atom of carbon-12.
Introduction
You have been saving coins all year to buy a present for For example, the relative atomic mass (A.) of silver is
yom chemistry teacher. Is it possible to find out how 107.87. A naturally occurring sample of silver contains the
much money you have without counting each and every isotopes 107Ag and 109Ag. The 107 isotope is slightly more
coin? If you do not have a specialist coin sorting/counting abundant than the 109 isotope. Taking into account the
machine but are in a chemistry laboratory, what is the am01mt of each isotope present in a sample (the weighted
fastest way of doing this? mean), it is found that, on average, the mass of a silver
atom is 107.87 times the mass of ½'2of a carbon-12 atom.
The first thing you are going to have to do is sort the coins
No silver atoms actually exist with a mass of 107.87; this is
into different denominations and weigh them. The mass of
just the average relative mass of a silver atom.
a £1 (GBP) coin is 8.75 g. If you weigh all the £1 coins and
the total mass is 708.75 g, how many £1 coins do you have?
Twenty 5 pence coins have a total mass of 65 g and a
Link
value of £I. If the total mass of the 5 pence coins you How to calculate relative atomic masses is explained in
have saved is 910 g, how many 5 pence coins do you have Chapter 2.
and what is the value in £?
Although relative masses are defined in terms of carbon,
What does this have to do with chemistry? It is actually the sometimes it is easier to think of everything relative to
basis of the mole concept, which provides the connection hydrogen, the lightest atom. One-twelfth of a carbon-12
between the mass of a substance you have and how many atom has a mass of 1, which is basically the same as the
particles there are. If you can do the calculations with £1 mass of a hydrogen atom (actually 1.008 on this scale).
and 5 pence coins, you have the mathematical skills to cope A silver atom is thus approximately 108 times as heavy
with all the calculations in this chapter. as a hydrogen atom. ·

Relative molecular mass (M)r

4.1 Relative masses
A relative molecular mass (tvl,) is the sum of the relative
The masses of individual atoms, ions or molecules
atomic masses of the individual atoms making up a
are very small and not convenient to use in everyday
molecule. The relative molecular mass of methane
life. For example, the mass of a hydrogen atom is
(CH 4 ) is:
approximately 1.67 x 10-24 g and that of an oxygen
atom is 2.66 x 10-23 g. Looking at these masses, it is not 12.0l(A, of C) + 4 x l.0l(A, of H) = 16.05.
immediately obvious that the mass of an oxygen atom
So, a methane molecule is roughly 16 times as heavy as a
is about 16 times the mass of a hydrogen atom. For this
hydrogen atom.
reason, chemists use a scale of relative masses in which
the masses of atoms, molecules, etc. are compared to
the mass of one atom of carbon- I 2, which is assigned
a mass of exactly 12.00. On this scale, the mass of a

56 >
 4 Counting particles by mass: The mole

POINT
The relative molecular mass (M,) of a compound You will be supplied with relative atomic masses
is the mass of a molecule of that compound to two decimal places in the exam, and you must
relative to the mass of ~ of an atom of use these values in your calculations.
1
carbon-12.

Note: Ar of carbon is not 12.00 because carbon contains TEST YOUR UNDERSTANDING
isotopes other than carbon-12 (see Chapter 2, section 2.2). 1 Work out the relative formula masses of the
The relative molecular mass of ethanoic acid following compounds:
(CH 3COOH) is
S0 2 , NH 3 , C2 HpH, MgCl 2, Ca(N03' 2 ,
12.01 + (3 X 1.01) + 12.01 + (2 X 16.00) + 1.01 = 60.06 CH)CH 2\CH 3 , PCl5 , Mg 3 (P0 4) 2 ,
Na2Sp 3 , CH3 CH2CH2COOCH 2CH3 •
Relative formula mass (M)r
If a compound is made up of ions and, therefore, does
not contain discrete molecules, we should not really talk
about a molecular mass and should, instead, use the more 4.2 Moles
general term: relative formula mass.
The mass of one 12C atom is approximately 12 times
the mass of 1 H atom, so if we had 10 C atoms, the
total mass of these would be 12 times the mass of 10 H
atoms, because each individual C atom is 12 times
The relative formula mass is the mass of one
the mass of an H atom; if we had 20 C atoms ...
formula unit relative to the mass of ~ of an atom (Figure 4.1).
1
of carbon-12.
has 12x the massof H

Relative formula mass is worked out in exactly the same

way as the relative molecular mass, by adding up the
relative atomic masses of the atoms/ions present in a
formula unit. Relative formula mass is the more general
1~,,,~-- HHHH H
HHHH H

term and can be used for all compounds, irrespective of

the type of bonding and whether they contain molecules H H H H H
H H H H H
or not. However, the term relative molecular mass is still has 12x the mass or
H H H H H
used more widely in everyday speech. H H H H H

WORKED EXAMPLE 4.1

has 12x the mass of 6.02 X 1023 H

Calculate the relative formula mass of magnesium

nitrate, Mg(NO 3\. Figure 4.1: The mass of a certain number of C atoms is
always 12 times the mass of the same number of H atoms.
Answer
We must be careful with the brackets here - the two If we have I 2.0 g of 12C, this contains a certain number
after the bracket multiplies everything inside the of C atoms. The mass of a 12C atom is 1.993 x 10- 23 g;
brackets by two, so we have one Mg, two N and six 0. therefore, the number of C atoms in 12.0 g of
carbon-12 is
The relative formula mass is, therefore,
(1 X 24.31) + (2 X 14.01) + (6 X 16.00) = }48.33 12.0
6.02 x 1023 atoms
1.993 X 10-23

57 )
) CHEMISTRY FOR THE 1BDIPLOMA: COURSEBOOK

Because the mass of 6.02 x 1023 C atoms is 12 g, the This number of particles (the number of carbon atoms
mass of 6.02 x I 0 23 H must be 1 g, because the mass in 12 g of 12C), therefore gives us convenient masses to
of each individual C atom is 12 times the mass of each work with and is called the Arngadronumber.
H atom. We can define a quantity called the mole in terms of the
The mass of a hydrogen atom is 1.67 x I 0- g, so we can 24 Avogadro number:
check the mass of 6.02 x 1023 H atoms:
6.02 X 1023 X 1.67 X 1Q-2 4:,, 1.01 g KEY POINT
lt does not come out to exactly 1.00 because the mass The mole is the unit of the amount of substance.
of an H atom is actually 1.01 times the mass of 1~ of a One mole (1 mol) contains the Avogadro number
12
c atom. of particles (atoms, ions, molecules, etc.).
The A of oxygen is 16.00, which means that, on
r
average, eac I1 oxygen atom 1s
. 16.00 . I
_ tunes as 1eavy as a
12 00 So, we can see that 16.00 g of oxygen atoms is 1 mole
carbon-12 atom: since it contains 6.02 x 1023 oxygen atoms and that
24.31 g of magnesium atoms is 1 mole because it
contains 6.02 x 1023 magnesium atoms.
The relative molecular mass of water (H 2 0) is 18.02,
which means that a water molecule is about one and a
Therefore, the mass of 6.02 x 1023 0 atoms must be half times(;~:~~) the mass of a 12C atom:
1.333 times the mass of 6.02 x 1023 C atoms:

6.02 X 10 23 6.02 X 10 23 Q

xl .333
12.00g 16.00 g
The mass of 6.02 x 1023 water molecules is 1.502 times
We can check this: the mass of an O atom is the mass of 6.02 x I 023 C atoms:
2.658 x I0- 23 g, so the number of O atoms in 16.00 g is
23
6.02 X 1023 6.02 x 10 H O H
16.00 + 2.658 X )0- 23
= 6.02 X 1023
xl .502
12.00g 18.02 g
Similarly, one magnesium atom (A = 24.31) is, on
average, 24.31 . h r b
_ times as eavy as a car on-
12 atom:
12 00 Therefore, I 8.02 g (the relative molecular mass in g) is
1 mole of water molecules.
We can see from this discussion that, to work out the
amount of substance that is 1 mol, we just need the
relative atomic mass in g for atoms or the relative
formula mass in g for everything else.
Therefore, the mass of 6.02 x I 023 Mg atoms must be
2.026 times the mass of 6.02 x 1023 C atoms:

6.02 X 1023 6.02 x 1023 Mg The molar mass (M) of a substance is the
x2.026 mass that contains 1 mol of particles (atoms,
12.00 g 24.31 g molecules, ions) and is its A or M, in g.
The units of molar mass are g mol- 1•
We could repeat this process for all the atoms in the
periodic table, but it will always come out the same:
the relative atomic mass, in grams of an element, Amount of substance
contains 6.02 x 1023 atoms of that element.
The amount of substance (symbol n) is how much of
the specified entities (atoms, molecules, ions, etc.) of a
substance we have in moles, so we can talk about 2 mol

58 )
 4 Counting particles by mass: The mole

magnesium atoms, 0.4 mol water molecules or 0.1 mol

Na+ ions.
Although it is more correct to refer to the amount of When you encounter the word 'amount' with no
substance, people often talk about the number of moles - further explanation in an exam, assume that it
this is like saying that we can talk about the mass or the means the amount of substance in mol.
number of grams.
The amount in moles of a certain mass of substance can
be worked out using the following equation: THEORY OF KNOWLEDGE
amount of substance (n) == mass (m) The Avogadro number is an enormous number
molar mass (M) and beyond the scope of our normal experience.
The molar mass is the mass of 1 mol, and so we are How do we understand a number this large?
essentially seeing how many times this goes into a given
mass to calculate the number of moles. So, if the mass One way is to describe the number in terms of
of 1 mol of a substance is 50 g and we have 500 g of it, things we are familiar with from everyday life.
we must have 500 + 50 ==I 0 mol. For instance, the Avogadro number of ping-
pong balls would cover the surface of the Earth
to about 800 times the height of Mount Everest!
Assuming we know what a ping-pong ball looks
like and that we have a rough idea of the height
The equation n ==~ is given in the 1Bdata booklet.
of Mount Everest, perhaps this description
gives us a context in which we can understand
6.02 x 1023 . Another description sometimes
used is in terms of the Avogadro number of
sheets of computer printer paper: the Avogadro
number of these paper sheets, if stacked one
on top of each other, would stretch over 6000
light years (one light year is the distance that
light travels in one year) - this is over twice the
thickness of our galaxy! Is this description better
or worse than the previous one? It certainly
amount of
molar sounds more impressive, but does it suffer from
substance
mass
(number of moles) the fact that we have no real concept of the
size of our galaxy? Can you think of any other
ways of describing this number in terms of
Figure 4.2: The relationship between the mass of a things you are familiar with from everyday life?
substance, the amount in mol and the molar mass. This is an example of a wider idea that we tend
to understand quantities that are beyond our
normal experience by reference to things with
The triangle in Figure 4.2 is a useful shortcut for
which we are more familiar.
working out all the quantities involved in the equation.
If any one of the sections of the triangle is covered up,
the relationship between the other two quantities to
give the covered quantity is revealed. For example, if
'mass' is covered, we are left with amount of substance
(number of moles) multiplied by molar mass:
mass== amount of substance (mol) x molar mass
If 'molar mass' is covered, we are left with mass divided
by amount of substance (number of moles):
molar mass == mass
amount of substance (mol)

59 )
> CHEMISTRY FOR THE 1B DIPLOMA: COURSEBOOK

WORKED EXAMPLE 4.2 WORKED EXAMPLE 4.4

Calculate the amount in mol of 10.0 g of magnesium. Calculate the mass of 0.3800 mol of CH 3COOH.
Answer Answer
amount of substance (n) = mass (m)(M) mass= amount of substance x molar mass
mo 1ar mass
molar mass of CH 3COOH = 12.01 + (3 x 1.01) + 12.01
n = lO.O = 0.411 mol + (2 x 16.00) + 1.01 = 60.06 g moJ- 1•
24.31
10.0 g of magnesium is equivalent to 0.411 mol. mass= 0.3800 x 60.06 = 22.82 g
Magnesium is an element, and so, what we arc talking
The mass of 0.3800 mol of CH 3COOH is 22.82 g.
about here is 0.411 mol of Mg atoms.
The answer is given to four significant figures because
The answer is given to three significant figures,
the amount of substance and the molar mass are
because the mass of substance is given to three
given to four significant figures.
significant figures.
Note: the unit for moles is mol without the 'e'. Never
put an 's' on a unit because 's' means seconds.

Be careful with gases ...

With the exception of the noble gases (He, Ne,

Ar, Kr, Xe, Rn}, elements that are gases at room
The answer to a calculation should be stated to
temperature and pressure exist as diatomic
the same number of significant figures as the
molecules, with the formula X2 , e.g., H 2 , 0 2 , N 2 ,
least precise (fewest significant figures) piece of
and Cl 2 . You must remember this when working
data in the question.
out the amount of substance or the mass. Other
diatomic molecules you will come across, which
are not gases, are Br2 and 12 •

When calculating the amount of substance in

mol, the mass of the substance must be in grams. WORKED EXAMPLE 4.5
A student measures out 0.32 g of oxygen gas.
Calculate the amount of substance.
WORKED EXAMPLE 4.3
Answer
A student weighs out 9.00 kg of water. Calculate the
amount of substance. Oxygen gas contains 0 2 molecules, so the molar mass
of oxygen is 2 x 16.00 = 32.00 g moJ- 1
Answer
amount of substance=---- mass 0.32 = 0.010 mol
molar mass of water= (2 x 1.01) + 16.00 = 18.02 g moJ- 1 molar mass 32.00
The mass of water must be converted into g because So, 0.32 g is 0.010 mol of 0 2 molecules.
the molar mass is in g mo1-1: 9.00 x 1000 = 9000 g
amount of substance=---- mass 9000 = 499 mol
molar mass 18.02
Here, we are talking about a compound; therefore,
9.00 kg of water is 499 mol of H 20 molecules.

60 )
 4 Counting particles by mass: The mole

WORKED EXAMPLE 4.6

Calculate the mass of 0.200 mol of nitrogen gas.

Answer

Nitrogen gas has the formula N 2 and, therefore, the molar mass is 2 x 14.01 = 28.02 g n10J- 1

mass= amount of substance x molar mass= 0.200 x 28.02 = 5.60 g

TEST YOUR UNDERSTANDING

2 Copy and complete the table. The first row has been done for you.

-• ••
..
• ~~ mmJ:11
~II@ .
,......18'........ -t/Jli'mil
.., n .., .,

Hp 18.02 9.01 0.500

co 2 5.00
H2S 0.100
NH 3 3.50
Q 1.00 0.0350
z 0.0578 1.12 X 10- 3
Mg(NO) 2 1.75
C 3 H7 OH 2500
Fe 2O 3 5.68 X 1o-s
nitrogen gas 10.00
chlorine gas 5.000 X 10- 3

3 Calculate the amount (in mol) of 10.0 g of each 5 Calculate the amount (in mol) of each of
of the following: the following:
a CuCl 2 b CzH4 a 10.0 kg CH 4 .

C s d 03 b 25.0 kg NaCl
e C6HSNO2. c 10.0 t co 2

4 Calculate the mass in g of each of the following: d 50.0 t CaCO 3

a 0.155 mol Ca(OH) 2 e 1.20 kg Na 2Sp 3 .

b 1.78 x 10- 3 mol Al2O 3 1 t = 1 tonne
C 2.50 mol NH 4NO 3 1 tonne is equivalent to 1000 kg
d 400 mol helium
e 0.245 mol hydrogen gas.

