LECTURE NOTES

ELE2201: PRINCIPLES OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING I

WEEK 5: SUPERPOSITION PRINCIPLE, SOURCE TRANSFORMATION,

3.1 Superposition Principle

If a circuit has two or more independent sources, one way to determine the value of a specific
variable (voltage or current) is to use nodal or mesh analysis. Another way is to determine the
contribution of each independent source to the variable and then add them up. The latter approach
is known as the superposition.

The superposition principle states that “the voltage across (or current through) an element in a
linear circuit is the algebraic sum of the voltages across (or currents through) that element due
to each independent source acting alone.”

However, superposition is based on linearity. For this reason, it is not applicable to the effect on
power due to each source, because the power absorbed by a resistor depends on the square of the
voltage or current. If the power value is needed, the current through (or voltage across) the element
must be calculated first using superposition.

Steps to Apply Superposition Principle:

1. Turn off all independent sources, by replacing a voltage source by 0 V (or a short circuit),
and current source by 0 A (or an open circuit), except one source.
2. Find the output (voltage or current) due to that active source.
3. Repeat steps 1-2 for each of the other independent sources. Find the total contribution by
adding algebraically all the contributions due to the independent sources.
Example 3.1: Use the superposition theorem to find v in the circuit of Figure E3.1.

Figure E3.1.

1
Solution:

Since there are two sources, let

𝑣 = 𝑣1 + 𝑣2

where 𝑣1 and 𝑣2 are the contributions due to the 6-V voltage source and the 3-A current source,
respectively. To obtain 𝑣1 we set the current source to zero, as shown in Fig. E3.1.1.

Figure E3.1.1.

Applying KVL to the loop in Fig. E3.1.1 gives

12𝑖1 = 6 ⟹ 𝑖1 = 0.5 𝐴

Thus

𝑣1 = 4𝑖1 = 2 𝑉

To get 𝑣2 we set the voltage source to zero, as in Fig. E3.1.2.

Figure E3.1.2.

Using current division

8
𝐼3 = 4+8 (3) = 2 𝐴

2
Hence,

𝑣2 = 4𝑖3 = 8 𝑉

And we find

𝑣 = 𝑣1 + 𝑣2 = 2 + 8 = 10 𝑉.

Exercise 3.1: Using the superposition theorem, find 𝑣𝑜 in the circuit of Fig. Ex3.1. (Answer = 6V)

Figure Ex3.1.

Example 3.2: For the circuit in Fig. , use the superposition theorem to find i.

Figure E3.2.

Solution:

Since there are three sources, let

𝑖 = 𝑖1 + 𝑖2 + 𝑖3

where 𝑖1 , 𝑖2 and 𝑖3 are the contributions due to the 12-V, 12-V and 3-A sources respectively.

3
To get 𝑖1 consider the current in Fig. E3.2.1.

Figure E3.2.1.

Combining 4 Ω (on the right-hand side) in series with 8 Ω gives 12 Ω. The 12 Ω in parallel with
4 Ω gives 3 Ω.

Thus,

12
𝑖1 = =2𝐴
6

To get 𝑖2 consider the circuit in Fig. E3.2.2.

Figure E3.2.3.

Applying mesh analysis gives

16𝑖𝑎 − 4𝑖𝑏 = −24 ⟹ 4𝑖𝑎 − 𝑖𝑏 = −6 (1)

7
7𝑖𝑏 − 4𝑖𝑎 = 0 ⟹ 𝑖𝑎 = 4 𝑖𝑏 (2)

4
Substituting Eq. (2) into Eq. (1) gives

𝑖2 = 𝑖𝑏 = −1 𝐴

To get 𝑖3 consider the circuit in Fig. E3.2.3.

Figure E3.2.3.

Using nodal analysis gives

𝑣1 −𝑣2 𝑣1 𝑣1 10
+ + =0 ⟹ 𝑣2 = 𝑣1 (4)
4 4 3 3

Substituting Eq. (4) into Eq. (3) gives

Thus,

𝑖 = 𝑖1 + 𝑖2 + 𝑖3 = 2 − 1 + 1 = 2 𝐴.

