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arXiv:1111.6521v1 [math.HO] 28 Nov 20

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE

OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION

BASHKIR STATE UNIVERSITY

RUSLAN A. SHARIPOV

COURSE OF ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY

The textbook

UFA 2011
2

UDK 514.123
BBK 22.151
X25

Referee: The division of Mathematical Analysis of Bash-

kir State Pedagogical University (BGPU) named
after Miftakhetdin Akmulla, Ufa.

In preparing Russian edition of this book I used the computer

typesetting on the base of the AMS-TEX package and I used
Cyrillic fonts of the Lh-family distributed by the CyrTUG asso-
ciation of Cyrillic TEX users. English edition of this book is also
typeset by means of the AMS-TEX package.

Xaripov R. A.
X25 Kurs analitiqesko geometrii:
Uqebnoe posobie / R. A. Xaripov. — Ufa: RIC
BaxGU, 2010. — 228 s.
ISBN 978-5-7477-2574-4
Uqebnoe posobie po kursu analitiqesko geometrii
adresovano studentam matematikam, fizikam, a takжe
studentam injenerno-tehniqeskih, tehnologiqeskih i
inyh specialьnoste, dl kotoryh gosudarstvennye ob-
razovatelьnye standarty predusmatrivat izuqenie
dannogo predmeta.
UDK 514.123
BBK 22.151

ISBN 978-5-7477-2574-4 c Sharipov R.A., 2010

English Translation c Sharipov R.A., 2011
 CONTENTS.

CONTENTS. ...................................................................... 3.

PREFACE. ......................................................................... 7.

CHAPTER I. VECTOR ALGEBRA. ................................... 9.

§ 1. Three-dimensional Euclidean space. Acsiomatics

and visual evidence. .................................................... 9.
§ 2. Geometric vectors. Vectors bound to points. ............... 11.
§ 3. Equality of vectors. .................................................... 13.
§ 4. The concept of a free vector. ...................................... 14.
§ 5. Vector addition. ......................................................... 16.
§ 6. Multiplication of a vector by a number. ...................... 18.
§ 7. Properties of the algebraic operations with vectors. ..... 21.
§ 8. Vectorial expressions and their transformations. .......... 28.
§ 9. Linear combinations. Triviality, non-triviality,
and vanishing. ........................................................... 32.
§ 10. Linear dependence and linear independence. ............... 34.
§ 11. Properties of the linear dependence. ........................... 36.
§ 12. Linear dependence for n = 1. ..................................... 37.
§ 13. Linear dependence for n = 2. Collinearity
of vectors. ................................................................. 38.
§ 14. Linear dependence for n = 3. Coplanartity
of vectors. ................................................................. 40.
§ 15. Linear dependence for n > 4. ..................................... 42.
§ 16. Bases on a line. ......................................................... 45.
§ 17. Bases on a plane. ...................................................... 46.
§ 18. Bases in the space. .................................................... 48.
§ 19. Uniqueness of the expansion of a vector in a basis. ...... 50.
4 CONTENTS.

§ 20. Index setting convention. ........................................... 51.

§ 21. Usage of the coordinates of vectors. ............................ 52.
§ 22. Changing a basis. Transition formulas
and transition matrices. ............................................. 53.
§ 23. Some information on transition matrices. .................... 57.
§ 24. Index setting in sums. ............................................... 59.
§ 25. Transformation of the coordinates of vectors
under a change of a basis. .......................................... 63.
§ 26. Scalar product. ......................................................... 65.
§ 27. Orthogonal projection onto a line. .............................. 67.
§ 28. Properties of the scalar product. ................................ 73.
§ 29. Calculation of the scalar product through
the coordinates of vectors in a skew-angular basis. ...... 75.
§ 30. Symmetry of the Gram matrix. .................................. 79.
§ 31. Orthonormal basis. .................................................... 80.
§ 32. The Gram matrix of an orthonormal basis. ................. 81.
§ 33. Calculation of the scalar product through
the coordinates of vectors in an orthonormal basis. ..... 82.
§ 34. Right and left triples of vectors.
The concept of orientation. ...................................... 83.
§ 35. Vector product. ......................................................... 84.
§ 36. Orthogonal projection onto a plane. ........................... 86.
§ 37. Rotation about an axis. ............................................. 88.
§ 38. The relation of the vector product
with projections and rotations. .................................. 91.
§ 39. Properties of the vector product. ................................ 92.
§ 40. Structural constants of the vector product. ................. 95.
§ 41. Calculation of the vector product through
the coordinates of vectors in a skew-angular basis. ...... 96.
§ 42. Structural constants of the vector product
in an orthonormal basis. ............................................ 97.
§ 43. Levi-Civita symbol. ................................................... 99.
§ 44. Calculation of the vector product through the co-
ordinates of vectors in an orthonormal basis. ............ 102.
§ 45. Mixed product. ....................................................... 104.
 CONTENTS. 5

§ 46. Calculation of the mixed product through the co-

ordinates of vectors in an orthonormal basis. ............ 105.
§ 47. Properties of the mixed product. .............................. 108.
§ 48. The concept of the oriented volume. ......................... 111.
§ 49. Structural constants of the mixed product. ............... 113.
§ 50. Calculation of the mixed product through the co-
ordinates of vectors in a skew-angular basis. ............. 115.
§ 51. The relation of structural constants of the vectorial
and mixed products. ................................................ 116.
§ 52. Effectivization of the formulas for calculating
vectorial and mixed products. .................................. 121.
§ 53. Orientation of the space. ......................................... 124.
§ 54. Contraction formulas. .............................................. 125.
§ 55. The triple product expansion formula and
the Jacobi identity. .................................................. 131.
§ 56. The product of two mixed products. ......................... 134.

CHAPTER II. GEOMETRY OF LINES

AND SURFACES. .................................................. 139.
§ 1. Cartesian coordinate systems. ................................... 139.
§ 2. Equations of lines and surfaces. ................................ 141.
§ 3. A straight line on a plane. ........................................ 142.
§ 4. A plane in the space. ............................................... 148.
§ 5. A straight line in the space. ...................................... 154.
§ 6. Ellipse. Canonical equation of an ellipse. ................... 160.
§ 7. The eccentricity and directrices of an ellipse.
The property of directrices. ...................................... 165.
§ 8. The equation of a tangent line to an ellipse. .............. 167.
§ 9. Focal property of an ellipse. ..................................... 170.
§ 10. Hyperbola. Canonical equation of a hyperbola. ......... 172.
§ 11. The eccentricity and directrices of a hyperbola.
The property of directrices. ...................................... 179.
§ 12. The equation of a tangent line to a hyperbola. .......... 181.
§ 13. Focal property of a hyperbola. ................................. 184.
§ 14. Asymptotes of a hyperbola. ..................................... 186.
6 CONTENTS.

§ 15. Parabola. Canonical equation of a parabola. ............. 187.

§ 16. The eccentricity of a parabola. ................................. 190.
§ 17. The equation of a tangent line to a parabola. ............ 190.
§ 18. Focal property of a parabola. ................................... 193.
§ 19. The scale of eccentricities. ....................................... 194.
§ 20. Changing a coordinate system. ................................. 195.
§ 21. Transformation of the coordinates of a point
under a change of a coordinate system. ..................... 196.
§ 22. Rotation of a rectangular coordinate system
on a plane. The rotation matrix. .............................. 197.
§ 23. Curves of the second order. ...................................... 199.
§ 24. Classification of curves of the second order. .............. 200.
§ 25. Surfaces of the second order. .................................... 206.
§ 26. Classification of surfaces of the second order. ............ 207.

REFERENCES. ............................................................ 216.

CONTACT INFORMATION. ......................................... 217.

APPENDIX. ................................................................. 218.

 PREFACE.

The elementary geometry, which is learned in school, deals

with basic concepts such as a point, a straight line, a segment.
They are used to compose more complicated concepts: a polygo-
nal line, a polygon, a polyhedron. Some curvilinear forms are also
considered: a circle, a cylinder, a cone, a sphere, a ball.
The analytical geometry basically deals with the same geomet-
ric objects as the elementary geometry does. The difference is in
a method for studying these objects. The elementary geometry
relies on visual impressions and formulate the properties of geo-
metric objects in its axioms. From these axioms various theorems
are derived, whose statements in most cases are also revealed in
visual impressions. The analytical geometry is more inclined to a
numeric description of geometric objects and their properties.
The transition from a geometric description to a numeric de-
scription becomes possible due to coordinate systems. Each
coordinate system associate some groups of numbers with geo-
metric points, these groups of numbers are called coordinates of
points. The idea of using coordinates in geometry belongs French
mathematician Rene Descartes. Simplest coordinate systems
suggested by him at present time are called Cartesian coordinate
systems.
The construction of Cartesian coordinates particularly and
the analytical geometry in general are based on the concept of
a vector. The branch of analytical geometry studying vectors is
called the vector algebra. The vector algebra constitutes the first
chapter of this book. The second chapter explains the theory of
straight lines and planes and the theory of curves of the second
order. In the third chapter the theory of surfaces of the second
order is explained in brief.
The book is based on lectures given by the author during
several years in Bashkir State University. It was planned as the
first book in a series of three books. However, it happens that

CopyRight c Sharipov R.A., 2010.

8 PREFACE.

the second and the third books in this series were written and
published before the first book. These are
– «Course of linear algebra and multidimensional geometry» [1];
– «Course of differential geometry» [2].
Along with the above books, the following books were written:
– «Representations of finite group» [3];
– «Classical electrodynamics and theory of relativity» [4];
– «Quick introduction to tensor analysis» [5].
– «Foundations of geometry for university students and high
school students» [6].
The book [3] can be considered as a continuation of the book
[1] which illustrates the application of linear algebra to another
branch of mathematics, namely to the theory of groups. The
book [4] can be considered as a continuation of the book [2]. It
illustrates the application of differential geometry to physics. The
book [5] is a brief version of the book [2]. As for the book [6], by
its subject it should precede this book. It could br recommended
to the reader for deeper logical understanding of the elementary
geometry.
I am grateful to Prof. R. R. Gadylshin and Prof. D. I. Borisov
for reading and refereeing the manuscript of this book and for
valuable advices.

December, 2010. R. A. Sharipov.

 CHAPTER I

VECTOR ALGEBRA.

§ 1. Three-dimensional Euclidean space.

Acsiomatics and visual evidence.
Like the elementary geometry explained in the book [6],
the analytical geometry in this book is a geometry of three-
dimensional space E. We use the symbol E for to denote the
space that we observe in our everyday life. Despite being seem-
ingly simple, even the empty space E possesses a rich variety
of properties. These properties reveal through the properties of
various geometric forms which are comprised in this space or
potentially can be comprised in it.
Systematic study of the geometric forms in the space E was
initiated by ancient Greek mathematicians. It was Euclid who
succeeded the most in this. He has formulated the basic prop-
erties of the space E in five postulates, from which he derived
all other properties of E. At the present time his postulates
are called axioms. On the basis of modern requirements to the
rigor of mathematical reasoning the list of Euclid’s axioms was
enlarged from five to twenty. These twenty axioms can be found
in the book [6]. In favor of Euclid the space that we observe in
our everyday life is denoted by the symbol E and is called the
three-dimensional Euclidean space.
The three-dimensional Euclidean point space E consists of
points. All geometric forms in it also consist of points. subsets
of the space E. Among subsets of the space E straight lines
10 CHAPTER I. VECTOR ALGEBRA.

and planes (see Fig. 1.2) play an especial role. They are used
in the statements of the first eleven Euclid’s axioms. On the
base of these axioms the concept of a segment (see Fig. 1.2) is
introduced. The concept of a segment is used in the statement of
the twelfth axiom.
The first twelve of Euclid’s axioms appear to be sufficient
to define the concept of a ray and the concept of an angle
between two rays outgoing from the same point. The concepts

of a segment and an angle along with the concepts of a straight

line and a plane appear to be sufficient in order to formulate
the remaining eight Euclid’s axioms and to build the elementary
geometry in whole.
Even the above survey of the book [6], which is very short,
shows that building the elementary geometry in an axiomatic way
on the basis of Euclid’s axioms is a time-consuming and laborious
work. However, the reader who is familiar with the elementary
geometry from his school curriculum easily notes that proof of
theorems in school textbooks are more simple than those in [6].
The matter is that proofs in school textbooks are not proofs in
the strict mathematical sense. Analyzing them carefully, one can
find in these proofs the usage of some non-proved propositions
which are visually obvious from a supplied drawing since we have
a rich experience of living within the space E. Such proofs can
be transformed to strict mathematical proofs by filling omissions,
 § 2. GEOMETRIC VECTORS. 11

i. e. by proving visually obvious propositions used in them.

Unlike [6], in this book I do not load the reader by absolutely
strict proofs of geometric results. For geometric definitions,
constructions, and theorems the strictness level is used which is
close to that of school textbooks and which admits drawings and
visually obvious facts as arguments. Whenever it is possible I
refer the reader to strict statements and proofs in [6]. As far as
the analytical content is concerned, i. e. in equations, in formulas,
and in calculations the strictness level is applied which is habitual
in mathematics without any deviations.

§ 2. Geometric vectors. Vectors bound to points.

−−→
Definition 2.1. A geometric vectors AB is a straight line
segment in which the direction from the point A to the point B
is specified. The point A is called the initial point of the vector
−−→
AB, while the point B is called its terminal point.
−−→
The direction of the vector AB in drawing is marked by an
arrow (see Fig. 2.1). For this reason vectors sometimes are called
directed segments.
Each segment [AB] is associ-
ated with two different vectors:
−−→ −−→ −−→
AB and BA . The vector BA is
usually called the opposite vector
−−→
for the vector AB .
Note that the arrow sign on
−−→
the vector AB and bold dots at the ends of the segment [AB]
are merely symbolic signs used to make the drawing more clear.
−−→
When considered as sets of points the vector AB and the segment
[AB] do coincide.
A direction on a segment, which makes it a vector, can mean
different things in different situations. For instance, drawing a
−−→
vector AB on a geographic map, we usually mark the displace-
ment of some object from the point A to the point B. However,
12 CHAPTER I. VECTOR ALGEBRA.

