Jigjiga University Boarding School

Physics Module for Tutorial Education Program

In Collaboration with Jigjiga University and Somali Regional State
Education Bureau

Compiled by:

Ephrem Sh. & Feyiso S.

Jan, 2024

Jigjiga, Ethiopia
About Module

This Physics Module compiled to use as a teaching guide that confidential support students who
are preparing to take ESSLCE exam in Physics. It aims to provide students with a structured and
comprehensive knowledge ensuring they are well-prepared to tackle the exam successfully.

The Module prepared by focusing on the topics that have historically received greater emphasis in
the previous ESSLCE exams. This approach intended that students should technically prioritize
and allocate sufficient time to the topics most frequently appeared in the Physics ESSLCE exam.

The Module covers the main topics that are likely to be appeared in the exam. The topics taken
from physics textbooks, from grade 9 to 12, as well as the previous ESSLCE exam questions. Each
topics in the module are maintained by starting from foundational concepts and progressively
building up to the advanced one, for ease understanding of principles and mastering problem-
solving techniques in physics.

Teacher’s Role

➢ Develop personal readiness to support students, because you may face students with less
knowledge of lower grades.
➢ Since teaching is both science and an art, advise students to be self-learners.
➢ Employ your previous teaching experience to support students with especially focus.
➢ Regularly and patiently supervise students in every activities. Check class work and home
work.
➢ Don’t rush, check whether students grasped the concepts of lessons in each topics.
➢ Prepare weekly/monthly progress check list, monitor and evaluate students’ progress and
fill the gap.

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Student’s Role

➢ Develop personal readiness, have a goal and minimize unnecessary social media addiction
and peer pressure.
➢ Have study plan and prioritize subjects depending on your previous background.
➢ At first hand, try to cover and understand textbooks to your maximum effort.
➢ Physics has four main branches. Technically prioritizing these main branches is important
to score pass mark with less effort. Try to picture out what is in mechanics, in
electromagnetism, in thermodynamics and in wave-optics.
➢ It’s strongly advised that students should be able to understand physical laws and formulae
before trying to attempt the problems. If you miss this, it is something like trying to get
into locked door without key.
➢ Repeatedly practice examples, exercises and ESSLCE exam questions and see how exam
questions are prepared from each unit or topics.
➢ Have some study time with your colleagues and ask your teacher/colleagues any unclear
questions.

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Contents
UNIT 1: APPLICATION OF PHYSICS IN OTHER FIELDS ................................................. 6

1.1 Physics and other sciences: ............................................................................................ 6

UNIT 2: VECTORS .................................................................................................................... 10

2.1 Vector representation ................................................................................................... 10

2.2 Types of vectors ............................................................................................................ 10

2.3 Vector addition and subtraction ................................................................................. 12

2.4 Components of a vector ............................................................................................... 14

2.5 Multiplication of vectors .............................................................................................. 17

UNIT 3: MOTION IN ONE AND TWO DIMENSIONS ........................................................ 22

3.1 Motion in one dimension ............................................................................................. 22

3.2 Two-dimensional motion.............................................................................................. 37

UNIT 4: DYNAMICS ................................................................................................................. 58

4.1 The force concepts ........................................................................................................ 58

4.2 Friction Force ............................................................................................................... 61

4.3 Work, Energy and Power ............................................................................................ 65

4.4 linear momentum ......................................................................................................... 74

4.5 Centre of mass .............................................................................................................. 79

UNIT 5: EQUILIBRIUM ........................................................................................................... 82

3.1 Equilibrium of a particle ............................................................................................. 82

3.2 Moment of force or torque........................................................................................... 83

UNIT 6: FLUID MECHANICS ................................................................................................. 88

5.1 Properties of Bulk Matter (Modulus) ......................................................................... 88

5.2 Fluid Statics .................................................................................................................. 89

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 5.3 Pressure in Fluid at Rest: ............................................................................................ 93

5.4 Archimedes' Principle: ................................................................................................ 96

5.5 Safety and High Pressure: ........................................................................................... 99

Unit 7: Temperature and Heat ................................................................................................. 102

4.1 Temperature and heat ................................................................................................ 102

4.2 Expansion of solids, liquids and gases ...................................................................... 104

4.3 Quantity of heat, specific heat capacity and heat capacity ..................................... 105

Unit 8: Wave motion and sound .............................................................................................. 108

8.1 Wave Propagation ...................................................................................................... 108

8.2 Sound Waves ................................................................................................................ 111

UNIT 9: ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND GEOMETRICAL OPTICS.....................114

9.1 Electromagnetic waves ................................................................................................114

9.2 Reflection of light ........................................................................................................115

9.3 Refraction of light........................................................................................................117

UNIT 10: ELECTROMAGNETISM AND ELECTRONICS............................................... 122

10.1 Electric charges .......................................................................................................... 122

10.2 Electric Current .......................................................................................................... 136

10.3 Electromagnetism: ..................................................................................................... 146

10.4 Basics of electronics .................................................................................................... 156

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 UNIT 1: APPLICATION OF PHYSICS IN OTHER FIELDS

After completing this unit, student will be able to:

• get familiar with the importance of physics to society in various sectors.

• get interested to study physics.
• familiarize themselves with basic principles and applications of physics in various
disciplines.
• update themselves with the current status of physics in advanced technology

1.1 Physics and other sciences:

Physics provides a foundation for understanding the natural world and serves as a fundamental
science that supports many other scientific disciplines. It provides the basic principles and laws
that govern the behavior of matter and energy. For example, physics concepts such as Newton's
laws of motion, the laws of thermodynamics, and the principles of electromagnetism are essential
in fields like chemistry, astronomy, geology, and environmental science. Physics helps explain
phenomena such as the behavior of atoms and molecules, the motion of celestial bodies, the
properties of materials, and the interactions between different forms of energy.

1.1.1 Physics and engineering:

Engineering relies heavily000 on physics principles and laws to design and create technologies
that solve practical problems. Engineers use physics concepts such as mechanics, thermodynamics,
electromagnetism, and optics to develop structures, machines, and systems. For example, civil
engineers use physics to design bridges and buildings that can withstand the forces acting upon
them. Mechanical engineers use physics to develop engines, turbines, and other mechanical
systems. Electrical engineers rely on physics principles to design circuits and electronic devices.
Physics provides the mathematical models and scientific understanding necessary for engineers to
design and optimize efficient and safe technologies.

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1.1.2 Medical physics:

Medical physics applies physics principles and techniques to the field of medicine. Medical
physicists work in various areas, including diagnostic imaging, radiation therapy, nuclear
medicine, and radiation safety. They contribute to the development and operation of medical
imaging technologies such as X-ray machines, CT scanners, MRI systems, and ultrasound devices.
Medical physicists also help ensure the safe and effective use of radiation in cancer treatment,
working on treatment planning, quality assurance, and radiation safety. They use physics concepts
such as radiation physics, radiation dosimetry, and imaging techniques to improve patient care and
outcomes.

1.1.3 Physics and defense technology:

Physics plays a critical role in the development of defense technologies and military applications.
Many advanced defense systems and technologies are based on physics principles. For example,
radar technology relies on the principles of electromagnetism to detect and track objects. Missile
guidance systems use physics principles to accurately deliver projectiles to their targets. Stealth
technology incorporates physics concepts to minimize the detection of aircraft or other military
assets by radar. Physics also plays a role in areas such as satellite communication, sensor
technology, and materials science, contributing to the development of advanced defense systems.

1.1.4 Physics in communication:

Physics is at the core of modern communication systems, enabling the transmission and reception
of information over long distances. The principles of electromagnetism and optics are fundamental
to communication technologies. For example, radio waves, microwaves, and optical fibers are used
to carry signals for wireless communication and data transmission. Understanding the behavior of
waves, signal modulation, and information theory is essential in designing and optimizing
telecommunications networks. Physics also underpins the development of electronic devices such
as smartphones, computers, and televisions, allowing efficient data transmission and reception
through electrical circuits and components.

Review question

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1. Which of the following best describes why knowledge of physics is necessary to understand
all other sciences?
a. Physics explains how energy passes from one object to another.
b. Physics explains how gravity works.
c. Physics explains the motion of objects that can be seen with the naked eye.
d. Physics explains the fundamental aspects of the universe.
2. What does radiation therapy, used to treat cancer patients, have to do with physics?
a. Understanding how cells reproduce is mainly about physics.
b. Predictions of the side effects from the radiation therapy are based on physics.
c. The devices used for generating some kinds of radiation are based on principles of physics.
d. Predictions of the life expectancy of patients receiving radiation therapy are based on
physics.
3. Which of the following medical imaging techniques does not involve the use of ionizing
radiation?
a. X-ray imaging
b. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
c. Positron emission tomography (PET)
d. Computed tomography (CT) scan
4. Which of the following describes the role of physics in different fields?
a. Physics is a fundamental science that has no applications beyond its own domain.
b. Physics principles and laws are used in various scientific disciplines and practical
applications.
c. Physics is limited to engineering and medical fields only.
d. Physics has no relevance in defense technology and communication.
5. How does our brain receive information from the whole body and send information to other
parts of the body?
a. Through the conduction of heat
b. Through the transmission of sound waves
c. Through the flow of electric signals
d. Through the transfer of mechanical vibrations
6. Which physical property of our body allows us to sense the temperature of our environment?

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 a. Thermal conductivity c. Sound frequency
b. Electromagnetic radiation d. Electrical resistance
7. Which physics concept is utilized in a clinical thermometer to measure the exact value of our
body temperature?
a. Newton's laws of motion c. Boyle's law
b. Ohm's law d. Thermal expansion
8. What physics knowledge is essential to understand how sound is created and transmitted to the
listener?
a. Electromagnetic wave propagation c. Wave interference and diffraction
b. Newton's laws of motion d. Conservation of energy
9. What energy transformation takes place in the human body during cellular respiration?
a. Chemical to thermal energy c. Mechanical to electrical energy
b. Electrical to mechanical energy d. Radiant to chemical energy
10. What energy transformation occurs in photosynthesis
a. Thermal to radiant energy
b. Mechanical to electrical energy
c. Chemical to thermal energy
d. Radiant to chemical energy

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 UNIT 2: VECTORS

After completing this unit, student will be able to:

• define vector.
• represent vectors both algebraically and graphically.
• perform vector algebra.
• resolve a vector into horizontal and vertical components.
• discuss geometric representation of vectors.
• give the definitions of the different types of vectors.