Exercise 3.2 Find I in the circuit of Fig. Ex3.2 using the superposition principle. (Answer = 0.75A)

Figure Ex3.2.

5
3.2 Source Transformation

A source transformation is the process of replacing a voltage source 𝑣𝑠 in series with a resistor R
by a current source 𝑖𝑠 in parallel with a resistor R, or vice versa.

Figure 3.1. Source transformation

Example 3.3: Use source transformation to find 𝑣𝑜 in the circuit of Fig. E3.3.

Figure E3.3.

Solution:

We first transform the current and voltage sources to obtain the circuit in Fig. E3.3.1.

Figure E3.3.1.

6
Combining the 4 Ω and 2 Ω resistors in series and transforming the 12-V voltage source gives us
Fig. E3.3.2.

Figure E3.3.2.

We now combine the 6 Ω and 3 Ω resistors in parallel to get 2 Ω. We also combine the 2-A and
4-A current sources to get a 2-A source. Thus, by repeatedly applying source transformations, we
obtain the circuit in Fig. E3.3.3.

Figure E3.3.3.

We use current division in Fig. E3.3.3 to get

2
𝑖 = 2+8 (2) = 0.4 𝐴

and

𝑣𝑜 = 8𝑖 = 8(0.4) = 𝟑𝟐 𝑽

7
3.3 Thevenin’s Theorem

It often occurs in practice that a particular element in a circuit is variable (usually called the load)
while other elements are fixed. As a typical example, a household outlet terminal may be connected
to different appliances constituting a variable load. Each time the variable element is changed, the
entire circuit has to be analyzed all over again. To avoid this problem, Thevenin’s theorem
provides a technique by which the fixed part of the circuit is replaced by an equivalent circuit.

Thevenin’s theorem states that “a linear two-terminal circuit can be replaced by an equivalent
circuit consisting of a voltage source 𝑽𝑻𝒉 in series with a resistor 𝑹𝑻𝒉 , where 𝑽𝑻𝒉 is the open-
circuit voltage at the terminals and 𝑹𝑻𝒉 is the input or equivalent resistance at the terminals
when the independent sources are turned off.”

Figure 3.2. Thevenin’s equivalent circuit

𝑉𝑇ℎ
Where: 𝐼𝐿 = 𝑅
𝑇ℎ +𝑅𝐿

Example 3.4: Find the Thevenin equivalent circuit of the circuit shown in Fig. E3.4, to the left of
the terminals a-b. Then find the current through 𝑅𝐿 = 6, 16, and 36 Ω.

Figure E3.4.

8
Solution:

We find 𝑅𝑇ℎ by turning off the 32-V voltage source (replacing it with a short circuit) and the 2-A
current source (replacing it with an open circuit). The circuit becomes what is shown in Fig. E3.4.1.

Figure E3.4.1.

4×12
𝑅𝑇ℎ = 4 ∥ 12 + 1 = +1=𝟒𝛀
16

To find 𝑉𝑇ℎ consider the circuit in Fig. E3.4.2.

Figure E3.4.2.

Applying mesh analysis to the two loops, we obtain

16𝑖1 − 12𝑖2 = 32, and 𝑖2 = −2 𝐴

Solving for 𝑖1 , we get 𝑖1 = 0.5 𝐴. Thus,

𝑉𝑇ℎ = 12(𝑖1 − 𝑖2 ) = 12(0.5 + 2) = 𝟑𝟎 𝑽

9
The Thevenin equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. E3.4.3.

Figure E3.4.3.