−−→
if it is a weather map, the same vector AB can mean the wind
direction and its speed at the point A. In the first case the
−−→
length of the vector AB is proportional to the distance between
−−→
the points A and B. In the second case the length of AB is
proportional to the wind speed at the point A.
There is one more difference in the above two examples. In
−−→
the first case the vector AB is bound to the points A and B by
−−→
its meaning. In the second case the vector AB is bound to the
point A only. The fact that its arrowhead end is at the point B is
a pure coincidence depending on the scale we used for translating
the wind speed into the length units on the map. According to
what was said, geometric vectors are subdivided into two types:
1) purely geometric;
2) conditionally geometric.
Only displacement vectors belong to the first type; they actu-
ally bind some two points of the space E. The lengths of these
vectors are always measured in length units: centimeters, meters,
inches, feets etc.
Vectors of the second type are more various. These are velocity
vectors, acceleration vectors, and force vectors in mechanics;
intensity vectors for electric and magnetic fields, magnetization
vectors in magnetic materials and media, temperature gradients
in non-homogeneously heated objects et al. Vectors of the second
type have a geometric direction and they are bound to some
point of the space E, but they have not a geometric length.
Their lengths can be translated to geometric lengths only upon
choosing some scaling factor.
Zero vectors or null vectors hold a special position among
geometric vectors. They are defined as follows.
Definition 2.2. A geometric vector of the space E whose
initial and terminal points do coincide with each other is called a
zero vector or a null vector.
A geometric null vector can be either a purely geometric vector
 § 3. EQUALITY OF VECTORS. 13

or a conditionally geometric vector depending on its nature.

§ 3. Equality of vectors.
−−→ −−→
Definition 3.1. Two geometric vectors AB and CD are
called equal if they are equal in length and if they are codirected,
−−→ −−→
i. e. |AB| = |CD| and AB ⇈ CD .
−−→ −−→
The vectors AB and CD are said to be codirected if they lie
on a same line as shown in Fig. 3.1 of if they lie on parallel lines
as shown in Fig. 3.2. In both cases they should be pointing in the

same direction. Codirectedness of geometric vectors and their

equality are that very visually obvious properties which require
substantial efforts in order to derive them from Euclid’s axioms
(see [6]). Here I urge the reader not to focus on the lack of rigor
in statements, but believe his own geometric intuition.
Zero geometric vectors constitute a special case since they do
not fix any direction in the space.
Definition 3.2. All null vectors are assumed to be codirected
to each other and each null vector is assumed to be codirected to
any nonzero vector.
The length of all null vectors is zero. However, depending on
the physical nature of a vector, its zero length is complemented
with a measure unit. In the case of zero force it is zero newtons,
14 CHAPTER I. VECTOR ALGEBRA.

in the case of zero velocity it is zero meters per second. For this
reason, testing the equality of any two zero vectors, one should
take into account their physical nature.
Definition 3.3. All null vectors of the same physical nature
are assumed to be equal to each other and any nonzero vector is
assumed to be not equal to any null vector.
Testing the equality of nonzero vectors by means of the defi-
nition 3.1, one should take into account its physical nature. The
equality |AB| = |CD| in this definition assumes not only the
−−→ −−→
equality of numeric values of the lengths of AB and CD , but
assumes the coincidence of their measure units as well.
A remark. Vectors are geometric forms, i. e. they are sets
of points in the space E. However, the equality of two vectors
introduced in the definition 3.1 differs from the equality of sets.

§ 4. The concept of a free vector.

Defining the equality of vectors, it is convenient to use parallel
translations. Each parallel translation is a special transformation
of the space p : E → E under which any straight line is mapped
onto itself or onto a parallel line and any plane is mapped onto
itself or onto a parallel plane. When applied to vectors, parallel
translation preserve their length and their direction, i. e. they
map each vector onto a vector equal to it, but usually being in a
different place in the space. The number of parallel translations
is infinite. As appears, the parallel translations are so numerous
that they can be used for testing the equality of vectors.
−−→
Definition 4.1. A geometric vector CD is called equal to a
−−→
geometric vector AB if there is a parallel translation p : E → E
−−→ −−→
that maps the vector AB onto the vector CD , i. e. such that
p(A) = C and p(B) = D.
The definition 4.1 is equivalent to the definition 3.1. I do
not prove this equivalence, relying on its visual evidence and

CopyRight c Sharipov R.A., 2010.

 § 4. THE CONCEPT OF A FREE VECTOR. 15

assuming the reader to be familiar with parallel translations from

the school curriculum. A more meticulous reader can see the
theorems 8.4 and 9.1 in Chapter VI of the book [6].
Theorem 4.1. For any two points A and C in the space E
there is exactly one parallel translation p : E → E mapping the
point A onto the point C, i. e. such that p(A) = C.
The theorem 4.1 is a visually obvious fact. On the other hand
it coincides with the theorem 9.3 from Chapter VI in the book
[6], where it is proved. For these two reasons we exploit the
theorem 4.1 without proving it in this book.
−−→
Lei’s apply the theorem 4.1 to some geometric vector AB . Let
C be an arbitrary point of the space E and let p be a parallel
translation taking the point A to the point C. The existence
and uniqueness of such a parallel translation are asserted by the
theorem 4.1. Let’s define the point D by means of the formula
D = p(B). Then, according to the definition 4.1, we have

−−→ −−→
AB = CD .
−−→
These considerations show that each geometric vector AB has a
copy equal to it and attached to an arbitrary point C ∈ E. In
the other words, by means of parallel translations each geometric
−−→
vector AB can be replicated up to an infinite set of vectors equal
to each other and attached to all points of the space E.
Definition 4.2. A free vector is an infinite collection of geo-
metric vectors which are equal to each other and whose initial
points are at all points of the space E. Each geometric vector in
this infinite collection is called a geometric realization of a given
free vector.
Free vectors can be composed of purely geometric vectors or
of conditionally geometric vectors as well. For this reason one
can consider free vectors of various physical nature.
16 CHAPTER I. VECTOR ALGEBRA.

In drawings free vectors are usually presented by a single geo-

metric realization or by several geometric realizations if needed.
Geometric vectors are usually denoted by two capital letters:
−−→ −−→ −−→
AB , CD , EF etc. Free vectors are denoted by single lowercase
letters: ~a, ~b, ~c etc. Arrows over these letters are often omitted
since it is usually clear from the context that vectors are con-
sidered. Below in this book I will not use arrows in denoting
free vectors. However, I will use boldface letters for them. In
many other books, but not in my book [1], this restriction is also
removed.

§ 5. Vector addition.
Assume that two free vectors a and b are given. Let’s choose
some arbitrary point A and consider the geometric realization of
the vector a with the initial point A. Let’s denote through B
the terminal point of this geometric realization. As a result we
−−→
get a = AB . Then we consider the geometric realization of the
vector b with initial point B and denote through C its terminal
−−→
point. This yields b = BC .
−−→
Definition 5.1. The geometric vector AC connecting the
−−→
initial point of the vector AB with the terminal point of the
−−→ −−→ −−→
vector BC is called the sum of the vectors AB and BC :
−−→ −−→ −−→
AC = AB + BC . (5.1)

−−→ −−→
The vector AC constructed by means of the vectors a = AB
−−→
and b = BC can be replicated up to a free vector c by parallel
translations to all points of the space E. Such a vector c is
naturally called the sum of the free vectors a and b. For this
vector we write c = a + b. The correctness of such a definition is
guaranteed by the following lemma.
−−→
Lemma 5.1. The sum c = a + b = AC of two free vectors
−−→ −−→
a = AB and b = BC expressed by the formula (5.1) does not
 § 5. VECTOR ADDITION. 17

depend on the choice of a point A at which the geometric realiza-

−−→
tion AB of the vector a begins.

Proof. In addition to A, let’s choose another initial point E.

Then in the above construction of the sum a + b the vector a has

−−→ −−→
two geometric realizations AB and EF . The vector b also has
−−→ −−→
two geometric realizations BC and F G (see Fig. 5.1). Then

−−→ −−→ −−→ −−→

AB = EF , BC = F G . (5.2)

Instead of (5.1) now we have two equalities

−−→ −−→ −−→ −−→ −−→ −−→

AC = AB + BC , EG = EF + F G . (5.3)

Let’s denote through p a parallel translation that maps the

point A to the point E, i. e. such that p(A) = E. Due to the
theorem 4.1 such a parallel translation does exist and it is unique.
From p(A) = E and from the first equality (5.2), applying the
definition 4.1, we derive p(B) = F . Then from p(B) = F and
from the second equality (5.2), again applying the definition 4.1,
we get p(C) = G. As a result we have

p(A) = E, p(C) = G. (5.4)

18 CHAPTER I. VECTOR ALGEBRA.

The relationships (5.4) mean that the parallel translation p maps

−−→ −−→
the vector AC to the vector EG . Due to the definition 4.1 this
−−→ −−→
fact yields AC = EG . Now from the equalities (5.3) we derive
−−→ −−→ −−→ −−→
AB + BC = EF + F G . (5.5)

The equalities (5.5) complete the proof of the lemma 5.1. 

The addition rule given by the formula (5.1) is called the
triangle rule. It is associated with the triangle ABC in Fig. 5.1.

§ 6. Multiplication of a vector by a number.

Let a be some free vector. Let’s choose some arbitrary point
A and consider the geometric realization of the vector a with
initial point A. Then we denote through B the terminal point of
this geometric realization of a. Let α be some number. It can be

either positive, negative, or zero.

Let α > 0. In this case we lay a point C onto the line AB so
that the following conditions are fulfilled:

−−→ −−→
AC ⇈ AB , |AC| = |α| · |AB|. (6.1)

As a result we obtain the drawing which is shown in Fig. 6.1.

If α = 0, we lay the point C so that it coincides with the point
−−→
A. In this case the vector AC appears to be zero as shown in
Fig. 6.2 and we have the relationship

|AC| = |α| · |AB|. (6.2)

 § 6. MULTIPLICATION OF A VECTOR BY A NUMBER. 19

In the case α < 0 we lay the point C onto the line AB so that
the following two conditions are fulfilled:

−−→ −−→
AC ↑↓ AB , |AC| = |α| · |AB|. (6.3)

This arrangement of points is shown in Fig. 6.3.

Definition 6.1. In each of the three cases α > 0, α = 0, and
−−→ −−→
α < 0 the geometric vector AC defined through the vector AB
according to the drawings in Fig. 6.1, in Fig. 6.2, and in Fig. 6.3
and according to the formulas (6.1), (6.2), and (6.3) is called
−−→
the product of the vector AB by the number α. This fact is
expressed by the following formula:
−−→ −−→
AC = α · AB . (6.4)

The case a = 0 is not covered by the above drawings in

Fig. 6.1, in Fig. 6.2, and in Fig. 6.3. In this case the point B
coincides with the points A and we have |AB| = 0. In order
to provide the equality |AC| = |α| · |AB| the point C is chosen
coinciding with the point A. Therefore the product of a null
vector by an arbitrary number is again a null vector.
−−→
The geometric vector AC constructed with the use of the
−−→
vector a = AB and the number α can be replicated up to a free
vector c by means of the parallel translations to all points of the
space E. Such a free vector c is called the product of the free
vector a by the number α. For this vector we write c = α · a.
The correctness of this definition of c = α · a is guaranteed by the
following lemma.
−−→
Lemma 6.1. The product c = α · a = AC of a free vector
−−→
a = AB by a number α expressed by the formula (6.4) does
not depend on the choice of a point A at which the geometric
realization of the vector a is built.
20 CHAPTER I. VECTOR ALGEBRA.

Proof. Let’s prove the lemma for the case a 6= 0 and α > 0.
In addition to A we choose another initial point E. Then in the

construction of the product α · a the vector a gets two geometric

−−→ −−→
realizations AB and EF (see Fig. 6.4). Hence we have
−−→ −−→
AB = EF . (6.5)

Let’s denote through p the parallel translation that maps

the point A to the point E, i. e. such that p(A) = E. Then
from the equality (6.5), applying the definition 4.1, we derive
p(B) = F . The point C is placed on the line AB at the distance
|AC| = |α| · |AB| from the point A in the direction of the vector
−−→
AB . Similarly, the point G is placed on the line EF at thew
distance |EG| = |α| · |EF | from the point E in the direction of
−−→
the vector EF . From the equality (6.5) we derive |AB| = |EF |.
Therefore |AC| = |α| · |AB| and |EG| = |α| · |EF | mean that
|AC| = |EF |. Due to p(A) = E and p(B) = F the parallel
translation p maps the line AB onto the line EF . It preserves
lengths of segments and maps codirected vectors to codirected
ones. Hence p(C) = G. Along with p(A) = E due to the
−−→ −−→
definition 4.1 the equality p(C) = G yields AC = EG , i. e.
−−→ −−→
α · AB = α · EF .

The lemma 6.1 is proved for the case a 6= 0 and α > 0. Its proof
for the other cases is left to the reader as an exercise. 
Exercise 6.1. Consider the cases α = 0 and α < 0 for a 6= 0
 § 7. PROPERTIES OF THE ALGEBRAIC OPERATIONS . . . 21

and consider the case a = 0. Prove the lemma 6.1 for these cases
and provide your proof with drawings analogous to that of Fig 6.4.

§ 7. Properties of the algebraic operations with vectors.

The addition of vectors and their multiplication by numbers
are two basic algebraic operations with vectors in the three-
dimensional Euclidean point space E. Eight basic properties of
these two algebraic operations with vectors are usually consid-
ered. The first four of these eight properties characterize the
operation of addition. The other four characterize the operation
of multiplication of vectors by numbers and its correlation with
the operation of vector addition.
Theorem 7.1. The operation of addition of free vectors and
the operation of their multiplication by numbers possess the fol-
lowing properties:
1) commutativity of addition: a + b = b + a;
2) associativity of addition: (a + b) + c = a + (b + c);
3) the feature of the null vector: a + 0 = a;
4) the existence of an opposite vector: for any vector a there is
an opposite vector a′ such that a + a′ = 0;
5) distributivity of multiplication over the addition of vectors:
k · (a + b) = k · a + k · b;
6) distributivity of multiplication over the addition of numbers:
(k + q) · a = k · a + q · a;
7) associativity of multiplication by numbers: (k q)·a = k ·(q ·a);
8) the feature of the numeric unity: 1 · a = a.

Let’s consider the properties listed in the theorem 7.1 one

by one. Let’s begin with the commutativity of addition. The
sum a + b in the left hand side of the equality a + b = b + a
is calculated by means of the triangle rule upon choosing some
−−→ −−→
geometric realizations a = AB and b = BC as shown in Fig. 7.1.
Let’s draw the line parallel to the line BC and passing
through the point A. Then we draw the line parallel to the

CopyRight c Sharipov R.A., 2010.