2.1 Vector representation

Physical quantities that we deal in physics can be scalars or vectors. A quantity which is completely
specified by a certain number associated with a suitable unit without any mention of direction in
space is known as scalar. Examples of scalars are mass, time, distance, electric charge, electric
potential, energy, temperature etc. The number describing the quantity of a particular scalar is
known as its magnitude. The scalars are added subtracted, multiplied and divided by the usual
arithmetical laws. A quantity which is completely described only when both their magnitude and
direction are specified is known as vector. Examples of vectors in physics are displacement,
velocity, acceleration, force, electric field, magnetic field etc. A vector quantity is represented by
a straight-line segment, say ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃𝑄 . The arrow head indicate the direction from P to Q. The length of
the Vector represents its magnitude. Sometimes the vectors are represented by single letter such
⃗ . The magnitude of a vector is denoted by |V| or by just V, where | | means modulus of 𝑉
as 𝑉 ⃗ which
is a positive value.

Figure 2.1 Vector representation

2.2 Types of vectors

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Position Vectors (PV): If vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐴 is used to specify the position of a point A relative to another
point O. This ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐴 is called the position vector of A referred to O as origin. In the figure 𝑎 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐴
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑏⃗ are the position vector of A and B respectively. The vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
and 𝑂𝐵 𝐴𝐵 is determined as
follows: By the head and tail rules,

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐴 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 = 𝑂𝐵

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑂𝐴 = 𝑏⃗ − 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ − ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 = 𝑂𝐵

Figure 2.2: Position vector

Coplanar Vectors: The vectors which lies in the same plane are called coplanar vectors.
Parallel and Collinear Vectors: The vectors 𝑎 and 𝑏⃗ are parallel if for any real number n, 𝑎 =
𝑛𝑏⃗. If, n > 0 then the vectors 𝑎 and 𝑏⃗ have the same direction. If, n < 0 then 𝑎 and 𝑏⃗ have opposite
directions. So, we can also define collinear vectors which lie along the same straight line or having
their directions parallel to one another.
Unit Vector: A vector whose magnitude is unity i.e., 1 and direction along the given vector is
called a unit Vector. If 𝑎 is a vector then a unit vector in the direction of 𝑎 , denoted by 𝑎̂ (read as
a cap), is given as

𝑎
𝑎̂ =
|𝑎|

Null or Zero Vector: It is a vector when the magnitude of the vector is zero and the starting point
of the vector coincide with the terminal point. The direction of a zero vector is arbitrary.

Orthogonal vectors: vectors that are perpendicular to one another.

Negative of a vector: The vector which has the same magnitude as the vector 𝑎 but opposite in
direction to 𝑎 is called the negative to 𝑎 . It is represented by -𝑎 .

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 Figure 2.3: Negative of a vector
Equal Vectors:

Two vectors 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏⃗ are said to be equal if they have the same magnitude and direction. If 𝑎 and
𝑏⃗ are equal vectors then 𝑎 = 𝑏⃗

2.3 Vector addition and subtraction

⃗ to
The rules for adding vectors are conveniently described by geometric methods. To add vector 𝐵
vector 𝐴 , first draw vector 𝐴 , with its magnitude represented by a convenient scale, on graph
⃗ to the same scale with its tail starting from the tip of 𝐴 , as shown in
paper and then draw vector 𝐵
the Figure. The resultant vector 𝑅⃗ = 𝐴 + 𝐵
⃗ is the vector drawn from the tail of 𝐴 to the tip of 𝐵
⃗.
This procedure is known as the triangle method of addition.

Figure 2.4: Triangle method of vector addition

a) Parallelogram law of vector addition

Two vectors can also be added graphically by constructing a parallelogram using the vectors as the
sides of the parallelogram. The vectors are now placed tail to tail and the diagonal drawn from the
tails of the vectors to the opposite corner of the parallelogram represents the resultant, figure 2.5.

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 Figure 2.5: parallelogram method of vector addition

Subtraction of Vectors:

If a vector 𝑏⃗ is to be subtracted from a vector 𝑎 , the difference vector 𝑎 − 𝑏⃗ can be obtained by

adding vectors 𝑎 and −𝑏⃗. The vector −𝑏⃗ is a vector which is equal and parallel to that of vector
but its arrow-head points in opposite direction. Now the vectors 𝑎 and −𝑏⃗ can be added by the
𝐴𝐶 represents, in magnitude and direction, the vector 𝑎 − 𝑏⃗ .
head-to-tail rule. Thus, the line ̅̅̅̅

Figure 2.6

Exercise

⃗ have magnitudes of 12 and 5, respectively. (a) What is the largest possible

1. Two vectors 𝐴 and 𝐵
⃗ ? What is the smallest possible magnitude? (b) Suppose the directions of
magnitude of 𝐴 + 𝐵
⃗ are perpendicular. What is the magnitude of 𝐴 + 𝐵
𝐴 and 𝐵 ⃗ in this case?
2. Construct vector equations for u, v and w if:

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 Figure 2.7
3. Which of the following groups of physical quantities contains only vectors?
A. Momentum, Energy, Magnetic field and Force.
B. Displacement, Velocity, Magnetic field and Momentum.
C. Work, Electric field, Displacement and Force
D. Acceleration, Speed, Force and Electric field
4. Which of the following pair of vectors are collinear?
A. 2𝑖̂ + 3𝑗̂ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 − 4𝑖̂ + 6𝑗̂ C. 2𝑖̂ − 3𝑗̂ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 − 4𝑖̂ − 6𝑗̂
B. 2𝑖̂ + 3𝑗̂ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 − 4𝑖̂ − 6𝑗̂ D. 𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 − 𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂

2.4 Components of a vector

The components of a vector can be obtained by projecting the vector onto the coordinate axes (x-
axis, y axis, and z-axis). This allows us to split the vector into its components along each axis.
Let's consider a two-dimensional case with a vector A, as shown in the figure below:

Figure 2.8: Components of vector A

In this figure, 𝐴𝑥 and 𝐴𝑦 represent the components of vector A along the x-axis and y-axis,
respectively. The length of vector A is represented by the hypotenuse. By applying simple

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trigonometry, we can relate the components of the vector to its magnitude and the angle it makes
with the positive x-axis. Using the definitions of sine and cosine, we have:

𝐴𝑥 = 𝐴 cos 𝜃

𝐴𝑦 = 𝐴 sin 𝜃

Here, 𝜃 represents the angle between vector A and the positive x-axis.

The magnitude and direction of A are related to its components through the expressions:

𝐴 = √𝐴2𝑥 + 𝐴2𝑦

𝐴𝑦
𝜃 = tan−1 ( )
𝐴𝑥

The vector 𝐴 can be written in unit vector notation:

𝐴 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝐴𝑦 𝑗̂

Where 𝑖̂ and 𝑗̂ are called unit vector, a dimensionless vector having magnitude of 1.

|𝑖̂| = |𝑗̂| = 1

⃗ to vector 𝐴 where vector 𝐵

Suppose we wish to add vector 𝐵 ⃗ has component 𝐵𝑥 and 𝐵𝑦 . All we do

is add the x and y components separately. The vector 𝑅⃗ = 𝐴 + 𝐵

⃗ is therefore

𝑅⃗ = (𝐴𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝐴𝑦 𝑗̂) + (𝐵
⃗ 𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝐵
⃗ 𝑦 𝑗̂)

𝑅⃗ = (𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵
⃗ 𝑥 )𝑖̂ + (𝐵
⃗𝑥 + 𝐵
⃗ 𝑦 )𝑗̂

Because 𝑅⃗ = 𝑅⃗𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝑅⃗𝑦 𝑗̂ , we see that the components of the resultant vector are

𝑅𝑥 = 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑥

𝑅𝑦 = 𝐴𝑦 + 𝐵𝑦

The magnitude or 𝑅⃗ and the angle 𝜃 it makes with the x-axis are obtained from its components
using the relationships:

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 2
𝑅 = √𝑅𝑥2 + 𝑅𝑦2 = √(𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑥 )2 + (𝐴𝑦 + 𝐵𝑦 )

𝑅𝑦 𝐴𝑦 + 𝐵𝑦
tan 𝜃 = =
𝑅𝑥 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑥

Example

⃗ of magnitudes 100 m and 200 m respectively, Figure

Consider two displacement vectors 𝐴 and 𝐵
2.9. Find the magnitude of the resultant displacement vector.

Figure 2.9

Solution

We first resolve the vectors into their x and y components.

Using trigonometry, we get

𝐴𝑥 = 𝐴 cos 500 = 100(0.643)𝑚 = 64.3𝑚, and 𝐴𝑦 = 𝐴 sin 500 = 100(0.766)𝑚 = 76.6𝑚

𝐵𝑥 = −𝐵 cos 300 = −200(0.866)𝑚 = −173.2𝑚, and 𝐵𝑦 = 𝐵 sin 300 = 200(0.50)𝑚 = 100𝑚

The vector components of the resultant are

𝑅𝑥 = 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑥 = 64.3𝑚 + (−173.2𝑚) = −108.9𝑚 and

𝑅𝑦 = 𝐴𝑦 + 𝐵𝑦 = 76.6𝑚 + 100𝑚 = 176.6𝑚

The magnitude of the resultant is

𝑅 = √𝑅𝑥2 + 𝑅𝑦2

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𝑅 = √(−108.9𝑚)2 + (176.6𝑚)2 = 207.5𝑚

Example 2

Given force vector 𝐹 = (12𝑖̂ − 16𝑗̂)𝑁 , what is a unit vector along 𝐹 ?

Solution

𝐹 (12𝑖̂ − 16𝑗̂) (12𝑖̂ − 16𝑗̂)

̂𝐹 =
𝑈 = = = 0.6𝑖̂ + 0.8𝑗̂
|𝐹| √(12)2 + (−16)2 20

Exercise

1. Two students push a heavy object. The vector diagram below shows the forces on that object.

Figure 2.10

Find the magnitude and direction of the resultant force.