61 )
> CHEMISTRY FOR THE 1BDIPLOMA: COURSEBOOK

The Avogadro constant has the same numerical value

4.3 The mass of as the Avogadro number, but it has units of 11101- 1
(per mol), whereas the Avogadro number is a pure
a molecule number and has no units. The units are required because
the amount of substance has units of mol, but the
The mass of one mole of water is 18.02 g. This contains number of particles has no units.
6.02 x 1023 molecules of water. The mass of one
molecule of water can be worked out by dividing the
mass of one mole (18.02 g) by the number of molecules
it contains (6.02 x 1023): The Avogadro constant has symbol NA (or L) and
18 02 has the value 6.02 x 1023 mol- 1 .
mass of one molecule = · = 2.99 x 10-23 g
6.02x 1023

WORKED EXAMPLE 4.7

Remember, the mass of a molecule is a very Calculate the number of sulfur atoms in l 0.0 g
small number. Do not confuse the mass of a of sulfur.
single molecule with the mass of one mole of a
Answer
substance, which is a number greater than one.
We first need to work oul the amount of substance, 11,
in mol:
The number of particles 11= mass = lO.O =0.312 mol
molar mass 32.07
We know that I mol of a substance contains the
N=NAxn=6.02x l0 23 x0.312= l.88x 10n
Avogadro number of particles, so 2 mol would contain
2 x 6.02 x 1023 particles and 10 mol would contain Therefore, I0.0 g of sulfur contains 1.88 x I023 atoms.
10 x 6.02 x I023 particles. Therefore, we can write the
equation as follows:
N= NA X 11 WORKED EXAMPLE 4.8

where N is the number of particles, NA is the Avogadro Calculate the mass of a sample of copper that
constant and n is the amount of substance (number contains 4.00 x 1022 atoms.
of moles).
Answer
The relationship is summarised in the triangle in
Figure 4.3. lf we work out the amount of substance, this can be
converted into a mass:
4 I
n = !!.._= .00 x O~ = 0.0664 mol
NA 6.02 x 10-3
mass= 11 x molar mass= 0.0664 x 63.55 = 4.22 g

When we write '1 mol 0/, it means one mole of

0 2 molecules, that is, 6.02 x 1023 0 2 molecules.
Each 0 2 molecule contains two oxygen atoms, so
four oxygen molecules contain 2 x 4 = 8 atoms
(Figure 4.4) and one mole of 0 2 molecules contains
2 x 6.02 x 1023 = 1.204 x 1024 atoms. In other words,
Figure 4.3: The relationship between the amount of one mole of 0 2 molecules is made up of two moles of
substance and the number of particles.
oxygen atoms.

62 >
 4 Counting particles by mass: The mole

If we multiply the total number of atoms in a molecule

by the number of moles of molecules, we get the total
number of atoms.
Each H2 S0 4 molecule contains seven atoms. The
total number of atoms in four molecules of H 2S0 4 is
4 oxygen molecules 8 oxygen atoms
4 x 7 = 28 atoms (Figure 4.6).
Figure 4.4: Each oxygen molecule is made up of two
0 H H
oxygen atoms, so the number of oxygen atoms in four 0 2 0 0 0
molecules is 4 x 2 = 8. s s
0 0 H 0 0 H

When we talk about '0.1 mol H 2O', we mean 0.1 mol

H H
of Hp molecules, that is, 0.1 x 6.02 x 1023 = 6.02 x 1022 0 0 0 0
H 2o molecules. s s
Each H 2O molecule contains two hydrogen atoms and 0 0 H 0 0 H
one oxygen atom. So, if we have four water molecules,
the total number of H atoms is 4 x 2 = 8 (Figure 4.5). Figure 4.6: In four H2SO4 molecules, there are 4 x 4 = 16
The total number of hydrogen atoms in 0.1 mol H 2o is, 0 atoms and a total of 4 x 7= 28 atoms.
therefore, 6.02 x 1022 x 2 = 1.204 x 1023 hydrogen atoms.
This is 0.2 mol hydrogen atoms. The number of moles of atoms in 0.40 mol of H 2SO 4 is
0.40 x 7 = 2.8 mol or 2.8 x 6.02 x 102' = 1.7 x 1024 atoms.
If you look at Table 4.1, you can see the connection
H H H H between the number of moles of molecules and the total
water water number of atoms.

H H H
You must be clear which type of particle
water water
(elementary entity) you are considering.
Figure 4.5: Four water molecules contain eight Do you have one mole of atoms, molecules
hydrogen atoms. or ions?

In general, if we multiply the number of moles of

molecules by the number of a particular type of atom in
a molecule (i.e. by the subscript of the atom), we get the
number of moles of that type of atom. Thus, in 0.25 mol
of H 2 S0 4 , there are 4 x 0.25 = 1.0 mol of oxygen atoms.

Molecule Amount/ mol Total number of atoms

23 24
H2 0 1 3x1 x6.02x10 =1.81 x10
23 23
S0 2 0.1 3x0.1 x6.02x10 =1.81 x10
S0 3 0.1 4 X 0.1 X 6.02 X 1023 = 2.41 X 1023
H3 P0 4 0.1 8 X 0.1 X 6.02 X 1023 = 4.82 X 1023

Table 4.1: The relationship between the amount of substance and the number of atoms.

63 )
) CHEMISTRY FOR THE IB DIPLOMA: COURSEBOOK

TEST YOUR UNDERSTANDING

6 Calculate the mass of one molecule of each of 10 Calculate the number of molecules in 10.00 g of
the following: each of the following:
a Hp a water (H2 O)
b NH 3 b oxygen (0)
C CO 2 . C carbon dioxide (COJ
7 Calculate the average mass of one atom of each 11 Calculate the total number of atoms in each of
of the following: the following:
a H a 0.0100 mol N H3
b Cu b 0.200 mol C2 H6
C Ne. C 0.0400 mol C 2 HpH.
8 Calculate the number of atoms in each of the 12 Calculate the number of moles of oxygen atoms
following: in each of the following:
a 0.100 mol of silicon a 0.2 mol H2 SO4
b 2.00 x 10- 3 mol rubidium b 0.1 mol Clp 7

C 0.280 mol manganese. C 0.03 mol XeO 4 .

9 Calculate the number of atoms in 1.00 g of each 13 Work out the total number of hydrogen atoms
of the following: in each of the following:
a argon a 1.00 mol H2
b zinc b 0.200 mol CH 4
C gold. C 0.0500 mol NH 3 .

WORKED EXAMPLE 4.9

4.4 Empirical and Find the percentage by mass of carbon and hydrogen
present in C6 H 5N0 2 .
molecular formulas Answer
Percentage composition The relative molecular mass of C6 H 5 N0 2 is 123.12.
of a compound Percentage of carbon: the relative atomic mass of
carbon is 12.01, and there are six carbon atoms
The percentage by mass of each element present in a present, so the total mass of carbon atoms is
compound can be worked out using the following formula: 6 X 12.01, i.e., 72.06.
% by mass = number of atoms of the element x A, x 0
72.06
100 /4,carbon =--x 100= 58.53'1/.1
of an element M 123.12
r
There are five hydrogen atoms present, so:
5xl.0I
% hydrogen= --- x I 00 = 4. I 0%
123.12

64 >
 4 Counting particles by mass: The mole

WORKED EXAMPLE 4.10 TEST YOUR UNDERSTANDING

Calculate the mass of oxygen present in 2.20 g of CO 2. 14 Calculate the percentage by mass of oxygen
in each of the following compounds:
Answer
a C2 H50H
The relative molecular mass of Co 2 is 44.01. Of this,
the mass contributed by the two oxygen atoms is b CH3 CH2 COOH
2 X 16.00 = 32.00
C CIPr
So, the fraction of the mass of this compound that is
15 Calculate the percentage by mass of each
contributed by oxygen is!!·.~~- element present in the following:
Therefore, in 2.20 g of CO 2, the mass of oxygen is a NaCl
32 00
· X 2.20 = 1.60 g. b 1<10
3
44.01
c C6 H)N0) 3
.

16 Calculate the mass of oxygen in each of the

WORKED EXAMPLE 4.11
following samples:
What mass of HNO 3 contains 2.00 g of oxygen? a 6.00 g of C3 HpH
Answer b 5.00 g of S0 2
The relative molecular mass of HNO 3 is 63.02. c 10.0 g of Pp, 0 •
Each molecule contains three oxygen atoms with a
17 For each of the following compounds, work
total mass of 3 x 16.00, i.e., 48.00.
out the mass of substance that will contain
The masses of oxygen and HNO 3 are, therefore, in the 1.00 g of oxygen:
ratio 48.00: 63.02.
a CHpH
So the mass of HNO 3 containing 2.00 g of oxygen is b S0 3
63 02
· x2.00 = 2.63 P406.
48.00 g C

A]ternative method

The percentage of oxygen in HNO 3 is

3 X 16.00 X 100 = 76.2% Defining empirical and
63.02 molecular formulas
So 76.2% of this sample is oxygen and has a mass of
2.00 g. We need, therefore, to find the mass of I00%,
which is given by KEY POINTS
2
.00 X 100 = 2.63 The empirical formula is the simplest whole
76.2 g
number ratio of the elements present in
Note: to obtain this answer, more figures were carried
a compound.
through on the calculator.
The molecular formula is the total number of
atoms of each element present in a molecule of
the compound.