22 CHAPTER I. VECTOR ALGEBRA.

line AB and passing through the

point C. Both of these lines
are in the plane of the triangle
ABC. For this reason they in-
tersect at some point D. The
segments [AB], [BC], [CD], and
[DA] form a parallelogram.
−−→
Let’s mark the vectors DC
−−→
and AD on the segments [CD]
−−→
and [DA]. It is easy to see that the vector DC is produced from
−−→
the vector AB by applying the parallel translation from the point
−−→
A to the point D. Similarly the vector AD is produced from the
−−→
vector BC by applying the parallel translation from the point B
−−→ −−→ −−→ −−→
to the point A. Therefore DC = AB = a and BC = AD = b.
Now the triangles ABC and ADC yield
−−→ −−→ −−→
AC = AB + BC = a + b,
−−→ −−→ −−→ (7.1)
AC = AD + DC = b + a.

From (7.1) we derive the required equality a + b = b + a.

The relationship a + b = b + a and Fig. 7.1 yield another
method for adding vectors. It is called the parallelogram rule. In
−−→
order to add two vectors a and b their geometric realizations AB
−−→
and AD with the common initial point A are used. They are
completed up to the parallelogram ABCD. Then the diagonal
of this parallelogram is taken for the geometric realization of the
−−→ −−→ −−→
sum: a + b = AB + AD = AC .
Exercise 7.1. Prove the equality a + b = b + a for the case
where a k b. For this purpose consider the subcases

1) a ⇈ b; 2) a ↑↓ b and |a| > |b|;

3) a ↑↓ b and |a| = |b|; 4) a ↑↓ b and |a| < |b|.
 § 7. PROPERTIES OF THE ALGEBRAIC OPERATIONS . . . 23

The next property in the the-

orem 7.1 is the associativity of
the operation of vector addition.
In order to prove this property
we choose some arbitrary initial
point A and construct the follow-
ing geometric realizations of the
−−→ −−→
vectors: a = AB , b = BC , and
−−→
c = CD . Applying the trian-
gle rule of vector addition to the
triangles ABC and ACD, we get the relationships
−−→ −−→ −−→
a + b = AB + BC = AC ,
−−→ −−→ −−→ (7.2)
(a + b) + c = AC + CD = AD

(see Fig. 7.2). Applying the same rule to the triangles BCD and
ABD, we get the analogous relationships
−−→ −−→ −−→
b + c = BC + CD = BD ,
−−→ −−→ −−→ (7.3)
a + (b + c) = AB + BD = AD .

The required relationship (a + b) + c = a + (b + c) now is

immediate from the formulas (7.2) and (7.3).
A remark. The tetragon ABCD in Fig. 7.2 is not necessarily
planar. For this reason the line CD is shown as if it goes under
the line AB, while the line BD is shown going over the line AC.
The feature of the null vector a + 0 = a is immediate from the
triangle rule for vector addition. Indeed, if an initial point A for
−−→
the vector a is chosen and if its geometric realization AB is built,
then the null vector 0 is presented by its geometric realization
−−→ −−→ −−→ −−→
BB . From the definition 5.1 we derive AB + BB = AB which
yields a + 0 = a.
The existence of an opposite vector is also easy to prove.
Assume that the vector a is presented by its geometric realization
24 CHAPTER I. VECTOR ALGEBRA.

−−→ −−→
AB . Let’s consider the opposite geometric vector BA and let’s
denote through a′ the corresponding free vector. Then

−−→ −−→ −−→

a + a′ = AB + BA = AA = 0.

The distributivity of multiplication over the vector addition

follows from the properties of the homothety transformation in
the Euclidean space E (see § 11 of Chapter VI in [6]). It is
sometimes called the similarity transformation, which is not quite
exact. Similarity transformations constitute a larger class of
transformations that comprises homothety transformations as a
subclass within it.
Let a ∦ b and let the sum of vectors a + b is calculated
according to the triangle rule as shown in Fig. 7.3. Assume that

k > 0. Let’s construct the homothety transformation hkA : E → E

with the center at the point A and with the homothety factor
k. Let’s denote through E the image of the point B under the
transformation hkA and let’s denote through F the image of the
point C under this transformation:

E = hkA (B), F = hkA (C).

Due to the properties of the homothety the line EF is parallel to

 § 7. PROPERTIES OF THE ALGEBRAIC OPERATIONS . . . 25

the line BC and we have the following relationships:

−−→ −−→
EF ⇈ BC , |EF | = |k| · |BC|,
−−→ −−→
AE ⇈ AB , |AE| = |k| · |AB|, (7.4)
−−→ −−→
AF ⇈ AC , |AF | = |k| · |AC|.

Comparing (7.4) with (6.1) and taking into account that we

consider the case k > 0, from (7.4) we derive

−−→ −−→ −−→ −−→ −−→ −−→

AE = k · AB , EF = k · BC , AF = k · AC . (7.5)

The relationships (7.5) are sufficient for to prove the distributiv-

ity of the mutiplication of vectors by numbers over the operation
of vector addition. Indeed, from (7.5) we obtain:

−−→ −−→ −−→ −−→

k · (a + b) = k · (AB + BC ) = k · AC = AF =
−−→ −−→ −−→ −−→ (7.6)
= AE + EF = k · AB + k · BC = k · a + k · b.

The case where a ∦ b and k < 0 is very similar to the case just
above. In this case Fig. 7.3 is replaced by Fig. 7.4. Instead of the
relationships (7.4) we have the relationships

−−→ −−→
EF ↑↓ BC , |EF | = |k| · |BC|,
−−→ −−→
AE ↑↓ AB , |AE| = |k| · |AB|, (7.7)
−−→ −−→
AF ↑↓ AC , |AF | = |k| · |AC|.

Taking into account k < 0 from (7.7) we derive (7.5) and (7.6).
In the case k = 0 the relationship k · (a + b) = k · a + k · b
reduces to the equality 0 = 0 + 0. This equality is trivially valid.
26 CHAPTER I. VECTOR ALGEBRA.

Exercise 7.2. Prove that k · (a + b) = k · a + k · b for the case

a k b. For this purpose consider the subcases

1) a ⇈ b; 2) a ↑↓ b and |a| > |b|;

3) a ↑↓ b and |a| = |b|; 4) a ↑↓ b and |a| < |b|.

In each of these subcases consider two options: k > 0 and k < 0.

Let’s proceed to proving the distributivity of multiplication of
vectors by numbers over the addition of numbers. The case a = 0
in the equality (k + q) · a = k · a + q · a is trivial. In this case the
equality (k + q) · a = k · a + q · a reduces to 0 = 0 + 0.
The cases k = 0 and q = 0 are also trivial. In these cases
the equality (k + q) · a = k · a + q · a reduces to the equalities
q · a = 0 + q · a and k · a = k · a + 0 respectively.
Let’s consider the case a 6= 0 and for the sake of certainty
let’s assume that k > 0 and q > 0. Let’s choose some arbi-
trary point A and let’s build the
geometric realizations of the vec-
tor k · a with the initial point A.
Let B be the terminal point of
this geometric realization. Then
−−→
AB = k · a. Similarly, we con-
struct the geometric realization
−−→ −−→ −−→
BC = q · a. Due to k > 0 and q > 0 the vectors AB and BC
are codirected to the vector a. These vectors lie on the line AB
(see Fig. 7.5). The sum of these two vectors

−−→ −−→ −−→

AC = AB + BC (7.8)

lie on the same line and it is codirected to the vector a. The

−−→
length of the vector AC is given by the formula

|AC| = |AB| + |BC| = k |a| + q |a| = (k + q) |a|. (7.9)

 § 7. PROPERTIES OF THE ALGEBRAIC OPERATIONS . . . 27

−−→
Due to AC ⇈ a and due to k + q > 0 from (7.9) we derive

−−→
AC = (k + q) · a. (7.10)

Let’s substitute (7.10) and (7.8) and take into account the re-
−−→ −−→
lationships AB = k · a and BC = q · a which follow from
our constructions. As a result we get the required equality
(k + q) · a = k · a + q · a.
Exercise 7.3. Prove that (k + q) · a = k · a + q · a for the case
where a 6= 0, while k and q are two numbers of mutually opposite
signs. For the case consider the subcases

1) |k| > |q|; 2) |k| = |q|; 3) |k| < |q|.

The associativity of the multiplication of vectors by numbers

is expressed by the equality (k q) · a = k · (q · a). If a = 0, this
equality is trivially fulfilled. It reduces to 0 = 0. If k = 0 or if
q = 0, it is also trivial. In this case it reduces to 0 = 0.
Let’s consider the case a 6= 0, k > 0, and q > 0. Let’s choose
some arbitrary point A in the space E and build the geometric
realization of the vector q ·a with
the initial point A. Let B be the
terminal point of this geometric
−−→
realization. Then AB = q · a
(see Fig. 7.6). Due to q > 0 the
−−→
vector AB is codirected with the
vector a. Let’s build the vector
−−→ −−→ −−→
AC as the product AC = k · AB = k · (q · a) relying upon the
−−→
definition 6.1. Due to k > 0 the vector AC is also codirected
−−→ −−→
with a. The lengths of AB and AC are given by the formulas

|AB| = q |a|, |AC| = k |AB|. (7.11)

28 CHAPTER I. VECTOR ALGEBRA.

From the relationships (7.11) we derive the equality

|AC| = k (q |a|) = (k q) |a|. (7.12)

−−→
The equality (7.12) combined with AC ⇈ a and k q > 0 yields
−−→ −−→ −−→
AC = (k q) · a. By our construction AC = k · AB = k · (q · a).
As a result now we immediately derive the required equality
(k q) · a = k · (q · a).
Exercise 7.4. Prove the equality (k q) · a = k · (q · a) in the
case where a 6= 0, while the numbers k and q are of opposite signs.
For this case consider the following two subcases:

1) k > 0 and q < 0; 2) k < 0 and q > 0.

The last item 8 in the theorem 7.1 is trivial. It is immediate

from the definition 6.1.

§ 8. Vectorial expressions and their transformations.

The properties of the algebraic operations with vectors listed
in the theorem 7.1 are used in transforming vectorial expressions.
Saying a vectorial expression one usually assumes a formula such
that it yields a vector upon performing calculations according
to this formula. In this section we consider some examples of
vectorial expressions and learn some methods of transforming
these expressions.
Assume that a list of several vectors a1 , . . . , an is given. Then
one can write their sum setting brackets in various ways:

(a1 + a2 ) + (a3 + (a4 + . . . + (an−1 + an ) . . . )),

(8.1)
(. . . ((((a1 + a2 ) + a3 ) + a4 ) + . . . + an−1 ) + an ).

There are many ways of setting brackets. The formulas (8.1)

show only two of them. However, despite the abundance of the

CopyRight c Sharipov R.A., 2010.

 § 8. VECTORIAL EXPRESSIONS AND . . . 29

ways for brackets setting, due to the associativity of the vector

addition (see item 2 in the theorem 7.1) all of the expressions
like (8.1) yield the same result. For this reason the sum of the
vectors a1 , . . . , an can be written without brackets at all:

a1 + a2 + a3 + a4 + . . . + an−1 + an . (8.2)

In order to make the formula (8.2) more concise the summation

sign is used. Then the formula (8.2) looks like
n
X
a1 + a2 + . . . + an = ai . (8.3)
i=1

The variable i in the formula (8.3) plays the role of the cycling
variable in the summation cycle. It is called a summation index.
This variable takes all integer values ranging from i = 1 to i = n.
The sum (8.3) itself does not depend on the variable i. The
symbol i in the formula (8.3) can be replaced by any other
symbol, e. g. by the symbol j or by the symbol k:
n
X n
X n
X
ai = aj = ak . (8.4)
i=1 j=1 k=1

The trick with changing (redesignating) a summation index used

in (8.4) is often applied for transforming expressions with sums.
The commutativity of the vector addition (see item 1 in the
theorem 7.1) means that we can change the order of summands
in sums of vectors. For instance, in the sum (8.2) we can write

a1 + a2 + . . . + an = an + an−1 + . . . + a1 .

The most often application for the commutativity of the vector

addition is changing the summation order in multiple sums.
Assume that a collection of vectors aij is given which is indexed
30 CHAPTER I. VECTOR ALGEBRA.

by two indices i and j, where i = 1, . . . , m and j = 1, . . . , n.

Then we have the equality
m X
X n n X
X m
aij = aij (8.5)
i=1 j=1 j=1 i=1

that follows from the commutativity of the vector addition. In

the same time we have the equality
m X
X n m X
X n
aij = aj i (8.6)
i=1 j=1 j=1 i=1

which is obtained by redesignating indices. Both methods of

transforming multiple sums (8.5) and (8.6) are used in dealing
with vectors.
The third item in the theorem 7.1 describes the property of
the null vector. This property is often used in calculations. If the
sum of a part of summands in (8.3) is zero, e. g. if the equality
n
X
ak+1 + . . . + an = ai = 0
i=k+1

is fulfilled, then the sum (8.3) can be transformed as follows:

n
X k
X
a1 + . . . + an = ai = ai = a1 + . . . + ak .
i=1 i=1

The fourth item in the theorem 7.1 declares the existence of

an opposite vector a′ for each vector a. Due to this item we can
define the subtraction of vectors.
Definition 8.1. The difference of two vectors a − b is the
sum of the vector a with the vector b′ opposite to the vector b.
This fact is written as the equality
a − b = a + b′ . (8.7)
 § 8. VECTORIAL EXPRESSIONS AND . . . 31

Exercise 8.1. Using the definitions 6.1 and 8.1, show that the
opposite vector a′ is produced from the vector a by multiplying
it by the number −1, i. e.

a′ = (−1) · a. (8.8)

Due to (8.8) the vector a′ opposite to a is denoted through −a

and we write a′ = −a = (−1) · a.
The distributivity properties of the multiplication of vectors
by numbers (see items 5 and 6 in the theorem 7.1) are used for
expanding expressions and for collecting similar terms in them:
X
n  n
X
α· ai = α · ai , (8.9)
i=1 i=1
X
n  Xn
αi · a = αi · a. (8.10)
i=1 i=1

Transformations like (8.9) and (8.10) can be found in various

calculations with vectors.
Exercise 8.2. Using the relationships (8.7) and (8.8), prove
the following properties of the operation of subtraction:

a − a = 0; (a + b) − c = a + (b − c);
(a − b) + c = a − (b − c); (a − b) − c = a − (b + c);
α · (a − b) = α · a − α · b; (α − β) · a = α · a − β · a.