2. Vector 𝐴 has magnitude 10 units and acts at an angle of 530 from the positive x- axis. What
are the magnitudes of the x and y components respectively?
A. 8 units, 6 units C. 6 units, 8 units
B. 14 units, 8 units D. 8 units, 14 units
3. The unit vector in the direction of 𝐴 = 3𝑖̂ + 4𝑗̂ is ____________
3 4 3 4
A. 𝑖̂ + 2 𝑗̂ C. 𝑖̂ + 5 𝑗̂
2 5

B. 𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ D. 2𝑖̂ − 𝑗̂

2.5 Multiplication of vectors

A. Scalar or Dot Product of Two Vectors

⃗ is a scalar quantity equal to the product of the

The scalar product of any two vectors 𝐴 and 𝐵
magnitudes of the two vectors and the cosine of the angle θ between them:

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 ⃗ = 𝐴𝐵 cos 𝜃
𝐴∙𝐵

Figure 2.11: Vectors are placed tail to tail to form an angle 𝜃

Properties of Scalar Product

⃗ =𝐵
(i) Scalar product is commutative, i.e., 𝐴 ∙ 𝐵 ⃗ ∙𝐴
⃗ + 𝐶) = 𝐴 ∙ 𝐵
(ii) Scalar product is distributive, i.e., 𝐴 ∙ (𝐵 ⃗ +𝐴∙𝐶

⃗ = 𝐴𝐵 cos 900 = 0
(iii) Scalar product of two perpendicular vectors is zero. 𝐴 ∙ 𝐵
(iv) Scalar product of two parallel vectors is equal to the product of their magnitudes, i.e.,
⃗ = 𝐴𝐵 cos 00 = 𝐴𝐵
𝐴∙𝐵
(v) Scalar product of a vector with itself is equal to the square of its magnitude, i.e.,
𝐴 ∙ 𝐴 = 𝐴𝐴 cos 00 = 𝐴2

(vi) Scalar product of orthogonal unit vectors

𝑖̂ ∙ 𝑖̂ = 𝑗̂ ∙ 𝑗̂ = 𝑘̂ ∙ 𝑘̂ = 1

𝑖̂ ∙ 𝑗̂ = 𝑗̂ ∙ 𝑘̂ = 𝑘̂ ∙ 𝑖̂ = 0

⃗
Consider two vectors 𝐴 and 𝐵
̂
𝐴 = 𝐴𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝐴𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝐴𝑍 𝐾

⃗ = (𝐵𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝐵𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝐵𝑍 𝐾
𝐵 ̂)

(vii) Scalar product in cartesian coordinates

⃗ = (𝐴𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝐴𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝐴𝑍 𝐾
𝐴∙𝐵 ̂ ) ∙ (𝐵𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝐵𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝐵𝑍 𝐾
̂)

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 ⃗ = 𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐴𝑧 𝐵𝑧
𝐴∙𝐵

B. Vector or Cross Product of Two Vectors

The vector product of two vectors is equal to the product of their magnitudes and the sine of the
smaller angle between them. It is denoted by × (cross).

Figure 2.12:

⃗ = 𝐴𝐵 sin(𝜃) 𝑛̂
𝐴×𝐵

The direction of unit vector n can be obtained from right hand thumb rule.

If fingers of right hand are curled from A to B through smaller angle between them, then thumb
⃗ ).
will represent the direction of vector(𝐴 × 𝐵

The vector or cross product of two vectors is also a vector.

Properties of Vector Product

⃗ ≠𝐵
i) Vector product is not commutative, i.e., 𝐴 × 𝐵 ⃗ ×𝐴

⃗ = −(𝐵
But 𝐴 × 𝐵 ⃗ × 𝐴)

⃗ + 𝐶) = 𝐴 × 𝐵
ii) Vector product is distributive, i.e., 𝐴 × (𝐵 ⃗ +𝐴×𝐶

⃗ = 𝐴𝐵 sin 00 = 0
iii) Vector product of two parallel vectors is zero, i.e., 𝐴 ∙ 𝐵

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iv) Vector product of any vector with itself is zero. 𝐴 × 𝐴 = 𝐴𝐴 sin 00 = 0

v) Vector product of orthogonal unit vectors

𝑖̂ × 𝑖̂ = 𝑗̂ × 𝑗̂ = 𝑘̂ × 𝑘̂

𝑖̂ × 𝑗̂ = 𝑘̂, 𝑗̂ × 𝑘̂ = 𝑖̂ , 𝑘̂ × 𝑖̂ = 𝑗̂

vi) Vector product in cartesian coordinates

⃗ = (𝐴𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝐴𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝐴𝑧 𝑘̂) × (𝐵𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝐵𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝐵𝑧 𝑘̂)

𝐴×𝐵

𝑖̂ 𝑗̂ 𝑘̂ 𝐴𝑦 𝐴𝑧 𝐴 𝐴𝑧 ̂ 𝐴𝑦 𝐴𝑧
⃗ = |𝐴𝑥
𝐴×𝐵 𝐴𝑦 𝐴𝑧 | = | | 𝑖̂ − | 𝑥 |𝐽 + | | 𝑘̂
𝐵𝑦 𝐵𝑧 𝐵𝑥 𝐵𝑧 𝐵𝑦 𝐵𝑧
𝐵𝑥 𝐵𝑦 𝐵𝑧

⃗ = (𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑧 − 𝐴𝑧 𝐵𝑦 )𝑖̂ − (𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑧 − 𝐴𝑧 𝐵𝑦 )𝑗̂ + (𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑧 − 𝐴𝑧 𝐵𝑦 )𝑘̂

𝐴×𝐵

Example

⃗ = −2𝑖̂ + 3𝑗̂
Vector 𝐴 = 𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ and 𝐵

⃗?
What is (a) the scalar product of 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵

⃗
(b) the angle between 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵

Solution

⃗ = 𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑦
a) 𝐴 ∙ 𝐵

⃗ = (1)(−2) + (1)(3) = 1
𝐴∙𝐵

⃗
𝐴∙𝐵 1 1
b) cos 𝜃 = |𝐴||𝐵⃗| = = 5.1 = 0.19
(√2)(√13)

Then, 𝜃 = cos −1 (0.19) = 78.690

Exercise

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1. Given that two vectors of v
⃗ 1 = (𝑖̂ + 3𝑗̂) and v
⃗ 2 = (2𝑖̂ + 6𝑗̂). Find
a) v
⃗2 -v
⃗1 b) the unit vector in the direction of v
⃗ 2 + 2v
⃗1
2. Given two vectors 𝑉1 = 10 units along the positive y-axis and 𝑉2 = 6 units at an angle of 370
above the positive x-axis. What is the scalar product of the vectors in square of units?
A. 48 B. 60 C. 45 D. 36

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 UNIT 3: MOTION IN ONE AND TWO DIMENSIONS

After completing this unit, student will be able to:

• define the terms distance, displacement, speed, velocity and acceleration

• describe the meaning of uniformly accelerated motion.
• explain the motion graphs
• describe the equations of uniformly accelerated motion.
• describe the motion of a rigid body about a fixed point.
• give the angular speed and angular velocity of a rotating body.
• show the analogy between linear and rotational motion.
• understand the basic ideas of two-dimensional motions.
• describe the projectile motion of objects.
• describe Newton’s law of Universal gravitation.
• state Kepler’s laws of planetary motion.
• use Kepler’s laws of planetary motion for planetary motion.

3.1 Motion in one dimension

3.1.1 Uniform Motion

Uniform Motion is the motion of an object moving with constant velocity. Constant velocity
means, the velocity of an object is not changing throughout the motion, initial velocity (u) is equal
to final velocity (v). If velocity increased or slowing down the motion is not uniform. Therefore,
in uniform motion both initial velocity and final velocity are the same. In uniform motion
acceleration of an object is zero, a = 0. This means that, a car is moving but not accelerating.

The type of motion where the moving object covers equal distance in equal time interval is called
uniform motion.

In general, for an object travelling in a straight line, we have displacement, velocity and
acceleration. Motion in a straight line is known as one dimensional motion.

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Displacement is the shortest path moved by an object. Its symbol is 𝑆 and unit is meter. Change
in position of a body, ∆S⃗ = Sf - Si. But the total path moved by an object is called distance.
Displacement is vector quantity, whereas distance is scalar quantity.

Velocity is the change in displacement over change in time. It is a vector quantity that depends
on displacement. Mathematically velocity is defined by:

⃗
∆S 𝑠𝑓 − 𝑠𝑖
⃗V = =
∆t tf − 𝑡𝑖

The magnitude of velocity is speed (v). Both velocity and speed are measured in m/s. Simple
example to differentiate velocity and speed:

Velocity: a car moving with 10m/s toward east direction. Velocity has magnitude and direction.

Speed: a car moving with 10m/s. Speed has only magnitude.

Distance, speed and time can be related as, 𝑠 = 𝑣𝑡

What is the quantity expressed by 20km/hr due North?

We also calculate the average speed and average velocity of an object moving in a straight line.

total distance travelled

Average speed = total time interval

total displacement
Average velocity = total time interval

Example:

1. A bus travels 9km due north in 1hr. It then travels 12km due east in 2hrs. Find average
velocity of a bus.
Solution: Let's find the total time: ttot = 1hr + 2hr = 3hr and the resultant vector of the average
9 12
velocity: Vav = 3i + j
3

We can find the magnitude of the total displacement (St) from the Pythagorean Theorem:
St = √𝑠𝑥2 +𝑠𝑦2 = √122 + 92 = 15km. Then, the magnitude of the average velocity:

23 | P a g e
 15km
Vav = = 5km/hr
3hr

For an object travelling in a straight line, the speed at instant or particular time is called
instantaneous speed and the velocity at particular instant of time is called instantaneous velocity,
given by
∆𝑟
V = 𝐥𝐢𝐦
∆𝒕→𝟎 ∆𝐭
∆𝑟
The limiting value of as ∆𝑡 approaches zero gives instantaneous velocity.
∆𝐭

Exercise

1. A boy walks 10km North then turns and runs 16km East in 3hrs. Find
a) Displacement of a boy b) his average speed c) his average velocity
2. A man runs 300m West in 60 seconds. He then runs 100m North-West in 20 seconds. What is
man’s average velocity?
3. An airplane travelled from Addis Ababa to Jigjiga, 780 km, in 45 minutes. What was its
average speed?
A. 0.28m/dec B. 1040km/hr C. 17.3m/min D. 17.3m/min

3.1.2 Uniformly Accelerated Motion

➢ Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity.

⃗
∆v v− u
a= =
∆t tf − 𝑡𝑖

where, v is final velocity and u is initial velocity. The SI unit of acceleration is m/s2. Acceleration
is the change in velocity per unit time that is it measures how fast velocity is changing.

Uniformly accelerated motion is a motion with constant acceleration. When an object is

uniformly accelerated, its acceleration is constant. It means that, the velocity of an object is
changing by equal amount in equal time interval:

6m/s in 1s acceleration is 6m/s2, 12m/s in 2s acceleration is 6m/s2, 18m/s in 3s acceleration

is 6m/s2. You see that velocity is increased, but acceleration is constant.