65 )
> CHEMISTRY FOR THE 1BDIPLOMA: COURSEBOOK

A molecular formula is a whole number multiple of the

empirical formula. Therefore, if the empirical formula
Working out empirical and
of a compound is CH 2 , the molecular formula is (CH),,, molecular formulas using
i.e., C 2H 4 or C 3H 6 or C4Hv etc. Sometimes an empirical
formula and molecular formula can be the same, for information about
example, H 2 o, where the molecular formula is also the substance composition
simplest ratio of atoms present. We can understand a
bit more about empirical and molecular formulas by If we could analyse the composition of an unknown
looking at some worked examples. substance by counting the number of atoms present in it,
then we would be able to work out the empirical formula
from the ratio between the different types of atoms.
WORKED EXAMPLE 4.12
For instance, if there are three tin1es as many H atoms as
If the molecular formulas of two compounds are C atoms in a sample of a compound, then the empirical
formula is CHJ"
Chemical analysis of a substance can provide the
what are the empirical formulas? composition by mass of the compound. lf we know the
mass of each element present in a sample, then we can
Answer
work out the amount in mol (number of moles) of each
We need to find the simplest ratio of the elements element. The amount is proportional to the number of
present and, therefore, the largest number that divides each atom present; therefore, we can use the amounts
exactly into the subscript of each element. to find the formula. So, if we find that a compound
contains 0.10 mol of C and 0.20 mol of H, we know
a In this case, each subscript can be divided by two, that there are twice as many H atoms present as C atoms
and so the empirical formula is C 2H,O. and, therefore, the empirical formula must be CH 2 •
b In this case, each subscript is divisible by three, and If we find that another compound contains 0.40 mol
so the empirical formula is ReC13 . of H, 0.20 mol of Sand 0.80 mol of 0, then we can see
that there are twice as many H atoms as S atoms but
that the number of O atoms is four times the number of
WORKED EXAMPLE 4.13 S atoms, and so, the formula is H2S0 4 .
The empirical formula of benzene is CH. The amounts (numbers of moles) are quite simple here,
Given that the molar mass is 78.12 g mol- 1, and it is fairly straightforward to see what the ratio
work out its molecular formula. is, but if the numbers are a bit more difficult, then we
divide by the smallest amount (number of moles) to
Answer find the ratio; this is shown in the worked examples
that follow.
The mass of the empirical formula unit (CH) is
12.01 + 1.01 = 13.02

The number of times that the empirical formula unit

occurs in the actual molecule (n) is given by
relative molecular mass 78.12
11 = --------- = -- =6
empirical formula mass 13.02
Therefore, the molecular formula is (CH\, which is
more commonly written as C 6H 6 •

66 )
 4 Counting particles by mass: The mole

WORKED EXAMPLE 4.14

A compound has the following composition by mass: C, 0.681 g; H, 0.137 g; 0, 0.181 g.

a Calculate the empirical formula of the compound.
b If the relative molecular mass of the compound is 88.17, calculate the molecular formula.
Answer
a This is most easily done by laying everything out in a table.

@ 00 I@
mass/ g 0.681 0.137 0.181
divide by relative atomic mass to give 0.681 + 12.01 0.137+1.01 0.181 + 16.00
amount in mol
amount/ mol 0.0567 0.136 0.0113
divide by the smallest value to get the ratio 0.0567 + 0.0113 0.136 + 0.0113 0.0113 + 0.0113
ratio 5 12 1
Therefore, the empirical formula is C5H 1p.
b The empirical formula mass (5 x 12.00 + 12 x 1.01 + 16.00) is 88.17. This is the same as the
relative molecular mass, and so, the molecular formula is the same as the empirical formula,
C5Hl20.

WORKED EXAMPLE 4.15

If a fluoride of uranium contains 67.62% uranium by mass, what is its empirical formula?
Answer

A uranium fluoride contains only uranium and fluorine; therefore, if we know the percentage
of uranium, we can work out the percentage of fluorine:
% fluorine= I 00.00 - 67 .62 = 32.38%
It makes no difference here that the percentage composition is given instead of the mass of
each element present, as the percentage is the same as the mass present in I 00 g.

l'1
percentage
mass in 100 g / g
67.62
67.62
"
32.38
32.38
divide by relative atomic mass to give amount in mol 67 .62 + 238.03 32.38 + 19.00
amount/ mol 0.2841 1.704
divide by the smallest value to get the ratio 0.2841 + 0.2841 1.704 + 0.2841
ratio 1 6
There are, therefore, six fluorine atoms for every uranium atom, and the empirical formula is UF 6 •

67 >
) CHEMISTRY FOR THE 1B DIPLOMA: COURSEBOOK

WORKED EXAMPLE 4.16

When magnesium ribbon is heated strongly in air, it burns to form magnesium oxide.
A piece of magnesium ribbon was heated in a crucible and the following measurements made.

crucible T7
--U-ribbon
magnesium

m
Mass of empty crucible / g 27.32
Mass of crucible+ magnesium / g 27.47
Mass of crucible+ contents at end of experiment/ g 27.57

Calculate the empirical formula of the magnesium oxide.

Answer
The mass of the empty crucible is subtracted from the masses in the table:
mass of magnesium at start= 27.47 - 27.32 = 0.15 g
mass of magnesium oxide at end= 27.57 - 27.32 = 0.25 g
The mass increases in this experiment because oxygen in the air combines with magnesium
to form magnesium oxide (the lid is lifted periodically to let in more oxygen). The diiTerence
in mass between the start and end readings is, therefore, equal to the mass of oxygen that has
reacted with magnesium:
mass of oxygen in magnesium oxide= 0.25 - 0.15 = 0.lOg

amount of magnesium atoms= O.l 5 = 6.17 x 10-3 mol

24.31
0.10 3
amount o f oxygen atoms= -- = 6.25 x 10- mol
16.00
Divide each amount in mol by the smaller number (6. J7 x 10-3):
3 3
M : 6.17 X 10- = l O: 6.25 X 10- = I.OI
g 6.17 X 10-3 6.17 X I0- 3
Therefore, the ratio of magnesium to oxygen is I: I, and the empirical formula is MgO.

Heating to constant mass

When working out empirical formulas, numbers How can we be sure in the experiment outlined in Worked
such as 1.01 or 0.98 can be rounded to 1 but example 4.16 that all the magnesium has reacted? One way
1.25, 1.33, 1.5, etc. should not be - these values of doing this is to heat to constant mass. If you suspect
should be multiplied by appropriate numbers to that the reaction has finished, allow the crucible to cool
generate whole numbers. and weigh it, then heat it again for a few more minutes and
_J weigh again. If the mass is the same as before, then you can
be fairly confident that all the magnesium has reacted, but,
if the mass goes up, the reaction is not complete, and the
crucible and contents should be heated and weighed again
until the mass remains constant for successive weighings.

68 )
 4 Counting particles by mass: The mole

NATURE OF SCIENCE

The values obtained here actually give the formula would repeat the experiment to see whether you
of magnesium oxide as Mg, 00 O 101 . When you do this keep getting the same result, then you would look
sort of question in the exam, you will be expected at sources of error (random and systematic), and the
to round this to 1:1, but, if you actually do this accepted theory - does your result 'make sense'?
experiment, how do you know to do that? At what What if you really cannot find any sources of error,
point does a scientist decide that they have made a and your result does not agree with the accepted
mistake or a discovery? If there is a literature value theory, at what point do you decide to publish your
for a particular quantity, as there is here (the formula findings? This really depends on how brave you are
of magnesium oxide is accepted as MgO), things and how much you have to lose or gain! If you
are a lot easier, and you would probably just analyse want to find out more about the difficulties that
the uncertainties for the experiment and decide that scientists face when deciding to publish or not, try
your value agrees with the literature value. But what an internet search for 'neutrinos faster than light'
if you are the first person to do an experiment? You or 'cold fusion'.