Here a, b, and c are vectors, while α and β are numbers.

The associativity of the multiplication of vectors by numbers
(see item 7 in the theorem 7.1) is used expanding vectorial
expressions. Here is an example of such usage:
Xn  X n n
X
β· αi · ai = β · (αi · ai ) = (β αi ) · ai . (8.11)
i=1 i=1 i=1
32 CHAPTER I. VECTOR ALGEBRA.

In multiple sums this property is combined with the commuta-

tivity of the regular multiplication of numbers by numbers:
m
X X
n  n
X X
m 
αi · βj · aij = βj · αi · aij .
i=1 j=1 j=1 i=1

A remark. It is important to note that the associativity of

the multiplication of vectors by numbers is that very property
because of which one can omit the dot sign in writing a product
of a number and a vector:

α a = α · a.

Below I use both forms of writing for products of vectors by

numbers intending to more clarity, conciseness, and aesthetic
beauty of formulas.
The last item 8 of the theorem 7.1 expresses the property
of the numeric unity in the form of the relationship 1 · a = a.
This property is used in collecting similar terms and in finding
common factors. Let’s consider an example:

a + 3· b + 2 · a + b = a + 2 · a +3 · b + b = 1 · a + 2 · a+
+ 3 · b + 1 · b = (1 + 2) · a + (3 + 1) · b = 3 · a + 4 · b.

Exercise 8.3. Using the relationship 1 · a = a, prove that the

conditions α · a = 0 and α 6= 0 imply a = 0.

§ 9. Linear combinations. Triviality,

non-triviality, and vanishing.
Assume that some set of n free vectors a1 , . . . , an is given.
One can call it a collection of n vectors, a system of n vectors, or
a family of n vectors either.
Using the operation of vector addition and the operation of
multiplication of vectors by numbers, one can compose some
 § 9. LINEAR COMBINATIONS. 33

vectorial expression of the vectors a1 , . . . , an . It is quite likely

that this expression will comprise sums of vectors taken with
some numeric coefficients.
Definition 9.1. An expression of the form α1 a1 + . . . + αn an
composed of the vectors a1 , . . . , an is called a linear combina-
tion of these vectors. The numbers α1 , . . . , αn are called the
coefficients of a linear combination. If

α1 a1 + . . . + αn an = b, (9.1)

then the vector b is called the value of a linear combination.

In complicated vectorial expressions linear combinations of the
vectors a1 , . . . , an can be multiplied by numbers and can be
added to other linear combinations which can also be multiplied
by some numbers. Then these sums can be multiplied by numbers
and again can be added to other subexpressions of the same
sort. This process can be repeated several times. However,
upon expanding, upon applying the formula (8.11), and upon
collecting similar terms with the use of the formula (8.10) all such
complicated vectorial expressions reduce to linear combinations
of the vectors a1 , . . . , an . Let’s formulate this fact as a theorem.
Theorem 9.1. Each vectorial expression composed of vectors
a1 , . . . , an by means of the operations of addition and multiplica-
tion by numbers can be transformed to some linear combination
of these vectors a1 , . . . , an .
The value of a linear combination does not depend on the order
of summands in it. For this reason linear combinations differing
only in order of summands are assumed to be coinciding. For
example, the expressions α1 a1 +. . .+αn an and αn an +. . .+α1 a1
are assumed to define the same linear combination.
Definition 9.2. A linear combination α1 a1 + . . . + αn an
composed of the vectors a1 , . . . , an is called trivial if all of its
coefficients are zero, i. e. if α1 = . . . = αn = 0.
34 CHAPTER I. VECTOR ALGEBRA.

Definition 9.3. A linear combination α1 a1 + . . . + αn an

composed of vectors a1 , . . . , an is called vanishing or being equal
to zero if its value is equal to the
null vector, i. e. if the vector b
in (9.1) is equal to zero.
Each trivial linear combina-
tion is equal to zero. However,
the converse is not valid. Noe
each vanishing linear combina-
tion is trivial. In Fig. 9.1 we
−−→
have a triangle ABC. Its sides are marked as vectors a1 = AB ,
−−→ −−→
a2 = BC , and a3 = CA . By construction the sum of these three
vectors a1 , a2 , and a3 in Fig. 9.1 is zero:
−−→ −−→ −−→
a1 + a2 + a3 = AB + BC + CA = 0. (9.2)

The equality (9.2) can be written as follows:

1 · a1 + 1 · a2 + 1 · a3 = 0. (9.3)

It is easy to see that the linear combination in the left hand side
of the equality (9.3) is not trivial (see Definition 9.2), however, it
is equal to zero according to the definition 9.3.
Definition 9.4. A linear combination α1 a1 + . . . + αn an
composed of the vectors a1 , . . . , an is called non-trivial if it is
not trivial, i. e. at least one of its coefficients α1 , . . . , αn is not
equal to zero.

§ 10. Linear dependence and linear independence.

Definition 10.1. A system of vectors a1 , . . . , an is called

linearly dependent if there is a non-trivial linear combination of
these vectors which is equal to zero.
 § 10. LINEAR DEPENDENCE AND . . . 35

The vectors a1 , a2 , a3 shown in Fig. 9.1 is an example of a

linearly dependent set of vectors.
It is important to note that the linear dependence is a property
of systems of vectors, it is not a property of linear combinations.
Linear combinations in the definition 10.1 are only tools for
revealing the linear dependence.
It is also important to note that the linear dependence, once it
is present in a collection of vectors a1 , . . . , an , does not depend
on the order of vectors in this collection. This follows from the
fact that the value of any linear combination and its triviality or
non-triviality are not destroyed if we transpose its summands.
Definition 10.2. A system of vectors a1 , . . . , an is called
linearly independent, if it is not linearly dependent in the sense of
the definition 10.1, i. e. if there is no linear combination of these
vectors being non-trivial and being equal to zero simultaneously.
One can prove the existence of a linear combination with the
required properties in the definition 10.1 by finding an example of
such a linear combination. However, proving the non-existence in
the definition 10.2 is more difficult. For this reason the following
theorem is used.
Theorem 10.1 (linear independence criterion). A system
of vectors a1 , . . . , an is linearly independent if and only if vanish-
ing of a linear combination of these vectors implies its triviality.
Proof. The proof is based on a simple logical reasoning.
Indeed, the non-existence of a linear combination of the vec-
tors a1 , . . . , an , being non-trivial and vanishing simultaneously
means that a linear combination of these vectors is inevitably
trivial whenever it is equal to zero. In other words vanishing of a
linear combination of these vectors implies triviality of this linear
combination. The theorem 10.1 is proved. 
Theorem 10.2. A system of vectors a1 , . . . , an is linearly
independent if and only if non-triviality of a linear combination
of these vectors implies that it is not equal to zero.

CopyRight c Sharipov R.A., 2010.

36 CHAPTER I. VECTOR ALGEBRA.

The theorem 10.2 is very similar to the theorem 10.1. However,

it is less popular and is less often used.

Exercise 10.1. Prove the theorem 10.2 using the analogy

with the theorem 10.1.

§ 11. Properties of the linear dependence.

Definition 11.1. The vector b is said to be expressed as a

linear combination of the vectors a1 , . . . , an if it is the value
of some linear combination composed of the vectors a1 , . . . , an
(see (9.1)). In this situation for the sake of brevity the vector
b is sometimes said to be linearly expressed through the vectors
a1 , . . . , an or to be expressed in a linear way through a1 , . . . , an .

There are five basic properties of the linear dependence of

vectors. We formulate them as a theorem.

Theorem 11.1. The relation of the linear dependence for a

system of vectors possesses the following basic properties:
1) a system of vectors comprising the null vector is linearly de-
pendent;
2) a system of vectors comprising a linearly dependent subsystem
is linearly dependent itself;
3) if a system of vectors is linearly dependent, then at least one
of these vectors is expressed in a linear way through other
vectors of this system;
4) if a system of vectors a1 , . . . , an is linearly independent, while
complementing it with one more vector an+1 makes the system
linearly dependent, then the vector an+1 is linearly expressed
through the vectors a1 , . . . , an ;
5) if a vector b is linearly expressed through some m vectors
a1 , . . . , am and if each of the vectors a1 , . . . , am is linearly
expressed through some other n vectors c1 , . . . , cn , then the
vector b is linearly expressed through the vectors c1 , . . . , cn .
 § 12. LINEAR DEPENDENCE FOR n = 1. 37

The properties 1)–5) in the theorem 11.1 are relatively simple.

Their proofs are purely algebraic, they do not require drawings.
I do not prove them in this book since the reader can find their
proofs in § 3 of Chapter I in the book [1].
Apart from the properties 1)–5) listed in the theorem 11.1,
there is one more property which is formulated separately.
Theorem 11.2 (Steinitz). If the vectors a1 , . . . , an are lin-
early independent and if each of them is linearly expressed through
some other vectors b1 , . . . , bm , then m > n.
The Steinitz theorem 11.2 is very important in studying mul-
tidimensional spaces. We do not use it in studying the three-
dimensional space E in this book.

§ 12. Linear dependence for n = 1.

Let’s consider the case of a system composed of a single vector
a1 and apply the definition of the linear dependence 10.1 to this
system. The linear dependence of such a system of one vector
a1 means that there is a linear combination of this single vector
which is non-trivial and equal to zero at the same time:

α1 a1 = 0. (12.1)

Non-triviality of the linear combination in the left hand side of

(12.1) means that α1 6= 0. Due to α1 6= 0 from (12.1) we derive

a1 = 0 (12.2)

(see Exercise 8.3). Thus, the linear dependence of a system

composed of one vector a1 yields a1 = 0.
The converse proposition is also valid. Indeed, assume that
the equality (12.2) is fulfilled. Let’s write it as follows:

1 · a1 = 0. (12.3)
38 CHAPTER I. VECTOR ALGEBRA.

The left hand side of the equality (12.3) is a non-trivial linear

combination for the system of one vector a1 which is equal to
zero. Its existence means that such a system of one vector is
linearly dependent. We write this result as a theorem.
Theorem 12.1. A system composed of a single vector a1 is
linearly dependent if and only if this vector is zero, i. e. a1 = 0.

§ 13. Linear dependence for n = 2.

Collinearity of vectors.
Let’s consider a system composed of two vectors a1 and a2 .
Applying the definition of the linear dependence 10.1 to it, we
get the existence of a linear combination of these vectors which
is non-trivial and equal to zero simultaneously:

α1 a1 + α2 a2 = 0. (13.1)

The non-triviality of the linear combination in the left hand side

of the equality (13.1) means that α1 6= 0 or α2 6= 0. Since the
linear dependence is not sensitive to the order of vectors in a
system, without loss of generality we can assume that α1 6= 0.
Then the equality (13.1) can be written as
α2
a1 = − a2 . (13.2)
α1

Let’s denote β2 = −α2 /α1 and write the equality (13.2) as

a1 = β2 a2 . (13.3)

Note that the relationship (13.3) could also be derived by means

of the item 3 of the theorem 11.1.
According to (13.3), the vector a1 is produced from the vector
a2 by multiplying it by the number β2 . In multiplying a vector
by a number it length is usually changed (see Formulas (6.1),
(6.2), (6.3), and Figs. 6.1, 6.2, and 6.3). As for its direction, it
 § 13. LINEAR DEPENDENCE FOR n = 2. 39

either is preserved or is changed for the opposite one. In both

of these cases the vector β2 a2 is parallel to the vector a2 . If
β2 = 0m the vector β2 a2 appears to be the null vector. Such a
vector does not have its own direction, the null vector is assumed
to be parallel to any other vector by definition. As a result of the
above considerations the equality (13.3) yields

a1 k a2 . (13.4)

In the case of vectors for to denote their parallelism a special

term collinearity is used.
Definition 13.1. Two free vectors a1 and a2 are called
collinear, if their geometric realizations are parallel to some
straight line common to both of them.
As we have seen above, in the case of two vectors their
linear dependence implies the collinearity of these vectors. The
converse proposition is also valid. Assume that the relationship
(13.4) is fulfilled. If both vectors a1 and a2 are zero, then
the equality (13.3) is fulfilled where we can choose β2 = 1. If
at least one the two vectors is nonzero, then up to a possible
renumerating these vectors we can assume that a2 6= 0. Having
−−→ −−→
built geometric realizations a2 = AB and a1 = AC , one can
choose the coefficient β2 on the base of the Figs. 6.1, 6.2, or 6.3
and on the base of the formulas (6.1), (6.2), (6.3) so that the
equality (13.3) is fulfilled in this case either. As for the equality
(13.3) itself, we write it as follows:

1 · a1 + (−β2 ) · a2 = 0. (13.5)

Since 1 6= 0, the left hand side of the equality (13.5) is a non-

trivial linear combination of the vectors a1 and a2 which is equal
to zero. The existence of such a linear combination means that
the vectors a1 and a2 are linearly dependent. Thus, the converse
proposition that the collinearity of two vectors implies their linear
dependence is proved.
40 CHAPTER I. VECTOR ALGEBRA.

Combining the direct and converse propositions proved above,

one can formulate them as a single theorem.
Theorem 13.1. A system of two vectors a1 and a2 is linearly
dependent if and only if these vectors are collinear, i. e. a1 k a2 .

§ 14. Linear dependence for n = 3.