The current through 𝑅𝐿

𝑉𝑇ℎ 30
𝐼𝐿 = 𝑅 = 4+𝑅
𝑇ℎ +𝑅𝐿 𝐿

For 𝑅𝐿 = 6,

30
𝐼𝐿 = =3𝐴
4+6

For 𝑅𝐿 = 16,

30
𝐼𝐿 = = 1.5 𝐴
4 + 16

For 𝑅𝐿 = 36,

30
𝐼𝐿 = = 0.75 𝐴
4 + 36

Exercise 3.3 Using Thevenin’s theorem, find the equivalent circuit to the left of the terminals in
the circuit of Fig. Ex3.3. Then find I. (Answer: 𝑹𝑻𝒉 = 𝟑 𝛀, 𝑽𝑻𝒉 = 𝟗 𝐕, I = 2.25 A)

Figure Ex3.3.

10
3.4 Norton’s Theorem

In 1926, about 43 years after Thevenin published his theorem, E. L. Norton, an American engineer
at Bell Telephone Laboratories, proposed a similar theorem.

Thevenin’s theorem states that “a linear two-terminal circuit can be replaced by an equivalent
circuit consisting of a current source𝑰𝑵 in parallel with a resistor 𝑹𝑵 , where 𝑰𝑵 is the short-
circuit current through the terminals and 𝑹𝑵 is the input or equivalent resistance at the
terminals when the independent sources are turned off.”

Figure 3.3. Norton’s equivalent circuit

the Thevenin and Norton resistances are equal; that is,

𝑅𝑁 = 𝑅𝑇ℎ

To find the Norton current 𝐼𝑁 we determine the short-circuit current flowing from terminal a to b
in circuit in Fig. 3.3. Also, using the source transformation,

𝑉
𝐼𝑁 = 𝑅𝑇ℎ
𝑇ℎ

Example 3.5: Find the Norton equivalent circuit of the circuit in Fig. E3.5 at terminals a-b.

Figure E3.5.

11
Solution:

We find 𝑅𝑁 in the same way we find 𝑅𝑇ℎ in the Thevenin equivalent circuit. Set the independent
sources equal to zero. This leads to the circuit in Fig. E3.5.1, from which we find 𝑅𝑁 Thus,

20×5
𝑅𝑁 = 5 ∥ (8 + 4 + 8) = 5 ∥ 20 = =𝟒𝛀
25

Figure E3.5.1.

To find 𝐼𝑁 , we short-circuit terminals a and b, as shown in Fig. E3.5.2. We ignore the 5 Ω resistor
because it has been short-circuited.

Figure E3.5.2.

Applying mesh analysis, we obtain

𝑖1 = 2 𝐴, 20𝑖2 − 4𝑖1 = 12

From these equations, we obtain

𝑖2 = 1 𝐴 = 𝑖𝑠𝑐 = 𝐼𝑁

12
Thus, the Norton equivalent circuit is as shown in Fig. E3.5.3.

Figure E3.5.2.

Exercise 3.4. Find the Norton equivalent circuit for the circuit in Fig. Ex3.4, at terminals a-b.
(Answer: 𝑹𝑵 = 𝟑 𝛀, 𝑰𝑵 = 𝟒. 𝟓 𝐀)

Figure Ex3.4.

3.5 Maximum Power Transfer

In many practical situations, a circuit is designed to provide power to a load. There are applications
in areas such as communications where it is desirable to maximize the power delivered to a load.

Maximum power transfer theorem states that “Maximum power is transferred to the load when
the load resistance equals the Thevenin resistance as seen from the load (𝑹𝑳 = 𝑹𝑻𝒉 ).”

Figure 3.4. Maximum power transfer circuit

13
 𝑉𝑇ℎ 2
𝑃 = 𝑖 2 𝑅𝐿 = (𝑅 ) 𝑅𝐿
𝑇ℎ +𝑅𝐿

For maximum power,

𝑅𝐿 = 𝑅𝑇ℎ

Thus,

𝑽𝟐
𝑷𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝟒𝑹𝑻𝒉
𝑻𝒉

Exercise 3.5: Find the value of 𝑅𝑁 for maximum power transfer in the circuit of Fig. Ex3.5. Find
the maximum power. (Answer: 𝑹𝑳 = 𝟗 𝛀, 𝑷𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝟏𝟑. 𝟒𝟒 𝐖)

Figure Ex3.5.

14