TEST YOUR UNDERSTANDING

18 Which of the following represent empirical 22 A compound contains 76.0% iodine and 24.0%
formulas? oxygen. Calculate the empirical formula of
the compound.
CO 2 CH
C3Ha C4H10
23 Work out the empirical formula of each of the
following iron oxides from the percentage iron:
H2O2 N2H4
CH 3 COOH C6 H5 CH3 a 77.7% Fe

19 Deduce the molecular formula of each of the b 72.4 % Fe.

compounds in the table.
-
HO
-
-- ...
•-- ., 1•11:•1• . ..- .
- -

34.02
---
-····.... . ·-
R R
24 Work out the empirical formulas of the following
compounds containing sodium, chromium
and oxygen:

CIO 1 166.90
CH, 84.18 a 28.4 32.1 39.5
BNH, 80.52 b 17.55 39.70 42.75
25 Calculate the empirical formula of each of the
20 Analysis of a sample of an organic compound following compounds containing C and H only:
produced the following composition:

C: 0.399 g, H: 0.101 g.
A 74.83 25.17
a Calculate the empirical formula.
B 79.85 20.15
b Given that the relative molecular mass is C 85.60 14.40
30.08, determine the molecular formula.
D 81.68 18.32
21 If an oxide of chlorine contains 81.6% chlorine, E 83.21 16.79
calculate its empirical formula.
26 When 5.60 g of an iron oxide is heated with
carbon, 3.92 g of iron is produced. Calculate
the empirical formula of the iron oxide.

69 )
> CHEMISTRY FOR THE 1B DIPLOMA: COURSEBOOK

So, for example, to convert 25.0 cm3 to drn3, we divide 25.0

4.5 Solutions by 1000; therefore, 25.0 cm 3 is equivalent to 0.0250 dm 3 •
In this section, we will be looking at solutions. Solutions To convert 0.46 dm 3 into cm3, we multiply by I 000;
are homogeneous mixtures formed when a solute is therefore, 0.46 dm 3 is equivalent to 460 cm 3.
dissolved in a solvent. The solutions we will be dealing The relationship between concentration, amount of
with here are all aqueous solutions - the solvent is water substance in mol and volume of solution is
- but it is possible to extend everything to solutions made
with different solvents. • ( d -3) amount of substance (mol)
concentrat10n mo 1 m · =
volume (dm 3 )
When a sodium chloride (NaCl) solution is prepared,
NaCl solid (the solute) is dissolved in water (the solvent). This is summarised in Figure 4.8.
Solutions in water (aqueous solutions) are given the symbol
(aq) in chemical equations. So, we can write sodium
chloride solution as NaCl(aq) in a chemical equation.

KEY POINT
The concentration of a solution is defined as the
quantity (in moll, or mass, of solute dissolved in a
unit volume of solution.
volume
in in
mol dm- 3 dm 3
Concentration is defined in terms of the volume of the
solution rather than the volume of the solvent. This is
because, when a solute is dissolved in a certain volume of Figure 4.8: The relationship between concentration,
water, say 100.0 cm3, the total volume of the solution is amount of substance and volume of solution.
not simply 100.0 cm 3 or the sum of the volumes occupied
by the solute and the solvent. The total volume of solution
If the concentration is expressed in g dm- 3 , the
produced depends on the forces of attraction between the
relationship is
solute particles and the solvent particles compared with
the forces of attraction in the original solvent. mass (g)
concentration (g dm- 3 ) = ----="---
volume (dm 3 )
The volume that is usually taken when quoting
concentrations is 1 dm3. How much solute is dissolved
may be expressed in g or mol; therefore, the units of WORKED EXAMPLE 4.17
concentration are g dm- 3 or mol dm- 3 .
Tf 10.00 g of sodium hydroxide (Na OH) is dissolved

7
1 dm 3 is equivalent to I litre or 1000 cm 3 • Figure 4.7 in water and the volume made up to 200.0 cm 3,
shows how to convert between cm 3 and dm 3 • calculate the concentration in g dm- 3 and mol dn,-3.

iI' '"""" divide by 1ooo

cm' to dm'
Answer

concentration (gdm- 3 )= mass (g)

volume (dm 3 )
3
1dm 3 --------1000cm 2
volume in dm 3 = 00.0 = 0.2000 dm 3

L =J
1000

. 10.00
concentration=---=50. 00 g d m- 3
'°""" dm' to
multiply by 1000
0.2000

Figure 4.7: Converting between cm 3 and dm 3 •

70 >
 4 Counting particles by mass: The mole

CONTINUED WORKED EXAMPLE 4.19

Concentration (mol dm-3) A sodium chloride solution has a concentration of
15.00 g dm- 3 • Calculate the concentration in mol dm- 3 •
molar mass of NaOH = 40.00 g moI- 1
Answer
10.00
amount of substance= -- = 0.2500 mol
40.00 We know that there are 15.00 g of NaCl present in
1 dm3, and, if we work out how many moles this is,
• ( Id -3) amountofsubstance(mol) we will have the concentration in mol dm- 3 • To work
concentrat10n mo m · = ( ) out the number of moles, we divide the mass by the
volume dm·3
molar mass.
0.2500 = l .25 O mo l dm - 3
. = ---
concentra t1on The molar mass of NaCl is 58.44 g moJ- 1:
0.2000
15 00
· =0.2567
58.44
WORKED EXAMPLE 4.18
Therefore the concentration is 0.2567 mol dm- 3
Calculate the amount in mol of hydrochloric
acid (HCl) present in 50.0 cm 3 of 2.00 mol dm- 3 To convert a concentration in mol dm- 3 into a
hydrochloric acid.
concentration in g dm-3, multiply the concentration by
Answer the molar mass of the substance.

amount (11)= concentration ( C) x volume in dm 3 (V)

WORKED EXAMPLE 4.20
50
amount= 2.00 x = 0.100 mol A sodium thiosulfate (Na 2S20 3) solution has a
1000
concentration of 0.0 I 00 mol dm- 3• Calculate the
Therefore, the amount of HCI is 0.100 mol. concentration in g dm-3.

Answer
The molar mass of Na 2S20 3 is 158.12 g moJ- 1•
The mass of 0.0100 mol is 0.0100 x 158.12 = 1.58 g.
The equation n = CV is given in the 1Bdata booklet
Therefore, there is 1.58 g of Na 2S20 3 present in each
dm 3 of solution, and the concentration is 1.58 g dm-3.

Converting between
concentrations in mol dm- 3 Ways of denoting
and concentrations in g dm- 3 concentrations
Square brackets are often used to denote concentrations
To convert a concentration in g dm- 3 into a
in mol dm- 3 • So, [HCI] indicates the molar
concentration in mol dm-3, divide the concentration by
concentration of hydrochloric acid, and we could write
the molar mass of the substance.
[HCI] = 2.00 mol dm- 3 or [NaOH] = 1.250 mol dm- 3 in
the previous worked examples.
Concentrations are sometimes written with the unit M,
which means mol dm- 3 but is described as 'molar'. Thus,
2 M would refer to a '2 molar solution', i.e., a solution
with a concentration of 2 mol dm- 3 . On the IB syllabus,
molar mass is also given the symbol M, and so, it is
probably best to avoid using M for mol dm- 3.

71 )
) CHEMISTRY FOR THE 1B DIPLOMA: COURSEBOOK

Substances that contain water of crystallisation are

Working out the concentration described as hydrated, whereas those that have lost their
of ions water of crystallisation are described as anhydrous. So, we
talk about 'hydrated copper(II) sulfate' (CuSO4 • 5Hp)
When ionic substances (see Chapter 6) dissolve in water, and 'anhydrous copper(Il) sulfate' (CuSO 4). Hydrated
the substance breaks apart into its constituent ions. copper(II) sulfate can be obtained as large blue crystals,
So, for instance, when copper(ll) chloride (CuC12) but anhydrous copper(II) sulfate is white and powdery.
dissolves in water, it splits apart into Cu 2+ and c1- ions:
When working out the molar mass of a hydrated salt, you
CuC12 (aq) ➔ Cu 2+ (aq) + 2c1-(aq) must include the water of crystallisation in the calculation:
From this equation, we can see that each CuCl 2 unit will molar mass of CuSO 4 °5H 2 O = 63.55+ 32.07 +4x 16.00+
produce one Cu 2+ ion and two c1- ions. Therefore, if
we started with 0.10 mol of CuC12 , we would have 5x(2xl.01+16.00)=249.72 gmo1- 1
0.20 mol of c1- ions in solution. If we made a solution
that was 0.20 mol dnr 3 CuC12, the concentration of
chloride ions would be 2 x 0.20 = 0.40 mol dm- 3,
and the total concentration of ions would be Remember, the 5 in front of H2O means
3 x 0.20 = 0.60 mol dm-3, since each CuC12 unit 5 molecules of water and not just 5 times the 'Hi',
produces three ions.
In the case of CuSO 4 •5H 2O, water can be removed
Water of crystallisation by heating:
Some substances crystallise with water as an integral CuSO 4 •5Hp ~ CuSO 4 +5Hp
part of the structure. Examples are hydrated copper(II)
However, this is not always the case, and when
sulfate (CuSO 4 • 5H 2O) and hydrated magnesium chloride
MgC12 •6Hp is heated, magnesium oxide (MgO) is formed:
(MgC12 •6H 2O). Water is necess,uy for the formation
of the crystals and is called the water of crystallisation. MgClz96Hp ~MgO+2HC1+5Hz0