24 | P a g e
➢ In uniformly accelerated motion, the average velocity is the average of initial and final
velocities
v+u
Vav = .
2
1
➢ The displacement is given by 𝑠 = 𝑉𝑎𝑣 𝑡 = 2 (𝑉 + 𝑈)𝑡

➢ How to find average acceleration?

change in velocity
Average acceleration = time taken

Kinematics equations of uniformly accelerated motion

1. 𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡
𝑣+𝑢
2. 𝑠 = ( )t
2
1
3. 𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 2 𝑎𝑡 2

4. 𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑠

Example:

A car moving and increases its velocity from 4m/s to 12m/s in 2s. Then the average acceleration
is:

Solution

∆𝑉 𝑣−𝑢 12𝑚/𝑠−4𝑚/𝑠
𝑎𝑎𝑣 = = = = 4𝑚/𝑠 2
∆𝑡 𝑡 2𝑠

Example
1. A car travelling at 20m/s accelerated to 6m/s2 in 5 seconds. Find
a) final velocity
b) displacement
Given: u = 20m/s, a = 6m/s2 and t = 5s

Solution: a) v = u + at

v = 20m/s + 6m/s2 x 5s = 20m/s + 30m/s = 50m/s

1 1
b) s = ut + 2 at2 = 20m/s x 5s + 2 (6m/s2) (5s)2 , then

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 s = 100m + 75m = 175m

2. A track covers 60m in 8s while smoothly slowing down to a final speed of 2m/s. Find,

a) initial velocity b) acceleration

Solution:

Given: s = 60m, v = 2m/s and t = 8s

a) using

1
s = 2(v +u)t, we can solve for u,
2s 2x60m
u= –v= – 2m/s = 13m/s
t 8s
v−u 2m/s − 13m/s
c) a = = = -1.4m/s2 deceleration
t 8s

Exercise
1. A car accelerates along a straight road from rest to 60km/h in 5s. What is an acceleration of a
car?
2. The velocity of an automobile increases from 4m/s to 8m/s and attains constant acceleration of
3m/s2. a) What time does an automobile takes to increase its velocity
b) What is the displacement of an automobile?
3. A Sino truck gradually starts from rest with a uniform acceleration of 3m/s2. It reaches a
velocity of 12m/s. Find the distance it travels while it is accelerating.
4. At a stop light, a truck traveling at constant speed of 15 m/s passes a car as it starts from rest.
If the car accelerates at 3 m/s2, how long will it take the car to overtake the truck?

A. 5 sec B. 15 sec C. 10 s D. 20 sec

5. An airplane takes-off at airport A and travels 500kmdue east within one hour and then turning
to south it flies for 20 minutes to land on airport B which is 100km away from the turning
point. The magnitude average velocity of the plane during its flight between the two airport is
A. 450 𝑘𝑚/ℎ C. 75√24𝑘𝑚/ℎ
B. 75√26𝑘𝑚/ℎ D. 100√34𝑘𝑚/ℎ

26 | P a g e
6. While going to school a student travels 3Km east and then 4Km, north in 2hrs. the magnitude
of student’s average velocity and average speed are respectively

A. 2𝑘𝑚/ℎ𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 7 𝑘𝑚/ℎ𝑟 C. 𝑘𝑚/ℎ𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 3.5 𝑘𝑚/ℎ𝑟

B. 3.5𝑘𝑚/ℎ𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑑 2.5 𝑘𝑚/ℎ𝑟 D. 𝑘𝑚/ℎ𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 7 𝑘𝑚/ℎ𝑟

Free falling bodies

A freely falling object is any object moving freely under the influence of gravity alone, regardless
of its initial motion.

Example: object thrown upward or down ward and object released from rest.

Free fall is motion with constant gravitational acceleration 𝑔 = 9.8 𝑚/𝑠 2 toward the center of the
earth. So, we can use equation of uniformly accelerated motion as in table below

When released from rest When thrown up When thrown down

𝑣𝑦 = 𝑔𝑡 𝑣𝑦 = 𝑢𝑦 − 𝑔𝑡 𝑣𝑦 = 𝑢𝑦 + 𝑔𝑡

1 2 1 1
∆𝑦 = 𝑔𝑡 ∆𝑦 = 𝑢𝑦 − 𝑔𝑡 2 ∆𝑦 = 𝑢𝑦 + 𝑔𝑡 2
2 2 2

𝑣𝑦2 = 2𝑔∆𝑦 𝑣𝑦2 = 𝑢𝑦2 − 2𝑔∆𝑦 𝑣𝑦2 = 𝑢𝑦2 + 2𝑔∆𝑦

Exercise

1. A student throws a ball vertically upward with a speed of 20𝑚/𝑠 . The maximum height
reached by the ball and its velocity 3.0 s after it was thrown are, respectively
A. 2𝑜 𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 10𝑚/𝑠 𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 C. 15 𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 10𝑚/𝑠 𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑
B. 2𝑜 𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 30𝑚/𝑠 𝑢𝑝𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 D. 1𝑜 5𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 50𝑚/𝑠 𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑
2. A ball falls freely, starting from rest. Neglecting air resistance, what is the distance moved
bythe ball during the fourth second?
A. 35 m B. 10m C. 30 m D. 10 m
3. A cricket thrown a ball vertically upward with initial speed of 20m/s. how long is it in the air
before it returns to the cricketer’s hand?
A. 2 s B. 10 s C. 1.5 s D. 4 s

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 3.1.3 Graphical Representation of Uniformly accelerated Motion in 1 D

The slope of the graph and area under the graph give information about the displacement, velocity,
and acceleration.

The motion of an object can be represented graphical using:

• Displacement – Time graph
• Velocity – Time graph
• Acceleration – Time graph

What are the graphs of motion? The graphs of motion are the displacement-time graph, the
velocity-time graph, and the acceleration-time graph.

1. Displacement –Time graph (s-t graph)

Key Concept:
The slope of a displacement - time graph represents the average velocity of an object.

Figure 3.1: Displacement-Time graph: gives average velocity

Table 3.1: The displacement – time graph for the motion of school bus drawn as shown below.

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 Displacement (m) 0 80 160 240 240 280
Time (s) 0 20 40 60 80 100

The slope of displacement – time is equal to velocity. Slope is a measure of the steepness of a
line.
⃗
∆x 𝑥2 − 𝑥1
Slope = v = =
∆t t2 − 𝑡1

Taking any two points from above table:

(80 − 0)m (160 − 80)m

Slope = v = = = 4m/s
(20−0)s (40−20)s

Figure 3.2: Displacement-Time graph

➢ From displacement–time graphs we can get displacement at each time and velocity.
➢ The slope is equal to zero (horizontal), means that the object is at rest (at 240m, from 60s –
80s).
➢ An upwards straight line means that the object is moving forwards at a constant speed (from
starting up to 240m for 60s).
➢ The slope is equal to zero (horizontal), means that the object is at rest.

29 | P a g e
 Figure 3.3: Displacement-Time graph for object is at rest.

Example:

1. A bus stopped at a point 5m ahead of a bus stop (the bus stop as reference point). The
displacement of the bus will remain 5m for all instants of time.

2. In figure the horizontal line starting at 4 on the vertical axis shows that the displacement of
the object remains constant over time, at 4m from the given point. The fact that the slope of
a horizontal line is zero shows that the velocity is zero, and hence the object is stationary.

Figure 3.4: Example of Displacement-Time graph for object is at rest at the position of 4m.

A) Displacement-Time graph for uniform motion

Displacement-time graph of a uniform motion is when the object's velocity is constant. The
graph is a straight line with a constant slope.

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 Figure 3.5: Displacement-Time graph for uniform motion.

B) Displacement-time graph for uniformly accelerated motion

For a body moving at constant acceleration, its displacement-time graph is a parabola (curved
upward), as shown below, figure, because displacement is directly proportional to the square of
time (s = ½ at2), indicates the body is changing its velocity at a constant rate. The velocity is
increasing with time and the object is accelerating.

Figure 3.6: Displacement-time graph for uniformly accelerated motion.

What are the key features of a displacement-time graph?

➢ The gradient/slope of the graph equals the velocity of the object

o The gradient of the graph equals the velocity of the object
o A positive gradient means the object is travelling forwards
o A negative gradient means that the object is travelling backwards
o The steeper the line, the greater the speed
31 | P a g e
 ➢ A straight line shows that the object is moving at a constant velocity
➢ A curved line shows that the object is accelerating or decelerating
➢ A horizontal line shows that the object is stationary
➢ If the graph touches the x-axis, then the object is at the origin at that time.

Exercise

1. Draw a displacement time graph for the following data. Interpret the type of motion.

Displacement (m) 0 10 20 30 40 50
Time in s 0 1 2 3 4 5

2. Draw a displacement time graph for the following data with respect to a motion of
particle. Interpret the type of motion.

Displacement (m) 0 45 80 105 120

Time in s 0 1 2 3 4

Velocity–Time graph (v-t graph)

A velocity – time graph shows how velocity changes with time. We can calculate displacement
and acceleration from a velocity–time graph.

Acceleration is the slope of a velocity–time graph.

Displacement is the area under a velocity–time graph.

The displacement of an object is given by the area under a velocity–time graph. The area under
the v - t graph gives the distance travelled. Hence, an object with a larger area under the v - t graph
will have travelled a greater distance.

The slope of velocity – time graph is acceleration of an object. The steeper the upwards slope,
the greater the acceleration.

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 No Types of motion graph Slope Area
1 Displacement–time Velocity -
2 Velocity–time Acceleration Displacement
3 Acceleration-time - Velocity

Example:

1. For the figures shown below, the speed-time graph shows a 50-second car journey. Calculate
the displacement and acceleration of the journey.

Step 1: Split the graph up into distinct sections, these can be seen in the figure as A, B, C, and D.