Coplanartity of vectors.
Let;s consider a system composed of three vectors a1 , a2 ,
and a3 . Assume that it is linearly dependent. Applying the
item 3 of the theorem 11.1 to
this system, we get that one of
the three vectors is linearly ex-
pressed through the other two
vectors. Taking into account the
possibility of renumerating our
vectors, we can assume that the
vector a1 is expressed through
the vectors a2 and a3 :

a1 = β2 a2 + β3 a3 . (14.1)

Let A be some arbitrary point of the space E. Let’s build

−−→ −−→
the geometric realizations a2 = AB and β2 a2 = AC . Then at
the point C we build the geometric realizations of the vectors
−−→ −−→ −−→ −−→
a3 = CD and β3 a3 = CE . The vectors AC and CE constitute
two sides of the triangle ACE (see Fig. 14.1). Then the sum of
−−→
the vectors (14.1) is presented by the third side a1 = AE .
The triangle ACE is a planar form. The geometric realizations
of the vectors a1 , a2 , and a3 lie on the sides of this triangle.
−−→
Therefore they lie on the plane ACE. Instead of a1 = AE ,
−−→ −−→
a2 = AB , and a3 = CD by means of parallel translations we can
build some other geometric realizations of these three vectors.
These geometric realizations do not lie on the plane ACE, but
they keep parallelism to this plane.
 § 14. LINEAR DEPENDENCE FOR n = 3. 41

Definition 14.1. Three free vectors a1 , a2 , and a3 are called

coplanar if their geometric realizations are parallel to some plane
common to all three of them.
Lemma 14.1. The linear dependence of three vecctors a1 , a2 ,
a3 implies their coplanarity.
Exercise 14.1. The above considerations yield a proof for the
lemma 14.1 on the base of the formula (14.1) in the case where

a2 6= 0, a3 6= 0, a2 ∦ a3 . (14.2)

Consider special cases where one or several conditions (14.2) are

not fulfilled and derive the lemma 14.1 from the formula (14.1) in
those special cases.
Lemma 14.2. The coplanarity of three vectors a1 , a2 , a3 imply
their linear dependence.
Proof. If a2 = 0 or a3 = 0, then the propositions of the
lemma 14.2 follows from the first item of the theorem 11.1. If
a2 6= 0, a3 6= 0, a2 k a3 , then the
proposition of the lemma 14.2
follows from the theorem 13.1
and from the item 2 of the the-
orem 11.1. Therefore, in or-
der to complete the proof of the
lemma 14.2 we should consider
the case where all of the three
conditions (14.2) are fulfilled.
Let A be some arbitrary point
of the space E. At this point
−−→
we build the geometric realizations of the vectors a1 = AD ,
−−→ −−→
a2 = AC , and a3 = AB (see Fig. 14.2). Due to the coplanarity
−−→
of the vectors a1 , a2 , and a3 their geometric realizations AB ,
−−→ −−→
AC , and AD lie on a plane. Let’s denote this plane through
42 CHAPTER I. VECTOR ALGEBRA.

α. Through the point D we draw a line parallel to the vector

a3 6= 0. Such a line is unique and it lies on the plane α. This
−−→
line intersects the line comprising the vector a2 = AC at some
unique point E since a2 6= 0 and a2 ∦ a3 . Considering the points
A, E, and D in Fig. 14.2, we derive the equality
−−→ −−→ −−→
a1 = AD = AE + ED . (14.3)
−−→ −−→
The vector AE is collinear to the vector AC = a2 6= 0 since
these vectors lie on the same line. For this reason there is a
−−→ −−→
number β2 such that AE = β2 a2 . The vector ED is collinear to
−−→
the vector AB = a3 6= 0 since these vectors lie on parallel lines.
−−→
Hence ED = β3 a3 for some number β3 . Upon substituting
−−→ −−→
AE = β2 a2 , ED = β3 a3

into the equality (14.3) this equality takes the form of (14.1).
The last step in proving the lemma 14.2 consists in writing the
equality (14.1) in the following form:

1 · a1 + (−β2 ) · a2 + (−β3 ) · a3 = 0. (14.4)

Since 1 6= 0, the left hand side of the equality (14.4) is a non-

trivial linear combination of the vectors a1 , a2 , a3 which is equal
to zero. The existence of such a linear combination means that
the vectors a1 , a2 , and a3 are linearly dependent. 
The following theorem is derived from the lemmas 14.1 and 14.2.
Theorem 14.1. A system of three vectors a1 , a2 , a3 is linearly
dependent if and only if these vectors are coplanar.

§ 15. Linear dependence for n > 4.

Theorem 15.1. Any system consisting of four vectors a1 , a2 ,

a3 , a4 in the space E is linearly dependent.

CopyRight c Sharipov R.A., 2010.

 § 15. LINEAR DEPENDENCE FOR n > 4. 43

Theorem 15.2. Any system consisting of more than four vec-

tors in the space E is linearly dependent.
The theorem 15.2 follows from the theorem 15.1 due to the
item 3 of the theorem 11.1. Therefore it is sufficient to prove the
theorem 15.1. The theorem 15.1 itself expresses a property of the
three-dimensional space E.
Proof of the theorem 15.1. Let’s choose the subsystem
composed by three vectors a1 , a2 , a3 within the system of
four vectors a1 , a2 , a3 , a4 . If these three vectors are linearly

dependent, then in order to prove the linear dependence of the

vectors a1 , a2 , a3 , a4 it is sufficient to apply the item 3 of the
theorem 11.1. Therefore in what fallows we consider the case
where the vectors a1 , a2 , a3 are linearly independent.
From the linear independence of the vectors a1 , a2 , a3 , ac-
cording to the theorem 14.1, we derive their non-coplanarity.
Moreove, from the linear independence of a1 , a2 , a3 due to the
item 3 of the theorem 11.1 we derive the linear independence of
any smaller subsystem within the system of these three vectors.
In particular, the vectors a1 , a2 , a3 are nonzero and the vectors
44 CHAPTER I. VECTOR ALGEBRA.

a1 and a1 are not collinear (see Theorems 12.1 and 13.1), i. e.

a1 6= 0, a2 6= 0, a3 6= 0, a1 ∦ a2 . (15.1)

Let A be some arbitrary point of the space E. Let’s build the

−−→ −−→ −−→ −−→
geometric realizations a1 = AB , a2 = AC , a3 = AD , a4 = AE
with the initial point A. Due to the condition a1 ∦ a2 in (15.1)
−−→ −−→
the vectors AB and AC define a plane (see Fig. 15.1). Let’s
−−→
denothe this plane through α. The vector AD does not lie on
the plane α and it is not parallel to this plane since the vectors
a1 , a2 , a3 are not coplanar.
Let’s draw a line passing through the terminal point of the
−−→
vector a4 = AE and being parallel to the vector a3 . Since a3 ∦ α,
this line crosses the plane α at some unique point F and we have
−−→ −−→ −−→
a4 = AE = AF + F E . (15.2)

Now let’s draw a line passing through the point F and being
parallel to the vector a2 . Such a line lies on the plane α. Due to
a1 ∦ a2 this line intersects the line AB at some unique point G.
Hence we have the following equality:
−−→ −−→ −−→
AF = AG + GF . (15.3)
−−→
Note that the vector AG lies on the same line as the vector
−−→
a1 = AB . From (15.1) we get a1 6= 0. Hence there is a number
−−→ −−→
β1 such that AG = β1 a1 . Similarly, from GF k a2 and a2 6= 0
−−→ −−→
we derive GF = β2 a2 for some number β2 and from F E k a3
−−→
and a3 6= 0 we derive that F E = β3 a3 for some number β3 . The
−−→ −−→
rest is to substitute the obtained expressions for AG , GF , and
−−→
F E into the formulas (15.3) and (15.2). This yields

a4 = β1 a1 + β2 a2 + β3 a3 . (15.4)
 § 16. BASES ON A LINE. 45

The equality (15.4) can be rewritten as follows:

1 · a4 + (−β1 ) · a1 + (−β2 ) · a2 + (−β3 ) · a3 = 0. (15.5)

Since 1 6= 0, the left hand side of the equality (15.5) is a non-

trivial linear combination of the vectors a1 , a2 , a3 , a4 which is
equal to zero. The existence of such a linear combination means
that the vectors a1 , a2 , a3 , a3 are linearly dependent. The
theorem 15.1 is proved. 

§ 16. Bases on a line.

Let a be some line in the space E. Let’s consider free vectors
parallel to the line a. They have geometric realizations lying on
the line a. Restricting the freedom of moving such vectors, i. e.
forbidding geometric realizations outside the line a, we obtain
partially free vectors lying on the line a.
Definition 16.1. A system consisting of one non-zero vector
e 6= 0 lying on a line a is called a basis on this line. The vector e
is called the basis vector of this basis.
Let e be the basis vector of
some basis on the line a and let
x be some other vector lying on
this line (see Fig. 16.1). Then
x k e and hence there is a num-
ber x such that the vector x is
expressed through a by means of the formula

x = x e. (16.1)

The number x in the formula (16.1) is called the coordinate of

the vector x in the basis e, while the formula (16.1) itself is called
the expansion of the vector x in this basis.
When writing the coordinates of vectors extracted from their
expansions (16.1) in a basis these coordinates are usually sur-
 Another Random Document on
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began to get very cold, and the large hall became impossible, we took refuge
in the adjoining room, which was Their Majesties’ drawing-room, the only
really comfortable apartment in the house. The Czar would often read aloud
while the Grand-Duchesses did needlework or played with us. The Czarina
regularly played one or two games of bezique with General Tatichtchef and
then took up her work or reclined in her arm-chair. In this atmosphere of
family peace we passed the long winter evenings, lost in the immensity of
distant Siberia.
One of the greatest privations during our captivity at Tobolsk was the
almost complete absence of news. Letters only reached us very irregularly
and after long delay. As for newspapers, we were reduced to a nasty local rag
printed on packing paper, which only gave us telegrams several days old and
generally distorted and cut down.
The Czar eagerly followed the development of events in Russia. He
realised that the country was rushing towards ruin. He had a moment of fresh
hope when General Kornilof offered Kerensky to march on Petrograd to put
an end to the Bolshevik agitation, which was becoming more and more
menacing. His disappointment was very great when the Provisional
Government rejected this final chance of salvation. He saw in this the only
means that remained perhaps of avoiding the imminent catastrophe. I then
for the first time heard the Czar regret his abdication. He had made this
decision in the hope that those who had wished to get rid of him would be
capable of making a success of the war and saving Russia. He had feared
that resistance on his part might give rise to a civil war in the presence of the
enemy, and had been unwilling that the blood of a single Russian should be
shed for him. But had not his departure been almost immediately followed
by the appearance of Lenin and his acolytes, the paid agents of Germany,
whose criminal propaganda had destroyed the army and corrupted the
country? It now gave him pain to see that his renunciation had been in vain,
and that by his departure in the interests of his country he had in reality done
her an ill turn. This idea was to haunt him more and more, and finally gave
rise to grave moral anxiety.
About November 15th we learnt that the Provisional Government was
overthrown and that the Bolsheviks had again come into power. But this
event did not immediately react on our life, and it was not until some months
later, as we shall see, that it occurred to them to turn their attention to us.
 The weeks passed and the news which reached us grew worse and worse.
It was, however, very difficult for us to follow events and grasp their
purport, for the information at our disposal did not allow us to understand
the causes or calculate the consequences; we were, so far, so isolated from
the entire world. And even if we succeeded in getting a rough knowledge of
what was happening in Russia, the rest of Europe was almost a closed book.
Meanwhile the Bolshevik doctrines had begun their destructive work in
the detachment which was guarding us and which hitherto had been fairly
proof against them. It was composed of very varied elements: the men of the
1st and 4th Regiments were for the most part favourably disposed towards
the Imperial family, and especially towards the children. The Grand-
Duchesses, with that simplicity which was their charm, loved to talk to these
men, who seemed to them to be linked with the past in the same way as
themselves. They questioned them about their families, their villages, or the
battles in which they had taken part in the great war. Alexis Nicolaïevitch,
who to them was still “the Heir,” had also won their hearts, and they took
trouble to please him and find amusements for him. One section of the 4th
Regiment, composed almost exclusively of the older classes, was
particularly conspicuous in its attachment, and it was always a delight to the
family to see these good fellows come back on duty. On these days the Czar
and children used to go secretly to the guardhouse and converse or play
draughts with the men, whose conduct was never in a single instance
anything but strictly correct. Here they were once surprised by Commissary
Pankratof, who stood astounded on the doorstep, looking through his
spectacles at this unexpected sight. The Czar, seeing his disconcerted
appearance, motioned to him to come and sit at the table. But the
Commissary evidently thought he was out of place; muttering a few
unintelligible words, he turned on his heel and fled, discomfited.
Pankratof, as I have said, was a fanatic imbued with humanitarian
principles; he was not a bad fellow. Immediately after his arrival he had
organised classes for the soldiers to initiate them in Liberal doctrines, and
did all he could to develop their patriotism and citizenship. But his efforts
recoiled upon himself. A convinced adversary of the Bolsheviks, he was in
reality merely preparing the ground for them and, without realising it,
helping towards the success of their ideas. As will be seen, he was destined
to be the first victim.
 The men of the 2nd Regiment had from the outset been distinguished by
revolutionary sentiments; at Tsarskoïe-Selo they had already been the cause
of a good deal of annoyance to their prisoners. The Bolshevik coup d’état
increased their authority and audacity; they had managed to form a
“Soldiers’ Committee,” which tended further to restrict our régime and
gradually to substitute its authority for that of Colonel Kobylinsky. We had
proof of its ill-will on the occasion of Baroness Buxhœveden’s arrival (the
end of December O.S.). She had shared our captivity at Tsarskoïe-Selo, and
it was only the state of her health that had prevented her from leaving with
us. She had no sooner recovered than she came, with Kerensky’s permission,
to rejoin the Czarina. The Soldiers’ Committee flatly refused to let her enter
the house, and she had to find accommodation in the town. This was a great
grief to the Czarina and the whole family, who had been looking forward
very impatiently to her arrival.
Thus we reached Christmas.
The Czarina and Grand-Duchesses had for many weeks been preparing
with their own hands a present for each of us and each of the servants. Her
Majesty distributed some woollen waistcoats which she had knitted herself.
With such touching thoughtfulness as this she tried to show her gratitude to
those who had remained faithful.
On December 24th the priest came to the house for Vespers; everyone
then assembled in the large hall, and the children were full of delight at the
“surprise” prepared for us. We now felt part of one large family; we did our
best to forget the preoccupations and distresses of the time in order to enjoy
to the full and in complete unity these moments of peaceful intimacy.
The next day, Christmas Day, we went to church. By the
AT TOBOLSK, WHERE THEY WERE INTERNED FROM SEPTEMBER, 1917, TO APRIL, 1918.
THE CZAR AND HIS CHILDREN ENJOY THE SIBERIAN SUNSHINE ON THE ROOF OF A
GREENHOUSE.
From left to right: The Grand-Duchesses Olga and Anastasie, the Czar and the Czarevitch, the Grand-
Duchess Tatiana, the Grand-Duchess Marie (standing). The Czarina was confined to her room,
indisposed.
[Facing page 246.

orders of the priest the deacon intoned the Mnogoletié (the prayer for the
long life of the Imperial family). This was an imprudence which was bound
to bring reprisals. The soldiers, with threats of death, demanded that the
prayer should be revoked. This incident marred the pleasant memories which
this day should have left in our minds. It also brought us fresh annoyances
and the supervision became still stricter.
 CHAPTER XX