WORKED EXAMPLE 4.21

Calculate the amount in mol of chloride ions present in 50.0 cm 3 of a 0.0500 mol dm- 3 solution
of iron(III) chloride (FeC13) and the total concentration of all the ions present.

Answer
amount of substance (number of moles)= concentration x volume in dm 3

5
amount in mol of FeCl 3 = 0.0 x 0.0500 = 2.50 x 10-3 mol FeC13
1000
FeCl 3 ( aq) ➔ Fe 3+ ( aq) + 3Cl- ( aq)
So, dissolving 2.50 x 10-3 mol FeCl 3 produces 3 x 2.50 x 10-3 mol CI-(aq), i.e., 7.50 x 10-3 rnol Cl-(aq).
The amount of chloride ions present is 7.50 x 10-3 mol.
When one FeCl 3 unit dissolves in water, four ions are produced (Fe 3+ + 3Ct-).

So, the total concentration of ions present is four times the concentration of FeCL" i.e.,
4 x 0.0500 = 0.200 mol dm- 3 • •

The total concentration of ions present is 0.200 mol dm- 3 •

72 >
 4 Counting particles by mass: The mole

When hydrated substances are dissolved in water, the from equivalent numbers of moles (but not masses)
water of crystallisation just becomes part of the water of hydrated and anhydrous copper(II) sulfate would
in the solution and, for example, solutions made up be identical.

WORKED EXAMPLE 4.22

When 2.00 g MgSO/xHp is heated, 0.98 g of anhydrous magnesium sulfate is formed.

Determine the value of x.
Answer
The difference between the masses is due to the water given off; therefore:
mass of water lost= 2.00 - 0.98 = 1.02 g
This is now basically just an empirical formula question, but, instead of finding the ratio
between the number of moles of elements, we need to find the ratio between the number of
moles of MgSO 4 and Hp.

ii"-.7,-...-,eL
- .... ~
amount/ mol 0.98 + 120.38 = 8.14 X 10-3 1.02 + 18.02 = 5.66 X 10- 2
divide by smaller number 8.14 X 10- 3 / 8.14 X 10- 3 5.66 X 10- 2 / 8.14 X 10- 3
ratio 1 6.95

This ratio should be a whole number, so we can round 6.95 up to 7, which is the value of x.
The formula of hydrated magnesium sulfate is, therefore, MgSO 4 •7Hp.

WORKED EXAMPLE 4.23

If 10.00 g of hydrated copper(II) sulfate (CuSO/5Hp) is dissolved in water and made
up to a volume of 250.0 cm3, what is the concentration of the solution?

Answer
molar mass of CuSO 4 • 5Hp = 249.72 g mo1- 1

amount in mol of CuSO 4 • 5Hp = lO.OO = 0.04004 mol

249.72

. amount in mol 0.04004 d _

concentration= = --- = 0 . 1602 mo 1 m 3
volume in dm 3 0.2500
So, dissolving 10.00 g of CuSO/5Hp in water and making up the solution to 250.0 cm 3
produces a CuSO 4 solution with a concentration of 0.1602 mol dm- 3•

73 )
) CHEMISTRY FOR THE IB DIPLOMA: COURSEBOOK

TEST YOUR UNDERSTANDING

27 Calculate the concentration of each of the 33 12.50 g of hydrated sodium carbonate
following solutions in mol dm- 3 : (Na 2 CO/ 10H 2 O) is dissolved in water and made
up to a total volume of 100.0 cm 3 . What is the
concentration of the solution in mol dm- 3 ?
a 0.100 2.00 dm 3 34 What is the total concentration of ions in each
b 1.20 X 10- 3 10.0 cm 3 of the following solutions?
C 0.0560 250.0 cm 3 a 0.100 mol dm- 3 NaCl
28 Calculate the concentration of each of the b 0.200 mol dm- 3 Na2 SO4 (forms Na+ and
following solutions in g dm- 3 : so;- ions)

c 0.125 mol dm- 3 CrCl 3

3
a 50.0 10.00 dm 35 Calculate the concentration of sodium ions in
b 2.00 100.0 cm 3 each of the following:
3
C 0.780 25.0 cm a a solution made by dissolving 2.00 g of
29 Work out the amount, in mol, of solute present in NaOH in water and making up to a total
volume of 100.0 cm 3
a 20.0 cm 3 of 0.220 mol dm- 3 NaOH(aq)
b a solution made by dissolving 4.50 g of
b 27 .8 cm 3 of 0.0840 mol dm- 3 HCl(aq) Na 2 CO 3 in water and making up to a total
volume of 250.0 cm 3
c 540 cm 3 of 0.0200 mol dm- 3 KMnO 4 (aq)
c a solution made by dissolving 5.00 g of
d 2.50 dm 3 of 0.140 mol dm- 3 NaCl(aq).
Na 2S2 O 3 •5H 2 O in water and making up to a
30 Convert the following concentrations in g dm- 3 total volume of 500.0 cm 3
to concentrations in mol dm- 3 :
d a solution made by dissolving 1.00 g of
a 20.0 g dm- 3 NaOH NalO 4 in water and making up to a total
volume of 50.0 cm 3 .
b 10.0 g dm- 3 KNO 3
36 a 3.00 g of FeSO/xHp is heated and 1.64 g
c 2.50 g dm- 3 CuSO 4 • of FeSO4 is obtained. Determine the value
31 Convert the following concentrations in of X.
mol dm- 3 to concentrations in g dm- 3 : b 2.50 g of Na 2 SO/xHp is heated and
a 0.0200 mol dm- NaCl3 1.10 g of Na 2 SO4 is obtained. Determine
the value of x.
b 0.150 mol dm- 3 Na 2CO 3
c 1.20 g of BaCI/ xHp is heated and 1.02 g
c 0.500 mol dm- 3 H2 SO4 • of BaCl2 is obtained. Determine the value
of X.
32 Work out the mass of solute that must be used
to make up the following solutions: d CuSO/SHp is heated to partially
dehydrate it. 3.76 g of CuSO/5Hp is
a 50.0 cm 3 of 0.100 mol dm- 3 NaOH heated and 3.33 g of CuSO 4 •xHp is
b 75.0 cm 3 of 0.0100 mol dm- 3 Na 2 Cr 2 O 7 obtained. Determine the average value of x.

c 50.0 cm 3 of 0.200 mol Na 2 S2 O 3 •5H 2O.