Section A – The car accelerated from 0 to 15 m/s over the first 10 seconds (the line is straight,
(15 − 0)
the acceleration is constant). Acceleration between 0s and 10s is a = slope = =1.5 m/s2
(10−0)

and displacement S = area = ½ vt = ½ x15m/s x10s = 75m

Section B – The line is flat, meaning the car’s speed did not change for 10 seconds – meaning it
was moving at a constant speed. For velocity not changing, acceleration is zero. The
displacement will be S = area = 10s x15m/s = 150m

Section C – The car accelerated up to 25 m/s over the next 10 seconds. Acceleration between
(25 − 15)
20s and 30s is a = slope = =1m/s2 and displacement S = area = ½ vt = ½ x10m/s x10s +
(30−20)

10s x 15m/s = 50m + 150m = 200m

33 | P a g e
Section D – Finally it spent the last 20 seconds decelerating back down to stop. Acceleration
(0 − 25)
between 20s and 30s is a = slope = = -1.25m/s2 and displacement S = area = ½ vt = ½ x
(50−30)

25m/s x20s = 250m

The Total distance travelled in 50s is:

S = SA +SB + SC + SD = 75m + 150m + 200m + 250m = 675m

Exercise

1. The figure shown below, shows a 10-second of journey a bus. Calculate the displacement and
acceleration of the journey.

2. A displacement-time graph of a body moving with uniform velocity is shown in the figure.
Find out its velocity and its displacement at the end of 5 seconds.

3. For and object moving in a straight line,

34 | P a g e
 A. if the velocity increases by equal amount in equal time interval, the velocity-time graph is
straight line with positive slope and the acceleration-time graph is horizontal.
B. the slope of a displacement–time graph and the area of the region acceleration-time graph,
respectively, the acceleration and velocity of the object.
C. if the displacement changes by equal amount in equal time interval, the displacement time
graph is horizontal.
D. the area of the region under displacement-time graph and the slope of velocity-time graph
are, respectively, the acceleration and displacement of the object.

3.1.4 Relative velocity in one dimension

Relative velocity is the difference between the velocities of two moving objects

➢ The relative velocity of an objects moving in the same direction is the difference in their
velocities.
Suppose car A moving with 20m/s and car B moving with 25m/s in the same direction to car A.
Then the relative speed of car B as observed from car A is:
VBA = VB - VA = 25m/s – 20m/s = 5m/s

And the relative speed of car A as observed from car B is:

VAB = VA - VB = 20m/s – 25m/s = -5m/s lagging behand

Example: Two busses moving in the same direction have velocities of 15m/s and 21m/s. What
is the relative velocity of faster car? Vr = 21m/s - 15m/s = 6m/s
➢ The relative velocity of an objects moving in the opposite direction is the sum of the velocities
of two objects: VAB = VBA = VB + VA
Suppose car A moving with 10m/s and car B moving with 15m/s in the opposite direction to car A.
Then their relative speed is:

VAB = VBA = VB + VA = 15m/s + 10m/s = 25m/s

Example: Two trains heading towards each other, train A moving with 30m/s North and train B
moving with 26m/s South. What is the relative velocity of two trains?

35 | P a g e
As the trains heading toward each other, the relative is the sum of velocities:

VAB = VBA = VA + VB = 30m/s + 26m/s = 56m/s

Note: if the velocities are at right angle to each other, we take the magnitude of the velocities.

V
|VAB| = |VBA| = √VA2 +VB2 and direction θ = tan−1 (VB )
A

Example

A bird flies at speed of 10m/s to South relative to the Earth. A wind blows at speed of 4m/s to East
relative to the Earth. What is the speed of the bird relative to the wind?

Solution: Let 𝑉𝑏 is velocity of bird relative to Earth, 𝑉𝑤 is velocity of wind relative to Earth and
𝑉𝑏𝑤 is velocity of bird relative to wind. Then, the magnitude of 𝑉𝑏𝑤 is:

|𝑉𝑏𝑤 |= √𝑉𝑏2 +𝑉𝑤2 = √42 + 102 = 10.8m/s

10
Direction: θ = tan−1 ( 4 ) = 68o North-West

Hence, the bird flying with 10.8m/s in the direction of North-West relative to the wind.

Exercise: Find the relative velocities of the following

1. Two cars travelling North on the same road one travelling at 60m/s and the other travelling at
45m/s.
2. Two ships sailing down a river, one heading due East at 10m/s and the other sailing West at
16m/s.
3. An Airplane heads North at 250km/h relative to the wind. The wind velocity is 60km/h from
the North. What is the velocity of the Airplane relative the ground?
4. Two Bajaj A and B are travelling at the same speed, 20m/s. The direction along Bajaj A moving
is at right angle to the direction of Bajaj B is moving. Find the magnitude of the velocity of the
Bajaj A relative to Bajaj B.
5. A bird flies at speed of 10 𝑚/𝑠 to South relative to the Earth. A wind blows a speed of
𝑚
4 𝑠 to East relative to the Earth. What is the speed of the bird relative to the wind?

A. 6 𝑚/𝑠 in the direction of North-East

B. 10.8 𝑚/𝑠 in the direction of North-West
36 | P a g e
 C. 6 𝑚/𝑠 in the direction of South-East
D. 10.8 𝑚/𝑠 in the direction of South-West

3.2 Two-dimensional motion

3.2.1 Projectile Motion

What is projectile motion?

A projectile is a two-dimensional motion of any object thrown into space with initial velocity (u)
at an angle θ to the horizontal. We have three basic quantities for an object experiencing projectile
motion: Maximum height, the Range and total time of flight. To describe these quantities, we use
the horizontal (𝑈𝑥 ) and vertical (𝑈𝑦 ) components of initial velocity.

Figure 3.7: projectile motion

Kinematic equations for projectile motion

The path followed by projectile motion is trajectory. The trajectory of the projectile is a
downward parabola.

Basic assumptions in projectile motion:

A. The acceleration is only gravity (g) and it is directed downward (ax = 0 and ay = -g)
B. At maximum height, the vertical components of the velocity is zero, 𝑉𝑦 = 0, so that the
speed of the projectile at maximum height is 𝑢𝑥 = 𝑢 cos 𝜃

37 | P a g e
 C. The effect of air resistance is negligible.

Thus, using these assumptions Kinematic equations for projectile motion becomes:

The horizontal components of the velocity:

𝑣𝑥 = 𝑢𝑥 + 𝑎𝑥 𝑡, 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑎𝑥 = 0, ⇒ 𝑣𝑥 = 𝑢𝑥 = 𝑢 cos 𝜃 , constant
The horizontal displacement of the projectile after some time t is:
1
𝑥𝑓 = 𝑢𝑥 𝑡 + 2 𝑎𝑥 𝑡 2 , ⇒ 𝑢𝑥 𝑡 = (𝑢 cos 𝜃)𝑡

The horizontal displacement of the projectile at total time of flight is the range (R).

The vertical components of the velocity:

𝑣𝑦 = 𝑢𝑦 + 𝑎𝑦 𝑡 ⇒ 𝑣𝑦 = 𝑢 sin 𝜃, vertical velocity at any time t and also

2
𝑢𝑦 𝑢2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃
𝑣𝑦2 = 𝑢𝑦2 − 2𝑔ℎ ⇒ ℎ𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 2𝑔 = , because at maximum height 𝑣𝑦 = 0
2𝑔

The vertical displacement of the projectile after some time t is:

1 1
𝑦𝑓 = 𝑢𝑦 𝑡 − 2 𝑔𝑡 2 , ⇒ 𝑦𝑓 = (𝑢 sin 𝜃)𝑡 − 2 𝑔𝑡 2 , the vertical position of a projectile motion

at any time t.
2𝑢 sin 𝜃
Total time of flight, 𝑡𝑇 = 𝑔

Key formulae of projectile motion

𝑢2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃
➢ Maximum height: ℎ𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
2g
2usinθ
➢ Total time of flight 𝑡𝑡 =
g
𝑢2 2 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 𝑢2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2θ
➢ The Range 𝑅= =
𝑔 g

Example:

1. A projectile is fired up with 20m/s at an angle of 30° above the horizontal. Find the maximum
height reached by the projectile? (g = 10 m/s, sin30° = 0.5)
Solution

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 𝑢2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 202 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 30𝑜
Maximum height: ℎ𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = = 10m
2g 2x10

Exercise

1. Ubah dropped a ball from dorm building and a ball takes 3sec to reach the ground, find the
height of building from which a ball is dropped. Find the time taken for a ball dropped from a
height of 6m.
2. An arrow is fired vertically upward with an initial velocity of 35 m/s. Find its velocity after:
3s and 6s.
3. An arrow is fired directly horizontal off a cliff that is 10.0 meters tall with a velocity of 65.5m/s.
a. How long is the arrow in the air?
b. What is the range of the arrow?
4. A rifle is aimed horizontally at a target 30 m away. The bullet hits the target 1.9 cm below the
aiming point. (a) What is the bullet’s time of flight? (b) What is the muzzle velocity?
5. An object projected at an angle θ with velocity 30 m/s reaches its maximum height in 2s.
Calculate its range,
6. A bullet is fired with an initial speed v at angle 𝜃 with the horizontal. It takes a time T to reach
its maximum vertical displacement ℎ𝑚𝑎𝑥 . It hits the target point a distance R away and exactly
in the horizontal level to the point where it was fired. Which one of the following statements
is NOT correct about the motion of the bullet?
A. R will be maximum if cos 𝜃 = √2⁄2 .
B. 𝜃 should be different from 900 to hit the target at a distance R.
C. The bullet hits the target at a time 2T after it was fired.
D. ℎ𝑚𝑎𝑥 is directly proportional to the initial speed v.
7. Two projectiles are fired from ground level at equal speed but different angle. One is fired
at an angle of 300 and the other at 600. The projectile to hit the ground first will be the one
fired at (neglect air resistance)
A. 600 D. Cannot be determine from the
B. Both at same time given information
C. 300
8. If a long-distance jumper athlete leaves the ground at an angle of 370 above the horizontal
surface at a speed of 10.0m/s, how far does he jump in the horizontal direction?
A. 4.8m B. 6m C. 9.6m D. 12m

39 | P a g e
 3.2.2 Rotational Motion

Rotational motion is the motion of an object along a circular path or around a fixed axis. It can be
described as pure rotation when an object rotates around a specific point or axis. Examples include
fan blades, Earth's rotation, sewing machine flywheels, and car wheels. In rotational kinematics,
we study variables like angular displacement (θ), angular velocity, and angular acceleration (α).
Angular displacement (∆θ) represents the change in angle of a rigid object and is measured in
radians in the SI system.

∆𝜃 = 𝜃 − 𝜃0 , where θ is final angular displacement and 𝜃0 is initial angular displacement of a

rotating body. Angular displacement θ is also measured by degree and revolution,

2πrad = 360o = 1revolution.