END OF OUR CAPTIVITY AT TOBOLSK

(JANUARY-MAY, 1918)

O N January 1st/14th, 1914, I resumed the diary I had given up when we

were transferred to Tobolsk. I shall give a few extracts from it as I did
when describing our captivity at Tsarskoïe-Selo.
Monday, January 14th (January 1st O.S.).—This morning we went to
church, where the new priest officiated for the first time. Father Vassilief
(the cause of the incident mentioned in the preceding chapter) has been
transferred by Archbishop Hermogenes to the monastery of Abalatsky.
Tuesday, January 15th.—At 2 p.m. there was a meeting of the
committee of our garrison. It was decided by 100 votes to 85 to prohibit
the wearing of epaulettes by officers and men.
Thursday, January 17th.—Colonel Kobylinsky came this morning. He
wore mufti rather than wear his uniform without epaulettes.
Friday, January 18th.—The priest and choir[62] arrived at 3 o’clock.
To-day is the Blessing of the Waters and the first time the new priest has
officiated in the house. When it was Alexis Nicolaïevitch’s turn to kiss
the cross held out by the priest the latter bent down and kissed his
forehead. After dinner General Tatichtchef and Prince Dolgorouky came
to beg the Czar to remove his epaulettes in order to avoid a hostile
demonstration by the soldiers. At first it seemed as though the Czar would
refuse, but, after exchanging a look and a few words with the Czarina, he
recovered his self-control and yielded for the sake of his family.
Saturday, January 19th.—We went to church this morning. The Czar
was wearing a Caucasian cloak, which is always worn without epaulettes.
Alexis Nicolaïevitch had hidden his under his “bachelik” (a sort of
Caucasian muffler). To-day the Czarina, on behalf of the Czar and
herself, invited me to take evening tea[63] with them in future, when I
don’t feel too tired after my lessons. I did not withdraw therefore at 10
o’clock when the Grand-Duchesses retired. (Alexis Nicolaïevitch always
goes to bed at nine o’clock.)
Monday, January 21st.—A heavy fall of snow last night. We began to
build a “snow mountain.”
Friday, January 25th (January 12th O.S,).—Tatiana Nicolaïevna’s
birthday. Te Deum in the house. Fine winter’s day; sunshine; 15°
Réaumur. Went on building the snow mountain as usual. The soldiers of
the guard came to help us.
Wednesday, January 30th.—To-day the friendly section of the 4th
Regiment was on duty. The Czar

THE GOVERNOR’S HOUSE AT TOBOLSK WHERE THE IMPERIAL FAMILY WERE

INTERNED.

Barracks of the detachment which guarded The Grand-Duchesses Marie and Anastasie on the
the Czar. balcony.
The guard being changed.

[Facing page 252.

and children spent several hours with the soldiers in the guard-house.
Saturday, February 2nd.—23° R. below zero. Prince Dolgorouky and I
watered the snow mountain. We carried thirty buckets of water. It was so
cold that the water froze on the way from the kitchen tap to the mountain.
Our buckets and the snow mountain “steamed.” To-morrow the children
can begin tobogganing.
 Monday, February 4th.—The thermometer is said to have dropped last
night below 30° Réaumur (37° Centigrade). Terrible wind. The Grand-
Duchesses’ bedroom is a real ice-house.
Wednesday, February 6th.—It appears that on the initiative of the 2nd
Regiment the soldiers have decided that Commissary Pankratof and his
deputy, Nikolsky, must resign.
Friday, February 8th.—The soldiers’ committee has to-day decided to
replace Pankratof by a Bolshevik commissary from Moscow. Things are
going from bad to worse. It appears that there is no longer a state of war
between Soviet Russia and Germany, Austria, and Bulgaria. The army is
to be disbanded, but Lenin and Trotsky have not yet signed the peace.
Wednesday, February 13th.—The Czar tells me that the demobilisation
of the army has begun, several classes having already been disbanded. All
the old soldiers (the most friendly) are to leave us. The Czar seems very
depressed at this prospect; the change may have disastrous results for us.
Friday, February 15th.—A certain number of soldiers have already
left. They came secretly to take leave of the Czar and his family.
At tea in the evening with Their Majesties, General Tatichtchef, with a
frankness justified by the circumstances, expressed his surprise at finding
how intimate and affectionate was the family life of the Czar and Czarina
and their children. The Czar, smiling at the Czarina, said, “You hear what
Tatichtchef says?”
Then, with his usual good-humour tinged with a touch of irony, he
added:
“You have been my aide-de-camp, Tatichtchef, and had ever so many
opportunities of observing us. If you knew so little about us, how can you
expect us to blame the newspapers for what they say about us?”
Wednesday, February 20th.—The Czar tells me the Germans have
taken Reval, Rovno, etc., and are still advancing along the whole front. It
is obvious that he is deeply affected.
Monday, February 25th.—Colonel Kobylinsky has received a
telegram informing him that, from March 1st, “Nicholas Romanoff and
his family must be put on soldiers’ rations and that each member of the
family will receive 600 roubles per month drawn from the interest of their
personal estate.” Hitherto their expenses have been paid by the state. As
the family consists of seven persons, the whole household will have to be
run on 4,200 roubles a month.[64]
Tuesday, February 26th.—His Majesty asked me to help him to do his
accounts and draw up a family budget. He has saved a little from his
“toilet allowance.”
Wednesday, February 27th.—The Czar said jokingly that, since
everyone is appointing committees, he is going to appoint one to look
after the welfare of his own community. It is to consist of General
Tatichtchef, Prince Dolgorouky, and myself. We held a “sitting” this
afternoon and came to the conclusion that the personnel must be reduced.
This is a wrench; we shall have to dismiss ten servants, several of whom
have their families with them in Tobolsk. When we informed Their
Majesties we could see the grief it caused them. They must part with
servants whose very devotion will reduce them to beggary.
Friday, March 1st.—The new régime comes into force. From to-day
butter and coffee are excluded from the table as luxuries.
Monday, March 4th.—The soldiers’ committee has decided to abolish
the snow mountain we have built (it was such a source of amusement to
the children!) because the Czar and Czarina mounted it to watch the
departure of the men of the 4th Regiment. Every day now brings fresh
vexations to the Czar’s family and their suite. For a long time we have
only been allowed to go out when accompanied by a soldier; it is
probable that even this last privilege will soon be taken from us.
Tuesday, March 5th.—Yesterday the soldiers, with a hang-dog look
(for they felt it was a mean task), began to destroy the snow mountain
with picks. The children are disconsolate.
Friday, March 15th.—The townspeople, hearing of our situation, find
various ways of sending us eggs, sweetmeats, and delicacies.
Sunday, March 17th.—To-day is Carnival Sunday. Everyone is merry.
The sledges pass to and fro under our windows; sound of bells, mouth-
organs, and singing.... The children wistfully watch the fun. They have
begun to grow bored and find their captivity irksome. They walk round
the courtyard, fenced in by its high paling through which they can see
nothing. Since the destruction of their snow mountain their only
distraction is sawing and cutting wood.
 The arrogance of the soldiers is inconceivable; those who have left
have been replaced by a pack of blackguardly-looking young men.
In spite of the daily increase of their sufferings, Their Majesties still
cherish hope that among their loyal friends some may be found to attempt
their release. Never was the situation more favourable for escape, for
there is as yet no representative of the Bolshevik Government at Tobolsk.
With the complicity of Colonel Kobylinsky, already on our side, it would
be easy to trick the insolent but careless vigilance of our guards. All that
is required is the organised and resolute efforts of a few bold spirits
outside. We have repeatedly urged upon the Czar the necessity of being
prepared for any turn of events. He insists on two conditions which
greatly complicate matters: he will not hear of the family being separated
or leaving Russian territory.
One day the Czarina said to me in this connection: “I wouldn’t leave
Russia on any consideration, for it seems to me that to go abroad would
be to break our last link with the past, which would then be dead for
ever.”
THE CZAR SAWING WOOD WITH ME. BEHIND, THE LITTLE GREENHOUSE ON THE ROOF
OF WHICH WE MADE TWO SEATS AT THE END OF WINTER SO THAT WE COULD ENJOY
THE SUN.
 ALEXIS NICOLAÏEVITCH SITTING ON THE STEPS OF THE GOVERNOR’S HOUSE.
STANDING BY HIM IS THE SON OF DR. DEREVENKO, WHO WAS ALLOWED TO COME
AND PLAY WITH HIM WHEN WE FIRST WENT TO TOBOLSK.
[Facing page 256.

Monday, March 18th.—During the first week of Lent the family will
perform its devotions as usual. There is a service morning and evening.
As their different occupations prevent the attendance of the choir, the
Czarina and Grand-Duchesses sing with the deacon.
Tuesday, March 19th.—After lunch the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was
discussed. It has just been signed. The Czar was very depressed, saying:
“It is such a disgrace for Russia and amounts to suicide. I should never
have thought the Emperor William and the German Government could
stoop to shake hands with these miserable traitors. But I’m sure they will
get no good from it; it won’t save them from ruin!”
A little later, when Prince Dolgorouky remarked that the newspapers
were discussing a clause in which the Germans demanded that the
Imperial family should be handed over to them unharmed, the Czar cried:
“This is either a manœuvre to discredit me or an insult.”
The Czarina added in a low voice: “After what they have done to the
Czar, I would rather die in Russia than be saved by the Germans!”
Friday, March 22nd.—At a quarter past nine, after the evening service,
everyone went to Confession—children, servants, suite, and finally Their
Majesties.
Saturday, March 23rd.—A detachment of over a hundred Red Guards
has arrived from Omsk; they are the first Maximalist soldiers to take up
garrison duty at Tobolsk. Our last chance of escape has been snatched
from us. His Majesty, however, tells me he has reason to believe that
there are among these men many officers who have enlisted in the ranks;
he also asserts, without telling me definitely the source of his
information, that there are three hundred officers at Tioumen.
Tuesday, April 9th.—The Bolshevik commissary, who has come with
the detachment from Omsk, has insisted on being allowed to inspect the
house. The soldiers of our guard have refused permission. Colonel
Kobylinsky is very uneasy and fears a conflict. Precautionary measures;
patrols, sentries doubled. A very disturbed night.
 Wednesday, April 10th.—A “full sitting” of our guard, at which the
Bolshevik commissary reveals the extent of his powers. He has the right
to have anyone opposing his orders shot within twenty-four hours and
without trial. The soldiers let him enter the house.
Friday, April 12th.—Alexis Nicolaïevitch confined to bed, as since
yesterday he has had a violent pain in the groin caused by a strain. He has
been so well this winter. It is to be hoped it is nothing serious.
A soldier of our detachment who had been sent to Moscow has
returned to-day and brought Colonel Kobylinsky a memorandum from
the Central Executive Committee of the Bolshevik Government, ordering
him to be much stricter with us. General Tatichtchef, Prince Dolgorouky,
and Countess Hendrikof are to be transferred to our house and treated as
prisoners. The arrival is also announced of a commissary with
extraordinary powers, accompanied by a detachment of soldiers.
Saturday, April 13th.—All who have been living in Kornilof’s house,
Countess Hendrikof, Mlle. Schneider, General Tatichtchef, Prince
Dolgorouky, and Mr. Gibbes[65] move to our house. Only Doctors Botkin
and Derevenko are left at liberty. Alexis Nicolaïevitch’s pains have
increased since yesterday.
Monday, April 15th.—Alexis Nicolaïevitch in great pain yesterday and
to-day. It is one of his severe attacks of hæmophilia.
Tuesday, April 16th.—Colonel Kobylinsky, officer of the guard, and
some soldiers have been to search the house. They have taken away the
Czar’s dagger which he wore with his Cossack uniform.
Monday, April 22nd.—The commissary from Moscow arrived to-day
with a small detachment; his name is Yakovlef. He has shown his papers
to the commandant and soldiers’ committee. In the evening he took tea
with Their Majesties. Every one is restless and distraught. The
commissary’s arrival is felt to be an evil portent, vague but real.
Tuesday, April 23rd.—Commissary Yakovlef came at eleven o’clock.
After an inspection of the whole house he went to see the Czar, who
accompanied him to the room of Alexis Nicolaïevitch who is in bed. Not
having been able to see the Czarina, who was not ready to receive him, he
came again a little later with the regimental doctor and paid a second visit
to Alexis Nicolaïevitch. (He wanted to be assured by his doctor that the
boy was really ill.) As he was going away he asked the commandant
whether we had much luggage. Can this mean we are to move?
Wednesday, April 24th.—We are all in a state of mental anguish. We
feel we are forgotten by everyone, abandoned to our own resources and at
the mercy of this man. Is it possible that no one will raise a finger to save
the Imperial family? Where are those who have remained loyal to the
Czar? Why do they delay?
Thursday, April 25th.—Shortly before three o’clock, as I was going
along the passage, I met two servants sobbing. They told me that
Yakovlef has come to tell the Czar that he is taking him away. What can
be happening? I dare not go up without being summoned, and went back
to my room. Almost immediately Tatiana Nicolaïevna knocked at my
door. She was in tears, and told me Her Majesty was asking for me. I
followed her. The Czarina was alone, greatly upset. She confirmed what I
had heard, that Yakovlef has been sent from Moscow to take the Czar
away and is to leave to-night.
“The commissary says that no harm will come to the Czar, and that if
anyone wishes to accompany him there will be no objection. I can’t let
the Czar go alone. They want to separate him from his family as they did
before....[66]
“They’re going to try to force his hand by making him anxious about
his family.... The Czar is necessary to them; they feel that he alone
represents Russia.... Together we shall be in a better position to resist
them, and I ought to be at his side in the time
AT THE MAIN DOOR OF THE GOVERNOR’S HOUSE DURING A WALK IN THE COURT.
The four Grand-Duchesses. The Czarevitch. The officer of the Guard. The Czar.

THE CZARINA’S ROOM.