74 )
 4 Counting particles by mass: The mole

of the volume in a 250 cm3 volumetric flask can

Standard solutions also be made more precisely than for the same size
measuring cylinder because it has a narrower neck - the
KEY POINT measurement will have a smaller uncertainty.
A standard solution is one for which the
concentration is known. Dilution of solutions
Once we have a solution of known concentration,
The concentration of a solution can be known if it has we often need to dilute it to make solutions of other
been made up accurately from a solid using volumetric (lower) concentrations. To do this accurately, we
glassware or because it has been standardised by would use volumetric apparatus, such as a pipette and
reacting it with another standard solution. volumetric flask.
The concentration of a diluted solution can be worked
How to make a standard solution out using the equation:
A certain mass of the solute is weighed out accurately
and then transferred to a beaker. A small amount
of distilled water is added, and the mixture is stirred
until all the solid has dissolved. This solution is then where
transferred to a volumetric flask (washing out the beaker Cdii= concentration of diluted solution
with several lots of distilled water to ensure that all the
solute is transferred). Finally, distilled water is added to
vund = volume of original (undiluted) solution used
the volumetric flask to make the solution up to the mark Vdu = total volume of diluted solution
so that the total volume of the solution is known. This is C,md= concentration of original (undiluted) solution
summarised in Figure 4.9.
NOTE: the units of vund and vdil must be the same.
A volumetric flask is used instead of measuring
cylinders because it is both more accurate and more If we have made a standard solution of concentration
precise. It is more accurate because of how it is 0.100 mol dm-3, this could be diluted to a concentration of
manufactured; for example, with a 250 crn3 volumetric 0.0100 mol dm-3 by measming out 10.0 cm3 of the solution
flask, the volume should be, at worst, within about 0.3 using a pipette, transfening it to a 100 cm3 volumetric flask
cm3 of 250.0 cm 3 , but for a 250 cm3 measuring cylinder, and making up to 100.0 cm3 with distilled water.
the tolerance could be about+/- 2 cm.1_The reading

volumetric 4---
flask----.

~
, f'.'.>:,I) _.l_hlj 1\\ I
( □□ 1 4.29g

weigh out accurately transfer to a beaker transfer carefully to add distilled water standard solution
a certain mass of solid and stir to dissolve a volumetric flask to the mark

Figure 4.9: Making a standard solution.

75 )
> CHEMISTRY FOR THE 18 DIPLOMA: COURSEBOOK

Vund = 10.0 cm 3 a few cm 3 of the sample at most), but the uncertainty

on a two-decimal-place balance is ±0.01 g, and so, our
Cun J = 0.100 mol dm- 3
percentage uncertainty on this mass is ± 100%!
3
Vdil = 100.0 Cm
We can make up this solution more precisely using serial
io.o
c,lil=lOO.Ox0.100=0.0l
·oomo Id m· -3 dilutions, which are successive dilutions of a solution.
If we weigh out 1.00 g of LiCl with a two decimal place
We can see here that the concentration of the diluted balance, the percentage uncertainty on this is only
solution is one-tenth of that of the original solution, so
we say that the original solution was diluted by a factor 1%: O.Ol
1.00 X 100 = 1% T h'IS samp 1e 1S
. t hen d.lSSO 1ve d. 111

of ten. water and made up to a total volume of I 000 cm 3 in a

volumetric flask to give a 1.00 g dm- 3 solution. We then
measure out 10.0 cm 3 of this solution using a 10 cm 3
Serial dilutions pipette, transfer it to another 1000 cm 3 volumetric flask
and make up to the mark with distilled water. We have
This technique can be useful for producing solutions diluted the original solution by a factor of 100, and
of very low concentrations. Imagine that we wanted so the concentration of the new solution is 0.0100 g
to make a solution of lithium chloride (LiCl) with a ddi- 3• If we take 10.0 cm 3 of this 0.0100 g dm- 3 solution
concentration of 0.100 mg dm- 3 for analysis, and all we using a I 0 cm 3 pipette, transfer it to another 1000 cm 3
had available was an electronic balance that reads to volumetric flask, and then make it up to the mark with
two decimal places. 0.100 mg is 0.000100 g, and so we distilled water, we will have made a 0.000100 g dm- 3
cannot measure that on the balance. The smallest mass solution. We have used accurate and precise measuring
we can measure out on this balance is 0.01 g and then apparatus and quite large quantities each time, so our
this would have to be dissolved in 100 dm 3 of water to percentage uncertainty on the final concentration will be
produce the correct concentration. Not only is J 00 dm 3 quite low, and we have only used a total of about 3 dm 3
an extremely large volume (we are likely to only need of water! This is summarized in Figure 4.10.

transfer 10.0 cm 3 of the solution transfer 10.0 cm 3 of the solution

using a 10 cm 3 pipette using a 10 cm 3 pipette

1000 cm 3 make up to the mark

volumetric flasks with distilled water

1.00 g dm- 3

Figure 4.10: Serial dilutions

76 >
 4 Counting particles by mass: The mole

SCIENCE IN CONTEXT Determination of the

Monkshood or wolfsbane (Aconitum nape//us; concentration of a
Figure 4.11) is a beautiful but toxic plant that has coloured solution
been notorious throughout history as a poison
and has even been called 'the queen of poisons'. We can work out the concentration of a coloured
solution, such as copper(II) sulfate solution, using a
colorimeter or a visible spectrophotometer. The basic
principles of a colorimeter are shown in Figure 4.12.

source of
light
light I detecto, I

Figure 4.11: Monkshood in flower. Figure 4.12: A colorimeter can be used to measure the
amount of light absorbed at a particular wavelength. The
The main poison it contains is aconitine darker the colour of the sample, the more light is absorbed.
(C34 H47 N0 11 ), which is a powerful cardiotoxin
and neurotoxin, and ingesting as little as 1 or We pass monochromatic (of one wavelength) light
2 mg of pure aconitine could be fatal. There through the sample and measure how much is absorbed.
are many cases throughout history of accidental The higher the concentration of the coloured substance,
and intentional poisoning with aconitine; the more light absorbed.
however, it is also used in Chinese medicine and
homeopathy. Homeopathy is a form of treatment
Before we can measure how much light is absorbed,
where very dilute solutions (as solutions or
we must first determine which wavelengths of light are
absorbed by the solution. Copper(IJ) sulfate solution is
usually tablets) of substances, many of which
are poisons, are administered with the idea 'like
blue-green, and so, absorbs at the orange-red end of the
spectrum. We would usually use the wavelength at which
cures like'. 30C Aconite napellus homeopathic
the substance has the highest absorbance (called A ),
remedy is readily available and is used to treat
anxiety or fevers. Many people believe in
but, for copper sulfate, this occurs in the infrared 1;gion
of the spectrum. Most colorimeters also only have a
homeopathic remedies, but there are a lot of
very limited range of wavelengths available, so we will
sceptics because of the dilutions that are used.
A 30C dilution means that the original substance
carry out the experiment at 635 nm, which is the longest
wavelength available on our colorimeter.
is diluted by a factor of 100 (C) 30 times,
which corresponds to diluting it by a factor The quantity that we measure with a colorimeter is
of 1060 , so imagine that we started with 1 cm 3 called absorbance (A).
of pure aconitine - this corresponds to about
To determine the relationship between absorbance and
0.002 mol. If this is diluted by a factor of 1060 ,
concentration, we need to generate a calibrationcurve.
o-
the concentration becomes 2 x 1 60 mol dm- 3
(the first dilution involves adding it to a suitable We start by making up a solution of copper(II) sulfate
solvent and making up to 100 cm 3 , so, after the with a concentration of 0.200 mol dm- 3 and measuring
first dilution, the concentration is 0.02 mol dm- 3). the absorbance at 635 nm. The solutjon is then diluted
The number of molecules of aconitine in 1 mol is using volumetric apparatus, and the absorbance of
6.02 x 1023 , so the number of molecules present each of the diluted solutions is measured at 635 nm
in 1 dm 3 of a 2 x 1o-60 mol dm- 3 solution is (Table 4.2).
1.2 x 1o-36 , that is, zero molecules! To consume
The concentration of the diluted solution ( C0 il) can be
one molecule, you would have to drink 1036 dm 3
worked out using the equation:
of this solution, but the total volume of all the
water on the Earth is only about 1.4 x 1021 dm 3 !
V
C = .-l!llil X C
dil Vdil und