Angular velocity (ɷ) and tangential velocity (v)

Angular velocity is the rate of change of angular displacement. Its standard unit is radians per
second.

angle covered
Average angular velocity = time taken

∆θ θ – θo
ɷ= =
∆t t−to

ω is the Greek letter omega. As θ is measured in radians and t in seconds, the units of angular
velocity is rad/s. Angular velocity is a vector quantity. The direction of angular velocity is given
by right hand rule as shown below in figure.

40 | P a g e
 Figure 3.8: Direction of angular velocity

Tangential Velocity

Tangential Velocity is a velocity along the edge of the circular path always touching a curve at a
point. It’s the linear component of angular velocity at any point along the circular path.
Tangential velocity is equal to the tangential distance divided by time.

s 2πr 2π
v= = , but ɷ = = 2πf, then v = 𝜔r
t T T

1
where, T is period and f is frequency, 𝑓 =
𝑇

For one complete rotation, the tangential displacement is equal to circumference of the circle, s =
2πr = θr, and time taken for one complete circle is called the period, T.

Frequency is the number of cycle per second. The SI unit of tangential velocity is meter per
second.

Figure 3.9: Angular and tangential velocity, and tangential displacement

Angular acceleration

Angular acceleration (α) is the rate of change of angular velocity (Δω) in the time interval (Δt).
In equation form, average angular acceleration is

⃗⃗⃗
∆ω ω – 𝜔𝑜
α= ∆t
= ,
t − 𝑡𝑜

Its standard unit is radians per second squared (rad/s2). When the angular velocity of an object
changes from initial 𝜔𝑜 to final ω in the time interval ∆t, the object has an angular acceleration.

41 | P a g e
Angular acceleration (α) related to linear acceleration (a) as follows:

∆v ∆ωr ω
a= = = αr, here v = ωr and α =
∆t t t

Example:

1. A car engine rotates at 100 revolutions per minute. What is its angular velocity in rad/s

θ = 1rev. = 2rad  100rev = 100×2πrad = 628rad and t = 1minute = 60second, then

θ 628 rad
ɷ=t = = 10.5rad/s
60s

2. A car is travelling at 16 m/s. The car wheel has a diameter of 0.8 m. What is the angular
v 16 m/s 1
velocity of the wheel in rad/s.? ɷ = r = = 40 s = 40rad/s
0.4 m

3. A bicycle wheel with radius of 30cm, turns at a constant angular velocity of 20rad/s. What is
the distance traveled by the bicycle in 30 minutes?

𝑆 = 𝑣𝑡 = 𝜔𝑟𝑡 = 20rad/s × 0.3m ×1800s = 10,800m = 10.8km

4. The angular velocity of the belt of a grindstone is 30rad/s. To what angle does the belt rotate
in one minute? 𝜃 = 𝜔𝑡 θ = 30rad/s × 1 minute = 30rad/s × 60s = 1800rad
5. A flywheel spins 250 times each minute. What is its angular velocity?
θ = 250rev. then, ɷ = θ/t = 250rev/60s = (250× 2π rad)/60s = 26rad/s

Kinematic equations for rotational motion with constant angular acceleration

1. ω = 𝜔𝑜 + αt
1
2. θ = (ω + 𝜔𝑜 )t
2
1
3. θ = 𝜔𝑜 t + αt2
2
4. ω2 = 𝜔𝑜 2 + 2αθ
5. ω2 = 𝜔𝑜 2 - 2αθ

Table 3.2 shows the analogy between linear and rotational motion with uniform linear and
angular accelerations:

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 Constant linear acceleration Constant angular acceleration
v = u + at ω = 𝜔𝑜 + αt
1 1
vav = 2 (v + u) 𝜔𝑎𝑣 = 2 (ω + 𝜔𝑜 )
1 1
s = 2 (v + u)t θ = 2 (ω + 𝜔𝑜 )t
1 1
s = 𝑢𝑡 + 2 at2 θ = 𝜔𝑜 t + 2 αt2

v2 = u2 + 2as ω2 = 𝜔𝑜 2 + 2αθ

Exercise:

1. A ball is attached to inextensible string of length 2m and is rotated with uniform angular
acceleration on a horizontal circle. The ball attains 2rad/s in 2 seconds from rest. Calculate
a) The angular displacement in 2 seconds
b) The angular acceleration and the final linear velocity at the end of 2s
c) The tangential distance the ball covered in 2s
d) The magnitude of the total acceleration of the ball at t = 2s
2. If you are given the following physical quantities in angular motion: torque ( ), Linear
momentum (p), moment of inertia (I), angular speed ( 𝜔) and angular acceleration (𝛼 ). The
angular momentum (L) is the
A. product of moment of inertia and angular speed.
B. ratio of moment of inertia to angular acceleration.
C. product of moment of inertia and torque.
D. ratio of linear momentum to moment of inertia.

3. A wheel initially rotating at 2 rad/s accelerates at 3.5 rad/s2 for 2 sec. Through what
angledoes the wheel rotate during 2 s?
A. 11 rad B. 5 rad C. 8 rad D. 3 rad
4. A torque rotates an object of mass m and moment of inertia through an angle . The work
done on the object by the torque is___________.
A. 𝑚𝜃 B. 𝐼𝜃 C. 𝜏𝐼 D. 𝜏𝜃
5. A wheel rotating at angular speed of is brought to rest after under a constant angular
acceleration. The angular acceleration of a point on the wheel is

43 | P a g e
 A. 5 𝑟𝑒𝑣⁄𝑠 2 B. −5 𝑟𝑒𝑣⁄𝑠 2 C. −0.5 𝑟𝑒𝑣⁄𝑠 2 D. 0.255 𝑟𝑒𝑣⁄𝑠 2
6. A wheel starts rotating a 1.2 Hz and reaches 1.8 Hz in 5 seconds. Calculate the angular
displacement it covers within 5 seconds?
A. 10𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑 B. 3𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑 C. 30𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑 D. 15𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑

3.2.3 Rotational Dynamics of a rigid body

Torque and angular acceleration

What is torque?

Torque is the turning effect of a force round a point; it is an analogues to linear force. Torque is
measured by multiplying the force by its perpendicular distance from the axis. That is the vector
product of radial distance and the applied force:

Torque (τ) = Force x distance = Fd, when force and distance are perpendicular to each other.
When force and distance are at an angle θ to each other,

𝜏 = 𝑟 × 𝐹 = 𝑟𝐹 sin 𝜃

where, θ is angle between radial distance, r and force, F. The direction of the torque is along the
axis of rotation, which is given by a right-hand-rule: when you curl the fingers of your right hand
in the direction of the rotation, your thumb points in the direction of the torque. In rotational
motion, positive in the anticlockwise direction, and negative in the clockwise direction.

Example:

⃗ = (𝑖̂ – 3𝑘̂) N acts on a wooden bar and drags the bar through a displacement of 𝑟 =
1. A force F
4𝑖̂ m. What is the torque due to the force in Nm?
𝑟𝑦 = 0, 𝑟𝑧 = 0, 𝐹𝑦 = 0

𝜏 = 𝑟 × 𝐹 = (ryFz – rzFy)𝑖̂ + (rzFx − rxFz)𝑗̂ + (rxFy − ryFx)𝑘̂

𝜏 = −𝑟𝑥 𝐹𝑧 𝑗̂ = −4(−3)𝑗̂ = 12𝑗̂
2. What is the moment of 20N force acting at a perpendicular distance of 2m from a point of
rotation?
Solution: 𝜏 = 𝑟𝐹 where F= 20N and r = 2m, τ = 2m × 20N = 40Nm

44 | P a g e
3. The object in Figure 2.15 is pivoted at O. Three forces act on it in the directions shown: F1 =
10 N at 3.0 m from O; F2 = 16 N at 4.0 m from O; and F3= 19 N at 8.0 m from O. What is the
net torque about O?

Figure 3.10 Three forces acting on an object pivoted at O.

Solution: F2 and F3 give a torque in the counterclockwise direction (positive) and F1 gives a
torque in the clockwise direction (negative torque).

𝜏1 = 𝑟1 𝐹1 sin 𝜃 = (3𝑚)(10𝑁)(sin 1200 ) = −25.9𝑁𝑚

𝜏2 = 𝑟2 𝐹2 sin 𝜃 = (4𝑚)(16𝑁)(sin 1500 ) = 32𝑁𝑚

𝜏3 = 𝑟3 𝐹3 sin 𝜃 = (8𝑚)(19𝑁)(sin 450 ) = 107.4𝑁𝑚

𝜏𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝜏1 + 𝜏2 + 𝜏3

𝜏𝑛𝑒𝑡 = −25.9N m + 32N m + 107.4N m = 113.5N m (counterclockwise direction)

Exercise

6 4
1. A force [ ] acts at a displacement of [ ]. What is the torque produced by the force?
2 1
2. A force (2, –5) acts at a displacement of (3, 1) from a point. What is the torque exerted by the
force?
3. A force 𝐹 = (𝑖̂ − 3𝑘̂) N acts on a wooden bar and drags the bar through a displacement of 𝑟 =
4𝑖̂ 𝑚. What is the torque due to the force in Nm?
A. 12 𝑗̂ B. 12 𝑘̂ C. 4𝑖̂ + 12𝑗̂ D. -12𝑗̂

Moment of inertia

45 | P a g e
Moment of inertia is a measure of the distribution of the mass of a body in relation to its axis of
rotation. It dependent on the mass, size, shape and axis of rotation of the body.

In linear motion, Newton’s second law is F = ma. When a torque τ is acted on a body, it rotates
and produce angular acceleration, α, then a = rα.

𝜏 = 𝑟𝐹 = 𝑟𝑚𝑎 = 𝑟𝑚𝑟𝛼 = 𝑚𝑟 2 𝛼,

τ = mr2α = Iα

where I = mr2 is moment of inertia. It is the rotational equivalent of mass. The angular acceleration
of a rotating object is proportional to the net torque on the object. That is, the torque acting on the
body is proportional to its angular acceleration, and the proportionality constant is the moment of
inertia.

Total moment of inertia of a system of mass can be written as:

I = ∑ mi ri2

where mi is the mass of a point of the body and ri is the distance of the point from the axis of
rotation.

Figure 3.11 A rigid object rotating about a z-axis with angular speed.