PICTURES OF THE CHILDREN ON THE WALL.
[Facing page 260.
of trial.... But the boy is still so ill.... Suppose some complication sets
in.... Oh, God, what ghastly torture!... For the first time in my life I don’t
know what I ought to do; I’ve always felt inspired whenever I’ve had to
take a decision, and now I can’t think.... But God won’t allow the Czar’s
departure; it can’t, it must not be. I’m sure the thaw will begin to-
night....”[67]
Tatiana Nicolaïevna here intervened:
“But mother, if father has to go, whatever we say, something must be
decided....”
I took up the cudgels on Tatiana Nicolaïevna’s behalf, remarking that
Alexis Nicolaïevitch was better, and that we should take great care of
him....
Her Majesty was obviously tortured by indecision; she paced up and
down the room, and went on talking, rather to herself than to us. At last
she came up to me and said:
“Yes, that will be best; I’ll go with the Czar; I shall trust Alexis to
you....”
A moment later the Czar came in. The Czarina walked towards him,
saying:
“It’s settled; I’ll go with you, and Marie will come too.”
The Czar replied: “Very well, if you wish it.”
I came down to my room, and the whole day has been spent in getting
ready. Prince Dolgorouky and Doctor Botkin will accompany Their
Majesties, as also will Tchemadourof (the Czar’s valet), Anna Demidova
(the Czarina’s maid), and Sednief (footman to the Grand-Duchesses). It
has been decided that eight officers and men of our guard are to go with
them.
The family have spent the whole afternoon at the bedside of Alexis
Nicolaïevitch.
This evening at half-past ten we went up to take tea. The Czarina was
seated on the divan with two of her daughters beside her. Their faces were
swollen with crying. We all did our best to hide our grief and to maintain
outward calm. We felt that for one to give way would cause all to break
down. The Czar and Czarina were calm and collected. It is apparent that
they are prepared for any sacrifices, even of their lives, if God in his
inscrutable wisdom should require it for the country’s welfare. They have
never shown greater kindness or solicitude.
This splendid serenity of theirs, this wonderful faith, proved
infectious.
At half-past eleven the servants were assembled in the large hall. Their
Majesties and Marie Nicolaïevna took leave of them. The Czar embraced
every man, the Czarina every woman. Almost all were in tears. Their
Majesties withdrew; we all went down to my room.
At half-past three the conveyances drew up in the courtyard. They
were the horrible tarantass.[68] Only one was covered. We found a little
straw in the backyard and spread it on the floor of the carriages. We put a
mattress in the one to be used by the Czarina.
At four o’clock we went up to see Their Majesties and found them just
leaving Alexis Nicolaïevitch’s room. The Czar and Czarina and Marie
Nicolaïevna took leave of us. The Czarina and the Grand-Duchesses were
in tears. The Czar seemed calm and had a word of encouragement for
each of us; he embraced us. The Czarina, when saying good-bye, begged
me to stay upstairs with Alexis Nicolaïevitch. I went to the boy’s room
and found him in bed, crying.
A few minutes later we heard the rumbling of wheels. The Grand-
Duchesses passed their brother’s door on their way to their rooms, and I
could hear them sobbing....
Saturday, April 27th.—The man who drove the Czarina for the first
stage has brought a note from Marie Nicolaïevna; the roads are
founderous, travelling conditions terrible. How will the Czarina be able to
stand the journey? How heartrending it all is!
Sunday, April 28th.—Colonel Kobylinsky has received a telegram
saying that the whole party arrived safely at Tioumen at half-past nine on
Saturday evening.
The “field chapel” has been moved to the large hall, where the priest
will be able to celebrate Mass, as there is a consecrated altar.
In the evening a second telegram arrived, sent after leaving Tioumen:
“Travelling in comfort. How is the boy? God be with you.”
Monday, April 29th.—The children have received a letter from the
Czarina from Tioumen. The journey has been very trying. Horses up to
their chests in water crossing the rivers. Wheels broken several times.
 Wednesday, May 1st.—Alexis Nicolaïevitch is up. Nagorny carried
him to his wheeled chair; he was wheeled about in the sun.
Thursday, May 2nd.—Still no news since they left Tioumen. Where
are they? They could have reached Moscow by Tuesday!
Friday, May 3rd.—Colonel Kobylinsky has received a telegram saying
that the travellers have been detained at Ekaterinburg. What has
happened?
Saturday, May 4th.—A sad Easter eve. We are in low spirits.
Sunday, May 5th.—Easter Day. Still no news.
Tuesday, May 7th.—At last the children have had a letter from
Ekaterinburg saying that all are well but not explaining why they are held
up. What agony can be read between the lines!
Wednesday, May 8th.—The officers and men of our guard who
accompanied Their Majesties have returned from Ekaterinburg. They say
that on arrival at Ekaterinburg the Czar’s train was surrounded by Red
Guards and that the Czar, Czarina, and Marie Nicolaïevna have been
incarcerated in Ipatief’s house.[69] Prince Dolgorouky is in prison, and
they themselves were only released after two days’ detention.
Saturday, May 11th.—Colonel Kobylinsky has been removed and we
are left to the Tobolsk Soviet.
Friday, May 17th.—The soldiers of our guard have been replaced by
Red Guards brought from Ekaterinburg by Commissary Rodionof, who
has come to fetch us. General Tatichtchef and I both feel we ought to
THE PRIEST CELEBRATING MASS IN THE DRAWING-ROOM OF THE GOVERNOR’S
HOUSE A FEW DAYS AFTER THE DEPARTURE OF THEIR MAJESTIES. MAY, 1918.
 THE RIVER STEAMER “ROUSS,” ON WHICH THE CZAR AND HIS FAMILY WERE
CONVEYED FROM TIOUMEN TO TOBOLSK IN AUGUST, 1917, AND THE CHILDREN FROM
TOBOLSK TO TIOUMEN IN MAY, 1918.
[Facing page 264.

delay our departure as long as possible; but the Grand-Duchesses are so

eager to see their parents again that we don’t feel morally justified in
opposing their wishes.
Saturday, May 18th.—Vespers. The priest and nuns have been stripped
and searched by order of the commissary.
Sunday, May 19th (May 6th, O.S.).—The Czar’s birthday.... Our
departure is fixed for to-morrow. The commissary refuses to allow the
priest to come; he has forbidden the Grand-Duchesses to lock their doors
at night.
Monday, May 20th.—At half-past eleven we left the house and went
on board the Rouss. She is the boat which brought us here with the Czar
and Czarina eight months ago. Baroness Buxhœveden has been granted
permission to rejoin us. We left Tobolsk at five o’clock. Commissary
Rodionof has shut Alexis Nicolaïevitch in his cabin with Nagorny. We
protested: the child is ill and the doctor ought to have access to him at any
time.
Wednesday, May 22nd.—We reached Tioumen this morning.
 CHAPTER XXI

EKATERINBURG
THE MURDER OF THE IMPERIAL FAMILY
DURING THE NIGHT OF JULY 16-17th, 1918

O N our arrival at Tioumen on May 22nd we were at once taken, under a

strong escort, to the special train that was to take us to Ekaterinburg.
Just as I was getting into the train with my pupil I was separated from
him and put in a fourth-class carriage, guarded by sentries like the others.
We reached Ekaterinburg in the night, the train being stopped at some
distance from the station.
About nine o’clock the next morning several carriages were drawn up
alongside our train, and I saw four men go towards the children’s carriage.
A few minutes passed and then Nagorny, the sailor attached to Alexis
Nicolaïevitch, passed my window, carrying the sick boy in his arms; behind
him came the Grand-Duchesses, loaded with valises and small personal
belongings. I tried to get out, but was roughly pushed back into the carriage
by the sentry.
I came back to the window. Tatiana Nicolaïevna came last, carrying her
little dog and struggling to drag a heavy brown valise. It was raining, and I
saw her feet sink into the mud at every step. Nagorny tried to come to her
assistance; he was roughly pushed back by one of the commissaries.... A few
minutes later the carriages drove off with the children in the direction of the
town.
How little I suspected that I was never to see them again, after so many
years among them! I was convinced that they would come back and fetch us
and that we should be united without delay.
But the hours passed. Our train was shunted back into the station, and
then I saw General Tatichtchef, Countess Hendrikof, and Mlle. Schneider
being taken away. A little later it was the turn of Volkof, the Czarina’s valet-
de-chambre, de Kharitonof, the chef, Troup, the footman, and little Leonide
Sednief, a kitchen boy of fourteen.
 With the exception of Volkof, who managed to escape later, and little
Sednief, whose life was spared, not one of those who were led off that day
was destined to escape alive from the hands of the Bolsheviks.
We were still kept waiting. What was happening? Why didn’t they come
for us too? We gave ourselves up to all sorts of hypotheses, when, about five
o’clock, Commissary Rodionof, who had come to Tobolsk to fetch us,
entered our carriage and told us we were not wanted and were free.
Free! What was this? We were to be separated from the others? Then all
was over! The excitement that had sustained us up to now gave place to deep
depression. What was to be done? What was to be the next move? We were
overwhelmed.
Even to-day I cannot understand what prompted the Bolsheviks to this
decision to save our lives. Why, for instance, should Countess Hendrikof be
taken to prison while Baroness de Buxhœveden, also a lady-in-waiting to the
Czarina, was allowed to go free? Why they and not ourselves? Was there
confusion of names or functions? A mystery!
On the next and following days I and my colleague went to

IPATIEF’S HOUSE AT EKATERINBURG, IN WHICH THE IMPERIAL FAMILY WERE

INTERNED AND SUBSEQUENTLY MASSACRED.
Seen from the Vosnessensky Prospekt after the first fence had been erected.
[Facing page 270.
see the English and Swedish consuls[70]—the French consul was away; at all
costs something had to be done to help the prisoners. The two consuls
relieved our minds by telling us that proceedings had already been taken and
that they did not think there was any imminent danger.
I walked past Ipatief’s house, of which the tops of the windows could be
seen above the wall of boards that hemmed it in. I had not yet lost all hope of
effecting an entry, for Dr. Derevenko, who had been allowed to visit the boy,
had heard Dr. Botkin ask Commissary Avdief, the commandant of the guard,
on behalf of the Czar, that I should be allowed to rejoin them. Avdief had
replied that he would refer the matter to Moscow. Meanwhile, my
companions and I, except Dr. Derevenko, who had taken lodgings in the
town, camped in the fourth-class carriage which had brought us. We were
destined to remain there for more than a month!
On the twenty-sixth we were ordered to leave the territory of the Perm
Government—which includes Ekaterinburg—without delay and return to
Tobolsk. Care had been taken that we should only have one document
between us, to keep us together and so facilitate supervision. But the trains
were no longer running. The anti-Bolshevik movement of the Russian and
Czech volunteers[71] was spreading rapidly, and the line was exclusively
reserved for the military units that were being hurried to Tioumen. This
meant further delay.
One day when I was passing Ipatief’s house, accompanied by Dr.
Derevenko and Mr. Gibbes, we saw two carriages drawn up and surrounded
by a large number of Red Guards. What was our horror at recognising in the
first Sednief (the valet-de-chambre of the Grand-Duchesses) sitting between
two guards. Nagorny was going to the second carriage. He was just setting
foot on the step with his hand on the side of the carriage when, raising his
head, he saw us all there standing motionless a few yards from him. For a
few seconds he looked fixedly at us, then, without a single gesture that might
have betrayed us, he took his seat. The carriages were driven off, and we saw
them turn in the direction of the prison.
These two good fellows were shot shortly afterwards; their sole crime had
been their inability to hide their indignation on seeing the Bolshevik
commissaries seize the little gold chain from which the holy images hung
over the sick bed of Alexis Nicolaïevitch.
 A few more days passed, and then I learned through Dr. Derevenko that
the request made on my behalf had been refused.
On June 3rd our carriage was coupled to one of the many trains loaded
with starving people from Russia coming to look for food in Siberia. We
made for Tioumen, where, after various wanderings, we finally arrived on
the fifteenth. A few hours later I was placed under arrest by Bolshevik
headquarters, where I had been forced to apply for a visa that was
indispensable to my companions and myself. It was only by a lucky
combination of circumstances that I came to be released in the evening and
was able to get back to the railway carriage, in

YOUROVSKY, FROM A PHOTOGRAPH PRODUCED AT THE ENQUIRY.

THE GRAND-DUCHESSES’ ROOM AS I SAW IT ON ENTERING IPATIEF’S HOUSE. ON THE
FLOOR ARE THE ASHES FROM THE STOVES.
[Facing page 272.

which they were waiting for me. The following days were days of
indescribable anxiety, at the mercy of any chance that might call attention to
us. Probably what saved us was that we were lost in the crowd of refugees
who filled Tioumen station, and so managed to pass unnoticed.