77 >
) CHEMISTRY FOR THE 1BDIPLOMA: COURSEBOOK

Volume of Total
0.200 mol dm-a volume/
Concentration of
diluted solution / 4.6 Avogadro's law
Cu SO4 (aq) / cm 3 cm3 mol dm- 3
20.0 25.0 0.160 KEY POINT
15.0 25.0 0.120 Avogadro's law equal volumes of ideal gases
10.0 25.0 0.080 measured at the same temperature and pressure
contain the same number of molecules.
5.0 25.0 0.040
Table 4.2: The concentrations used to make the
In other words, I 00 cm 3 of H 2 contains the same number
calibration curve.
of molecules at 25 °C and 100 kPa pressure as 100 cm3
of NH 3, if we assume that they both behave as ideal
Therefore, if we measure out 20.0 cm 3 of 0.200 mol dm- 3 gases. Under the same conditions, 50 cm 3 of CO 2 would
CuSO/aq) and make it up to a total volume of contain half as many molecules.
25.0 cm1, we have
Another way of stating Avogadro'slaw is that the
c~ncentratio1: of= 20.0 x 0 _200 = 0 _160 mol dm_3 volume of an ideal gas is proportional to the amount
diluted solut10n 25.0 of substance (in mol). We will retmn to this idea and
discuss ideal gases in Chapter 5.
A graph of absorbance against concentration can then
be plotted - the calibration curve (Figure 4.13).
Once we have the calibration curve, we can use it to
The meaning of chemical
work out the concentration of an unknown solution of equations
copper(ll) sulfate. If the absorbance of the unknown
solution at 635 nm is 0.31, we can use the graph Consider the reaction between hydrogen gas (Hz) and
(Figure 4. J3) to work out that the concentration of the chlorine gas (Clz) to form hydrogen chloride gas (HCl).
unknown solution is 0.15 mol dm- 3. In this reaction, one molecule of H 2 reacts with one
molecule of Cl 2 to form two molecules of HCI:
This technique can also be applied to substances that are
colourless (e.g. solutions of DNA or proteins) if they
absorb in the ultraviolet (UV) region of the spectrum H H + Cl Cl
and a UV-visible spectrophotometer is used.

0.40 lf we started with two molecules of H 2 , then they

would combine with two molecules of Cl2 to form four
~ 0.30
.a"'
molecules of HCl:
o0.20
..a
<( HH
0.10
+ ),
HH
0 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25
Concentration/ mol dm- 3 Four molecules of H 2 would combine with four
Figure 4.13: Calibration curve for copper(II) sulfate solution
molecules of Cl2 to form eight molecules of HCI:
at 635 nm

78 )
 4 Counting particles by mass: The mole

HH assume that all gases behave as ideal gases and that all
measurements are made under the same conditions of
temperature and pressure.
HH
+
WORl<ED EXAMPLE 4.24
HH
Consider the following reaction for the synthesis of
HH methanol: CO(g) + 2H 2(g) ➔ CHpH(g)
a What volume of H 2 reacts exactly with 2.50 dm 3
We know from Avogadro's law that, if we have equal of CO?
numbers of particles, then we have equal volumes of the
gases; therefore, we can also say that one volume of H 2 b What volume of CH 3OH is produced?
reacts with one volume of Cl 2 to form two volumes of
Answer
HCI. So, 50 cm 3 of H 2 would react with 50 cm 3 of Cl2 to
form 100 cm 3 of HCl. We can show this relationship in a a From the equation, we can see that I mol CO
chemical equation: reacts with 2 mol H 2. Therefore, one volume of CO
reacts with two volumes of H,, and so, 2.50 dm 3 of
H 2 (g) + Cl 2(g) ➔ 2HCl(g) CO react with 2 x 2.50, i.e., 5~00dm3, of H 2 .
A chemical equation usually describes how molar
b One volume of CO produces one volume of
quantities combine, and, thus, we can see here that 1 mol
CHpH; therefore, the volume of CHpH
H 2reacts with 1 mol Cl2 to form 2 mol HCl - remember
produced is 2.50 dm3.
that the number of moles tells you the number of
particles. The term mole ratio is used to describe the
relationship between the numbers of moles of the
various substances in a chemical equation, and this is WORl<ED EXAMPLE 4.25
given by the coefficients (large numbers), so hydrogen Consider the reaction between ethane and oxygen:
and chlorine combine in a mole ratio of l: l.
2C2HG(g)+ 702 (g) ➔ 4CO2 (g) + 6H2O(l)
One molecule of nitrogen (N 2) combines with three
molecules of hydrogen (Hz) to form two molecules of a What volume of C2H 6 reacts exactly with 200.0 cm 3
ammonia (NHJ ofO/
b What volume of CO 2 is produced?
HH Answer
H H
+ HH H· N H N a From the equation, we can see that two volumes of
H H
HH C2H 6 will react with seven volumes of 0 2; therefore,
the ratio between the volume of C 2H 6 and 0 2 is 2:7
Which also means that l 11101 nitrogen (Nz) combines and the volume of C2H 6 is~ of the volume of oxygen:
with 3 mol hydrogen (H2) to form 2 mol of ammonia
(NH 3), so we can write the following equation:
volume ofC 2H 6 = t x200.0 = 57.14 cm 3

b From the equation, we can see that seven volumes of

N 2(g) + 3H 2 (g) ➔ 2NH 3 (g) 0 2 will form four volumes of CO 2 ; therefore, the ratio
Nitrogen and hydrogen combine in a mole ratio of 1:3. between the volume of 0 2 and CO 2 is 7:4 and the
volume of CO 2 is* of the volume of oxygen.
The number of moles (amount) is proportional to the
volume and, therefore, 20 cm 3 of nitrogen would react volume of Co2=* X 200.0 = 114.3 cm 3
with 3 x 20 = 60 cm3 of hydrogen to form 2 x 20 = 40 cm3
of ammonia. In the following worked examples, Note on significant figures: We know that the last
zero in 200.0 is significant because it did not have to
be there to hold the position of the 2 - we could have
just written 200. The two zeroes in 200 must be there
to hold the position of the 2 - otherwise the number
would just be 2! These zeroes may be significant or

79 >
) CHEMISTRY FOR THE 1B DIPLOMA: COURSEBOOK

CONTINUED TEST YOUR UNDERSTANDING

not - we would have to have more information about 37 Each of these questions uses the following
how the value was measured and/or the uncertainty equations, which show the combustion of a
of the measurement to determine this, so 200 could be hydrocarbon (compound containing C and
1, 2 or 3 significant figures. H only):
0.0002 is one significant figure because the zero before A C 3 H8 (g) + SO)g) ➔ 3CO 2 (g) + 4Hp(I)
the decimal point and the three zeros after it are there
to hold the position of the 2 - without them we would B C 5 H1)g) + 8Oz(g) ➔ SCO)g) + 6Hp(I)
just have 2! 0.0200 is three significant figures - the last C 2C 4 H 10(g) + 13O)g) ➔ 8CO)g) + 10Hp(I)
zeroes do not have to be there to hold the position of
the 2, so they must be significant. D 2C6 H 10(g) + 170)9) ➔ 12CO)g) + 10Hp(I)
a Work out the volume of the hydrocarbon
that reacts with 100 cm 3 of oxygen in each
WORKED EXAMPLE 4.26 of the reactions.

If 100 cm 3 of oxygen is put in a container with 30 cm 3 b For each of the reactions, calculate the
of methane and the mixture ignited, how much volume of CO 2 produced when 100 cm 3
oxygen will be left at the end of the reaction? of the hydrocarbon is reacted with excess
(more than enough to react with all the
hydrocarbon) oxygen.
c For each of the reactions, calculate
Answer
the volume of CO 2 produced when
From the equation, we know that l mol CH 4 reacts 1.00 dm 3 of oxygen is reacted with
with 2 mol 0 2• Therefore, one volume of CH 4 reacts excess hydrocarbon.
with two volumes of 0 2 - so 30 cm 3 of CH 4 react with
2 x 30, i.e., 60 cm3, of 0 2 . d For each of the reactions, calculate the
volume of 0 2 left over if, in each case,
The original volume of 0, was 100 cm3; therefore, if 20.0 cm 3 of the hydrocarbon is put into a
60 cm 3 reacted, the volume of oxygen gas left over at container with 200.0 cm 3 of oxygen and the
the end of the reaction would be 100 - 60 = 40 cm 3 • mixture ignited.

SELF-ASSESSMENT CHECKLIST

Think about the topics covered in this chapter. Which parts are you most confident with?
Which topics require some extra practice?

I S f Needs Nearly Confident

can... ec ion more work there to move on

calculate relative formula masses from relative atomic masses 4.1

understand what a mole is 4.2
calculate amount of substance in mol from masses and vice versa 4.3
calculate the number of particles from the amount of substance in
4.3
mol and masses and vice versa
deduce empirical and molecular formulas from experimental data 4.4
3 3
carry out calculations involving concentrations in mol dm- and g dm- 4.4
solve problems involving gases using Avogadro's law. 4.6

80 )