The moment of inertia for different rigid bodies with different size and shape has different
formula:

Table 3.3 Moment of inertia when axis of rotation goes through center of body

46 | P a g e
 Solid Hollow Thin rod or Thin cylindrical Solid
Body Disc
sphere sphere bar (L) shell cylinder
2 2 1
Moment I ½MR2 MR2 MR2 ML2 MR2 ½MR2
5 3 12

Parallel axis theorem

Parallel axis theorem states that the moment of inertia of an object around a particular axis is equal
to the moment of inertia around parallel axis that goes through the center of mass, plus the mass
of the object multiplied by the distance the parallel axis. A body rotates about an axis that does not
pass through the body’s center of mass at a distance, d.

𝐼𝑝 = 𝐼𝑐𝑚 + 𝑀𝑑2

where Ip is the moment of inertia about the parallel axis. 𝐼𝑐𝑚 is moment of inertia of center of
mass and d is the displacement of 𝐼𝑝 from 𝐼𝑐𝑚 as shown in figure below.

Figure 3.12: Parallel axis theorem

Example

1. What is moment of inertia of a rod of L rotates about one of its ends, as shown below in
figure?

47 | P a g e
 L
The distance between 𝐼𝑐𝑚 and 𝐼𝑝 is d = 2 ,

Then

1 𝐿 2 1
𝐼𝑝 = 𝐼𝑐𝑚 + 𝑀𝑑2 = 𝑀𝐿2 + 𝑀 ( ) = 𝑀𝐿2
12 2 3

2. A body of mass 2 kg has a moment of inertia of 20 kg m2 about its center. It is then rotated
about an axis which has a displacement of (2, 3) m. Find the moment of inertia of the body
about the axis (2, 3) m. Use Pythagoras’s theorem to find the magnitude of the displacement:
d2 = (22 + 32) = 13 m2
Using the parallel axis theorem:
Ip = 𝐼𝑐𝑚 + Md2 = 20 kg m2 + 2 kg × 13 m2 = 46 kg m2
3. What is the moment of inertia of four equal masses, 20g each situated at the corners of a square
of side 15cm, about an axis passing through the center of the square, perpendicular to the plane
of the square?

Solution: distance r is the magnitude of half sides, r2 = (7.5)2 + (7.5)2 = 112.5 cm2. The moment
of inertia is the sum of each mass:

I = 4Mr2 = 4×20g×112.5 cm2 = 9000gcm2 = 9× 10-4kgm2

4. The parallel axis theorem states that if is the moment of inertia of a body of mass M about an
axis passing through its center of mass (CM), its moment of inertia about any axis
1
A. Perpendicular to and a displacement d from the axis through the CM is 𝐼 = 𝐼𝑐𝑚 + 2 𝑀𝑑2

B. Parallel to and a displacement d from the axis through the CM is 𝐼 = 𝐼𝑐𝑚 + 𝑀𝑑 2

C. Perpendicular to and a displacement d from the axis through the CM is 𝐼 = 𝐼𝑐𝑚 + 𝑀𝑑 2
1
D. Parallel to and a displacement d from the axis through the CM is 𝐼 = 𝐼𝑐𝑚 + 2 𝑀𝑑 2

48 | P a g e
Exercise

1. A big wheel has a diameter of 5 m and a mass of 1500 kg when fully loaded with people.
a) Work out the moment of inertia of the big wheel.
b) When the wheel is rotating at full speed, a person has a linear velocity of 3 m/s. What is
the angular velocity of this person?
c) What is the rotational kinetic energy at this speed?
d) A motor takes 10 seconds to accelerate the wheel from rest to a linear velocity on the
circumference of 3 m/s. What is the power of the motor?
2. Three particles are connected by rigid rods of negligible mass lying along the y-axis, 4kg at
3cm, 2kg at -2cm and 3kg at -4cm. If the system rotates about the x-axis with angular speed of
2 rad/s, find the moment of inertia about the x-axis.
3. A 30kg rigid object has a moment of inertia 45kgm2 about its center of mass. What is the
object’s moment of inertia when it rotates through an axis 2m away and parallel to the axis
through its center of mass?

Work, Energy and power in rotational dynamics

Work done by torque

In linear terms the work done by a force is F.s, the force F multiplied by the displacement s it
moves in direction of motion. The rotational equivalent of linear displacement is angular
displacement θ. The angular equivalent of force is torque, τ. So, when a torque turns a body, the
work done is the torque multiplied by the angular displacement. Substitute τ and θ into the equation
for work done (W = Fs):

𝑊 = 𝜏𝜃

the work done by net torque while a rotating body makes an angular displacement of θ.

Power in rotational motion is also analogously obtained from power in linear motion, which is
equal to force times velocity:

𝑃 = 𝐹𝑉 = 𝜏𝜔

49 | P a g e
1. A mechanic applies a torque of 100 Nm over a half turn and takes 2 seconds. What is the
power? Half turn θ = πrad  ω = θ/t = π/2 rad/s, then P = τω. Substituting in the values, P =
100 N m × π/2 rad/s = 50π W = 157W.

Rotational Kinetic Energy

Rotational kinetic energy, KR the amount of kinetic energy a rigid body has from its rotational
movement

In the linear motion the kinetic energy is determined by the mass of the body and its speed, KE =
½ mv2.

For rotating object, like wheels of the car, flywheel, wheels of bicycle, and so on, rotational kinetic
energy:

KR = ½ mr2ɷ2,

𝑉 = 𝑟𝜔, where used. But, moment of inertia I = mr2, then in terms of moment of inertia rotational
kinetic energy is: KR = ½ Iɷ2.

1. A rotating drum in a fairground ride is accelerated from rest by a torque of 500Nm. The
moment of inertia of the drum is 200kgm2.
a) What is the angular acceleration of the drum?
b) If the drum is rotating with an angular velocity of π rad/s, how much rotational kinetic
energy does it have?

Solution: Angular acceleration, α = τ/I. Substituting in the values,

α = 500Nm/200 kg m2 = 2.5 rad/s2

KR = ½ Iɷ2 = ½ ×200kgm2 × (π rad/s)2 = 100π2 kgm2 rad2/s2 = 987J.

Angular momentum

Angular momentum, L is momentum of a body of mass m due to its angular velocity, ω. The
linear momentum of a particle is the product of mass and velocity:

𝑝 = 𝑚𝑣

50 | P a g e
The equivalent to linear momentum in rotational dynamics is angular momentum, L. It is defined
as the vector product of the displacement from the axis of rotation r and linear momentum p:

⃗ = 𝑟 × 𝑃⃗ = 𝑚𝑟 × 𝑣 = 𝑟𝑚𝑣 sin 𝜃
𝐿

where θ is the angle between r and v. We know that the rotational equivalent of v is ωr.
Substitute this into the equation:

𝐿 = 𝑚𝑟 × 𝜔𝑟 = 𝑚𝑟 2 𝜔 = 𝐼𝜔

then, angular momentum of a rotating body is, Iω. As I has units kgm 2 and ω has units rad/s,
angular momentum has units kg m 2 /s.

The principle of conservation of angular momentum states that the total angular momentum of a
system of bodies is constant, provided that there is no external torque acting on the system.

if no resultant torque is acting, the angular momentum of a body is constant.

We can also express this as an equation: the final angular momentum is equal to the initial
angular momentum.

𝐿𝑓 = 𝐿𝑖 𝑜𝑟 𝐼𝑓 𝜔𝑓 = 𝐼𝑖 𝜔𝑖

Figure3.13 Angular momentum of a ball rotating about a vertical axis

The relationship of linear and rotational dynamics quantities

Linear Dynamics Rotational Dynamics

Force F = ma Torque τ = Iα

51 | P a g e
 Mass m Moment of inertia I = mr2
Work W = Fs Work W = τθ
Energy KE = ½ mv2 Energy KR = ½ Iω2
Power P = Fv Power P = τω
Momentum p = mv Momentum L = Iω

Each point on a rigid object rotating about a fixed axis may not experience the same force, linear
acceleration, or linear speed. But, each point experiences the same angular acceleration and
angular speed at any instant.

3.2.3 Newton’s law of universal Gravitation

Newton’s law of universal gravitation states that if two masses M1 and M2 are at distance, r, from
each other, then the gravitational force, 𝐹𝑔 between them is given by the equation

𝐺𝑀1 𝑀2
𝐹𝑔 = 𝑟2

where, G is the universal gravitational constant, G = 6.67 × 10–11 Nm2/kg2. This is known as
Newton’s law of universal gravitation. Gravitational force is an attractive force and is very small.
Gravity is the force that keeps the Earth in its orbit of the Sun, the Moon in its orbit of the Earth
and the International Space Station in its orbit of the Earth.

The gravitational acceleration, g on the surface of the Earth can be obtained from Newton’s law of
universal gravitation:

𝑀𝐸 𝑚 𝐺𝑀𝐸
𝐹𝑔 = 𝑚𝑔 = ⇒𝑔=
𝑟𝐸 𝑟𝐸

GME
Variation of g with altitude, g = (𝑟 2
, it follows that g decreases with increasing altitude.
𝐸 +ℎ)

GME
The Orbital Velocity of stationary satellite is, 𝑣𝑒 = √ = √2grE . Therefore, we can calculate
rE

the orbital velocity of a satellite using ω = 2π/T and the escape velocity of a satellite using v =
√2𝑔rE .

Example

52 | P a g e
1. The Hubble Space Telescope is in orbit 559 km above the surface of the Earth.

a) What is its angular velocity?

b) How long does it take to complete an orbit of the earth?

Solution:

The radius of the Earth is 𝑟𝐸 = 6400𝑘𝑚. The mass of the Earth is 5.97 × 1024 kg.

The radius of the orbit of the telescope is

𝑟𝑡 = ℎ + 𝑟𝐸 = 559km + 6400km = 6959 km = 6.959 × 103m

Using the gravitational force:

GM1 M2
𝐹𝑔 = ,
r2

and as the telescope is orbiting circular motion, it has centripetal force

Fc = M2 rɷ2

where M2 is the mass of the telescope. Thus, equating gravitational force to centripetal force, we
get angular velocity as:

GM1 M2 GM1 6.67 × 10−11 × 5.97 × 1024

M2 rɷ2 =  ɷ2 = = = 1.2 × 10−6
r2 r3 (6.959 × 103 )3

ɷ = √1.2 × 10−6 = 1.095 × 10–3 rad/s

2π
Time taken for one orbit , T = 2π/ω = 1.095 × 10−3 = 5738s

2. What is the acceleration due to gravity at an altitude twice the radius of the Earth?
GME gE
rh =2rE , gh = =
r2h 4

Exercise
According to Newton’s law of universal gravitation
A. For two interacting objects, the gravitational force exerted on a light object is less than
the force on the heavy one.
B. The speed of a satellite moving around the earth in a circular orbit depends on the mass
of the satellite.