On July 20th the Whites, as the anti-Bolshevik troops were called,

captured Tioumen and saved us from the fanatics who had so nearly claimed
us as victims. A few days later the papers published a reproduction of the
proclamation that had been placarded in the streets of Ekaterinburg,
announcing that the sentence of death passed on the ex-Czar Nicholas
Romanoff had been carried out on the night of July 16th-17th and that the
Czarina and her children had been removed to a place of safety.
 At last, on July 25th, Ekaterinburg fell in its turn. Hardly was
communication re-established—which took a long time as the permanent
way had suffered severely—when Mr. Gibbes and I hastened to the town to
search for the Imperial family and those of our companions who had
remained at Ekaterinburg.
Two days after my arrival I made my first entry into Ipatief’s house. I
went through the first-floor rooms, which had served as the prison; they
were in an indescribable state of disorder. It was evident that every effort had
been made to get rid of any traces of the recent occupants. Heaps of ashes
had been raked out of the stoves. Among them were a quantity of small
articles, half burnt, such as tooth-brushes, hairpins, buttons, etc., in the midst
of which I found the end of a hair-brush on the browned ivory of which
could still be seen the initials of the Czarina, A. F. (Alexandra-Feodorovna.).
If it was true that the prisoners had been sent away, they must have been
removed just as they were, without any of the most essential articles of
toilet.
I then noticed on the wall in the embrasure of one of the windows of
Their Majesties’ room the Empress’s favourite charm, the swastika,[72]
which she had put up everywhere to ward off ill-luck. She had drawn it in
pencil, and added, underneath, the date, 17/30 April, the day of their
incarceration in the house. The same symbol, but without the date, was
drawn on the wallpaper, on a level with the bed, occupied doubtless by her
or Alexis Nicolaïevitch. But my search was to no purpose, I could not find
the slightest clue to their fate.
I went down to the bottom floor, the greater part of which was below the
level of the ground. It was with intense emotion that I entered the room in
which perhaps—I was still in doubt—they had met their death. Its
appearance was sinister beyond expression. The only light filtered through a
barred window at the height of a man’s head. The walls and floor showed
numerous traces of bullets and bayonet scars. The first glance showed that
an odious crime had been perpetrated there and that several people had been
done to death. But who? How?
I became convinced that the Czar had perished and, granting that, I could
not believe that the Czarina had survived him. At Tobolsk, when
Commissary Yakovlef had come to take away the Czar, I had seen her throw
herself in where the danger seemed to her greatest. I had seen her, broken-
hearted after hours of mental torture, torn desperately between her feelings
as a wife and a mother, abandon her sick boy to follow the husband whose
life seemed in danger. Yes, it was possible they might have died together, the
victims of these brutes. But the children? They too massacred? I could not
believe it. My whole being revolted at the idea. And yet everything proved
that there had been many victims. Well, then?...
During the following days I continued my investigations in Ekaterinburg
and its suburbs—the monastery, everywhere I could hope to find the
slightest clue. I saw Father Storojef, who had been the last to conduct
religious service in Ipatief’s house, on Sunday, the 14th, two days before the
night of terror. He too, alas, had very little hope.
The enquiry proceeded very slowly. It was begun in extremely difficult
circumstances, for, between July 17th and 25th the Bolshevik commissaries
had had time to efface nearly every trace of their crime. Immediately after
the taking of Ekaterinburg by the Whites, the military authorities had
surrounded the house with a guard and a judicial enquiry had been opened,
but the threads had been so skilfully entangled that it was very difficult to
sort them out.
The most important deposition was that of some peasants from the village
of Koptiaki, twenty versts north-west of Ekaterinburg. They came to give
evidence that on the night of July 16th-17th the Bolsheviks had occupied a
clearing in a forest near their village, where they had remained several days.
They brought with them objects which they had found near the shaft of an
abandoned mine, not far from which could be seen traces of a large fire.
Some officers visited the clearing and found other objects, which, like the
first, were recognised as having belonged to the Imperial family.
The enquiry had been entrusted to Ivan Alexandrovitch Serguéief, a
member of the Ekaterinburg tribunal. It followed a normal course, but the
difficulties were very great. Serguéief was more and more inclined to admit
the death of all the members of the family. But the bodies could still not be
found, and the depositions of a certain number of witnesses supported the
hypothesis that the Czarina and the children had been removed to another
place. These depositions—as was subsequently established—emanated from
Bolshevik agents deliberately left in Ekaterinburg to mislead the enquiry.
Their end was partially attained, for Serguéief lost precious time and was
long in realising that he was on the wrong track.
The weeks passed without bringing any new information. I then decided
to return to Tioumen, the cost of living at Ekaterinburg being very high.
Before starting, however, I obtained from Serguéief a promise that he would
recall me if any new fact of importance came to light in the course of the
enquiry.
At the end of January, 1919, I received a telegram from General Janin,
whom I had known at Mohilef when he was chief of the French Military
Mission at Russian G.H.Q. He invited me to join him at Omsk. Some days
later I left Tioumen, and on February 13th arrived at the Military Mission
sent by France to the Omsk Government.[73]
Admiral Koltchak, realising the historic importance of the enquiry into
the disappearance of the Imperial family, and wishing to know the result, had
in January charged General Ditériks to bring him from Ekaterinburg a copy
of the evidence and all the clues that had been found. On February 5th he
summoned Nicholas Alexiévitch Sokolof, “Examining

IPATIEF’S HOUSE, FROM THE VOSNESSENSKY STREET.

On the ground floor, the window between two trees is that of the room in which the murders took
place. Above it is the window of the Grand-Duchesses’ room. The four windows in pairs at the
angle of the upper floor are those of the room occupied by the Czar, the Czarina, and the
Czarevitch.
 THE CZARINA’S FAVOURITE LUCKY CHARM, THE “SWASTIKA,” WHICH SHE DREW IN
THE EMBRASURE OF ONE OF THE WINDOWS IN HER ROOM AT EKATERINBURG,
ADDING THE DATE, 17/30 APRIL, 1918.
On the left, photograph of the inscription under glass with four seals. On the right, the inscription.
[Facing page 276.

Magistrate,”[74] for business of particular importance, and invited him to

conduct the enquiry. Two days later the Minister of Justice appointed him to
carry on Serguéief s work.
It was at this juncture that I made the acquaintance of M. Sokolof. At our
first interview I realised that his mind was made up and that he had no
further hope. I could not believe such horrors. “But the children—the
children?” I cried to him. “The children have suffered the same fate as their
parents. There is not a shadow of doubt in my mind on that point.” “But the
bodies?” “The clearing must be searched; that is where we shall find the key
to the mystery, for the Bolsheviks cannot have spent three days and nights
here simply to burn a few clothes.”
Alas! these conclusions were soon to be borne out by the deposition of
one of the principal murderers, Paul Medvedief, who had just been taken
prisoner at Perm. As Sokolof was at Omsk it was Serguéief who interrogated
him on February 25th at Ekaterinburg. He admitted formally that the Czar,
Czarina and the five children, Dr. Botkin, and the three servants had been
killed in the basement of Ipatief’s house during the night of July 16th-17th.
He could not, however, or would not, give any hint as to what had been done
with the bodies after the murder.
 I worked for several days with M. Sokolof; then he left for Ekaterinburg
to continue the enquiry opened by Serguéief.
In April, General Ditériks, who was returning from Vladivostok—where
he had been sent by Admiral Koltchak on a special mission—came to join
him and assist his efforts. Thenceforward the enquiry made rapid progress.
Hundreds of persons were interrogated, and, as soon as the snow had gone,
work was begun on a large scale in the clearing in which the Koptiaki
peasants had found articles belonging to the Imperial family. The mine-shaft
was emptied and thoroughly examined. The ashes and soil of part of the
clearing were passed through sieves, and the whole of the surrounding area
carefully examined. They succeeded in determining the site of two large
fires and, more vaguely, the traces of a third. This methodical research soon
brought discoveries of extreme importance.
Devoting himself wholeheartedly to the work he had undertaken, and
displaying untiring patience and diligence, M. Sokolof was able in a few
months to reconstruct every circumstance of the crime with remarkable
accuracy.
 CHAPTER XXII

THE CIRCUMSTANCES OF THE CRIME ESTABLISHED BY THE

ENQUIRY

I N the following pages I shall describe the circumstances of the murder of

the Imperial family as they appear from the depositions of the witnesses
and evidence examined by the enquiry. From the six thick manuscript
volumes in which it is contained I have extracted the essential facts of this
drama about which, alas! there can be no longer any doubt. The impression
left by reading these documents is that of a ghastly nightmare, but I do not
feel justified in dwelling on the horror.
About the middle of May, 1918, Yankel Sverdlof, President of the Central
Executive Committee at Moscow, yielding to the pressure of Germany,[75]
sent Commissary Yakovlef to Tobolsk to arrange for the transfer of the
Imperial family. He had received orders to take them to Moscow or
Petrograd. In carrying out his mission he met with resistance which he did
his best to overcome, as the enquiry has established. This resistance had
been organised by the divisional government of the Ural, whose
headquarters were at Ekaterinburg. It was they who, unknown to Yakovlef,
prepared the trap which enabled them to seize the Emperor en route. But it
appears to have been established that this plan had been secretly approved by
Moscow. It is more than probable, indeed, that Sverdlof was playing a
double game, and that, while pretending to accede to the pressure of General
Baron von Mirbach in Moscow, he had arranged with the Ekaterinburg
commissaries not to let the Czar escape. However this may be, the
installation of the Czar at Ekaterinburg was carried out on the spur of the
moment. In two days the merchant Ipatief was evicted from his house and
the construction of a strong wooden fencing rising to the level of the second-
floor windows begun.
To this place the Czar, Czarina, Grand-Duchess Marie Nicolaïevna, Dr.
Botkin, and three servants accompanying them were brought on April 30th.
Also Anna Demidova, the Czarina’s maid, Tchemadourof, the Czar’s valet,
and Sednief, the Grand-Duchesses’ footman.
At first the guard was formed by soldiers picked at random and
frequently changed. Later it consisted exclusively of workmen from the
Sissert workshops and the factory of Zlokazof Brothers. They were under the
command of Commissary Avdief, commandant of the “house destined for a
special purpose,” as Ipatief’s house was named.
The conditions of the imprisonment were much more severe than at
Tobolsk. Avdief was an inveterate drunkard, who gave rein to his coarse
instincts, and, with the assistance of his subordinates, showed great
ingenuity in daily inflicting fresh humiliations upon those in his charge.
There was no alternative but to accept the privations, submit to the
vexations, yield to the exactions and caprices of these low, vulgar
scoundrels.
On their arrival in Ekaterinburg on May 23rd, the Czarevitch and his
three sisters were at once taken to Ipatief’s house,

THE ROOM ON THE GROUND FLOOR OF IPATIEF’S HOUSE IN WHICH THE IMPERIAL
FAMILY AND THEIR COMPANIONS WERE PUT TO DEATH.
[Facing page 282.

where their parents were awaiting them. After the agony of separation this
reunion was a tremendous joy, in spite of the sadness of the present and the
uncertainty of the future.
A few hours later Kharitonof (the chef), old Troup (footman), and little
Leonide Sednief (scullery-boy) were also brought. General Tatichtchef,
Countess Hendrikof, Mlle. Schneider, and Volkof, the Czarina’s valet-de-
chambre, had been taken direct to the prison.
On the twenty-fourth, Tchemadourof, who had been taken ill, was
transferred to the prison hospital; there he was forgotten, and so,
miraculously, escaped death. A few days later Nagorny and Sednief were
also removed. The number of those who had been left with the prisoners
decreased rapidly. Fortunately Dr. Botkin, whose devotion was splendid, was
left, and also a few servants whose faithfulness was proof against anything:
Anna Demidova, Kharitonof, Troup, and little Leonide Sednief. During these
days of suffering the presence of Dr. Botkin was a great comfort to the
prisoners; he did all he could for them, acted as intermediary between them
and the commissaries, and did his best to protect them against the coarse
insults of their guards.
The Czar, Czarina, and Czarevitch occupied the room in the angle formed
by the square and Vosnessensky Lane; the four Grand-Duchesses the
adjoining room, the door of which had been removed; at first, as there was
no bed, they slept on the floor. Dr. Botkin slept in the drawing-room and the
Czarina’s maid in the room in the angle of Vosnessensky Lane and the
garden. The other prisoners were installed in the kitchen and adjacent hall.
Alexis Nicolaïevitch’s ill-health had been aggravated by the fatigue of the
journey; he spent the greater part of the day lying down, and when they went
out to take the air it was the Czar who carried him as far as the garden.
The family and servants took their meals with the commissaries, who
occupied the same floor as themselves, and so lived in constant proximity
with these coarse men, who more often than not were drunk.
The house had been surrounded by a second fence of boards; it had been
turned into a veritable prison fortress. There were sentries stationed outside
and within, machineguns in the building and garden. The room of the
Commissary Commandant—the first on entering the house—was occupied
by Commissary Avdief, his adjutant Mochkine, and some workmen. The rest
of the guard lived in the basement, but the men often came upstairs and
strolled into the rooms of the Imperial family as they liked. The courage of
the prisoners was, however, sustained in a remarkable way by religion. They
had kept that wonderful faith which at Tobolsk had been the admiration of
their entourage and which had given them such strength, such serenity in
suffering. They were already almost entirely detached from this world. The
Czarina and Grand-Duchesses could often be heard singing religious airs,
which affected their guards in spite of themselves.
Gradually these guards were humanised by contact with their prisoners.
They were astonished at their simplicity, attracted by their gentleness,
subdued by their serene dignity, and soon found themselves dominated by
those whom they thought they held in their power. The drunken Avdief
found himself disarmed by such greatness of soul; he grew conscious of his
own infamy. The early ferocity of these men was succeeded by profound
pity.
The Soviet authorities in Ekaterinburg comprised:
(a) The Divisional Council of the Urals, consisting of about thirty
members under the presidency of Commissary Bieloborodof.
(b) The Presidium, a sort of executive committee of several members:
Bieloborodof, Golochtchokine, Syromolotof, Safarof, Voïkof, etc.
(c) The Tchrezvytchaïka. The popular title of the “Extraordinary
Commission for Combating Counter-Revolution and Speculation,” with its
centre at Moscow and branches throughout Russia. This is a formidable
organisation which is the very foundation of the Soviet régime. Each section
receives its orders direct from Moscow and carries them out through its own
resources. Every Tchrezvytchaïka of any importance commands the services
of a band of nondescript agents, generally Austro-German prisoners of war,
Letts, Chinese, etc., who are in reality nothing more than highly-paid
executioners.
In Ekaterinburg the Tchrezvytchaïka was all-powerful. Its most influential
members were Commissaries Yourovsky, Golochtchokine, etc.

Avdief was under the immediate control of the other commissaries,

members of the Presidium and Tchrezvytchaïka. They were not long in
realising the change which had come about in the feelings of the guards
towards their prisoners, and resolved to adopt drastic measures. At Moscow,
too, there was uneasiness, as was proved by the following telegram sent
from Ekaterinburg by Bieloborodof to Sverdlof and Golochtchokine (who
was then at Moscow): “Syromolotof just left for Moscow to organise
according to instructions from centre. Anxiety unnecessary. Useless to
worry. Avdief revoked. Mochkine arrested. Avdief replaced by Yourovsky.
Inside guard changed, replaced by others.”
This telegram is dated July 4th.
On this day Avdief and his adjutant Mochkine were arrested and replaced
by Commissary Yourovsky, a Jew, and his subordinate Nikouline. The guard
formed—as has already been mentioned—exclusively of Russian workmen,
was transferred to a neighbouring house, that of Popof.
Yourovsky brought with him ten men—nearly all Austro-German
prisoners of war—“selected” from among the executioners of the
Tchrezvytchaïka. Henceforward these formed the inside guard, the outside
sentries being still furnished by the Russian guard.
The “house destined for a special purpose” had become a branch of the
Tchrezvytchaïka, and the lives of the prisoners became one long martyrdom.

At this time the death of the Imperial family had already been decided
upon in Moscow. The telegram quoted above proves this. Syromolotof left
for Moscow “to organise according to instructions from centre”; he was to
return with Golochtchokine, bringing instructions and directions from
Sverdlof. Meanwhile Yourovsky made his arrangements. On several days in
succession he went out on horseback. He was seen wandering about the
neighbourhood looking for a place suitable for his plans, in which he could
dispose of the bodies of his victims. And this same man, with inconceivable
cynicism, on his return visited the bedside of the Czarevitch!
Several days pass; Golochtchokine and Syromolotof have come back. All
is ready.
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