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 C. The gravitational attraction between two objects is directly proportional to the square of
the distance between them.
D. The period of a satellite orbiting the earth in a circular orbit increases as the radius of its
orbit increases.

3.2.4 Planetary motion and Kepler’s laws

Kepler’s laws describe the motion of a planet around the Sun. Kepler are a consequence of the law
of universal gravitation. Kepler’s complete analysis of planetary motion is summarized in Kepler’s
laws:

Kepler’s first law (law of orbits)

All planets move in elliptical orbits with the Sun at one focus.

Kepler’s first law is a direct result of the inverse square nature of the gravitational force. Elliptical
orbits are the allowed shapes of orbits for objects that are bound to the gravitational force center.
A planet of mass MP revolves around the Sun in an elliptical orbit at one focus.
Kepler’s second law (law of areas)
The radius vector drawn from the Sun to a planet sweeps out equal areas in equal time intervals.

Figure 3.14 Kepler’s laws 1 and 2.

Where is the Sun? The Sun is located at one focus of the elliptical orbit of a planet. It is not located
at the center of the ellipse.
Kepler’s third Law (the law of areas)
The square of the orbital period of any planet is proportional to the cube of the radius of the
elliptical orbit.
That is, the square of the time it takes the planet to go round the Sun (that is, the square of its year)
is proportional to the cube of its average distance from the Sun.

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Kepler’s third law can be written in equation form using the gravitational force and the centripetal
acceleration of the planet as it moves in a circular orbit.
mv2 GMm 2πr
Fc = Fg  = , taking velocity v = for one complete rotation:
r r2 T
(2πr)2 GM
= by rearranging
rT2 r2
4π2
T 2 = ( GM ) r 3

where T is the time it takes the planet to go round the Sun, G is the gravitational constant, M is the
mass of the Sun and r is the mean distance between the planet and the Sun.
T2
Kepler’s third law states that the ratio , where T is the time period and r is the average distance
r3

from the sun is the same for all planets:

T2 4π2
= ( GM ) = K
r3

K is Kepler’s proportionality constant which is the same for all planets.

Example

1. Earth has an orbital period of 365 days and its mean distance from the Sun is 1.495 × 108 𝑘𝑚.
The planet Pluto’s mean distance from the Sun is 5.896 × 109 𝑘𝑚. Using Kepler’s third law,
calculate Pluto’s orbital period in Earth days?

Solution

The given quantities are: 𝑇𝐸 = 365 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠, 𝑟𝐸 = 1.495 × 108 𝑘𝑚, 𝑟𝑝 = 5.896 × 109 𝑘𝑚

We use Kepler’s third law to calculate Pluto’s orbital period.

𝑇𝐸2 𝑇𝑝2
=
𝑅𝐸3 𝑅𝑝3

365 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠 𝑇𝑝2

=
(1.495 × 108 𝑘𝑚)3 (9𝑅𝐸 )3

solving for 𝑇𝑝 , we get 𝑇𝑝 = 9.0 × 1014 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠

Example

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2. If Saturn is on average 9 times farther from the Sun than Earth is, what is this distance in Earth
years?
Solution
𝑟𝑠 = 9𝑟𝐸 , 𝑇𝐸 = 1𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟
𝑇𝐸2 𝑇𝑠2
=
𝑅𝐸3 𝑅𝑠3
1 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑇𝑠2
=
𝑅𝐸3 (9𝑅𝐸 )3

Then, 𝑇𝑠 = 27 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠
Exercise
1. A satellite revolves around the earth in a circular orbit of radius 𝑟 = 4 × 1016 𝑚. The period of
the satellite is
A. 3.7 × 1027 𝑠 C. 2.5 × 1018 𝑠
B. 2.5 × 1019 𝑠 D. 3.7 × 1026 𝑠
2. Which of the following is true about satellite motion?
A. For equal orbital radius, a satellite moving around the Earth has smaller speed than a
satellite moving about Moon.
B. A satellite closer to Earth is faster than a satellite farther from the Earth.
C. A satellite moving closer to the earth takes longer time to complete once revolution
than a satellite farther from the Earth.
D. For two satellites moving around the Earth at equal orbital radius, a heavier satellite
has larger speed than a lighter one.

Unit work sheet Unit 3

1. Write down all kinematic equations of rotational motion with constant angular acceleration
2. Write angular analogies of F = ma, p = mv, KE = ½ mv2, W = FS and P = FV
3. The moment of inertia of a wheel moving with 4rad/s2 acted on 12Nm is ________
4. A 7.27 kg bowling ball with radius 9.0cm rolls without slipping down a lane at 4.55 m/s.
Calculate the kinetic energy.
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5. A motor capable of producing a constant torque 100 Nm and a maximum rotation speed of 150
rad/s is connected to a flywheel with rotational inertia 0.1 kgm2.
(a) What angular acceleration will the flywheel experience as the motor is switched on?
(b) How long will the flywheel take to reach the maximum speed if starting from rest?.
6. An Airplane heads North at 250km/h relative to the wind. The wind velocity is 60km/h from
the North. What is the velocity of the Airplane relative the ground?
7. Two Bajaj A and B are travelling at the same speed, 20m/s. The direction along Bajaj A moving
is at right angle to the direction of Bajaj B is moving. Find the magnitude of the velocity of the
Bajaj A relative to Bajaj B.
8. According to Kepler’s laws of planetary motion, a satellite increases its speed as it approaches
the Sun and decreases its speed as it moves away from the Sun. True or False.
9. Given that the Moon orbits Earth every 27.3 days and that it is an average distance
of 3.84 × 108 𝑚 from the center of Earth, calculate the period of an artificial satellite orbiting
at an average altitude of 1,500 km above Earth’s surface. (Radius of Earth is 6380 km.)
10. How would the period of an object in a circular orbit change if the radius of the orbit doubled?

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 UNIT 4: DYNAMICS

After completing this unit, student will be able to:

• define the term dynamics.

• explain Newton’s laws and apply to moving objects.
• use the laws of dynamics in solving problems.
• understand Newton’s laws and apply to moving objects.
• solve dynamics problems
• describe momentum and impulse.
• state the law of conservation of linear momentum.
• define collision.
• distinguish between elastic and inelastic collisions.
• describe center of mass of a body.
• determine the position of center of mass of a body.
• explain uniform circular motion.
• describe work, energy and power.

Dynamics is the branch of mechanics that deal with the motion of objects and the forces that cause
that motion. Dynamics the study of what causes objects to move. It explores how objects move,
interact, and respond to external influences such as forces and energy. Dynamics encompasses
principles such as Newton's laws of motion and is crucial in understanding and predicting the
behavior of mechanical systems and natural phenomena.

4.1 The force concepts

The force concept is a fundamental concept in physics that describes the interaction between
objects. It is defined as a push or a pull on an object that can cause it to accelerate or deform.
According to Newton's laws of motion, forces have specific properties and behaviors. They have
both magnitude (strength) and direction, represented as vectors. Forces can be added or subtracted
using vector addition, and their effects on an object depend on the net force acting upon it. The
force concept helps explain various phenomena, such as the motion of objects, the behavior of
fluids, the interaction between charged particles, and the stability of structures. It is a fundamental

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concept that underlies many other principles in physics and is essential for understanding the
dynamics of systems in the physical world.

Type of force

Force usually categorized into two

1. Contact Force: This is a force that requires physical contact between two objects in order for
the force to be applied. Examples: Frictional force, Tension force, Normal force, Air resistance
force, and Applied force.
2. Non-contact Force: This is a force that can act over a distance without any physical contact
between the objects. Examples: Gravitational force, Magnetic force, Electrostatic force,
Electromagnetic force, nuclear force.

4.1.1 Basic laws of dynamics

Newton's laws of motion are three fundamental principles formulated by Sir Isaac Newton in the
17th century. They describe the relationship between the motion of an object and the forces acting
upon it. Let's go through each law:

Newton's First Law (Law of Inertia): The first law states that an object at rest will remain at rest,
and an object in motion will continue moving at a constant velocity in a straight line unless acted
upon by an external force. In simpler terms, it means that objects tend to resist changes in their
motion. This property is called inertia. The seat belt is a practical example of Newton's First Law.
When a car comes to a sudden stop, the passengers inside the car tend to keep moving forward due
to their inertia. The seat belt applies an external force that restrains their motion, preventing them
from being thrown forward and ensuring their safety during sudden stops or collisions.

Newton's Second Law (Law of Acceleration): The second law states that the acceleration of an
object is directly proportional to the net force acting on it and inversely proportional to its mass.
Mathematically, it can be expressed as

𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑚𝑎 ,where F represents the net force applied to an object, m is its mass, and a is the
resulting acceleration. This law explains how the motion of an object changes when a force is

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applied. For instance, when you push a shopping cart with a greater force, it accelerates more
quickly.

Newton's Third Law (Law of Action-Reaction): The third law states that for every action, there
is an equal and opposite reaction. It means that when one object exerts a force on a second object,
the second object exerts an equal and opposite force back on the first object. These forces always
occur in pairs and act on different objects. For example, when you jump off a boat, the force you
exert on the boat propels it backward, while an equal and opposite force from the boat pushes you
forward.

Example

A force F applied to an object of mass m1 produces an acceleration of 3.00 m/s2. The same force
applied to a second object of mass m2 produces an acceleration of 1.00 m/s2. (a) What is the value
of the ratio m1/m2? (b) If m1 and m 2 are combined, find their acceleration under the action of the
force F.

Solution, For the same force F, acting on different masses, 𝐹 = 𝑚1 𝑎1 and 𝐹 = 𝑚2 𝑎2

𝑚1 𝑎 1
a) = 𝑎2 = 3
𝑚2 1

b) 𝐹 = (𝑚1 + 𝑚2 )𝑎 = 4𝑚1 𝑎 substituting 𝐹 = 𝑚1 𝑎1

𝑎1 3 𝑚⁄𝑠 2
𝑚1 𝑎1 = 4𝑚1 𝑎 ⟹ 𝑎 = = = 0.75 𝑚⁄𝑠 2
4 4

Exercise

1. A 3.00 kg object undergoes an acceleration given by 𝑎 = (2.00𝑖̂ + 5.00𝑗̂) 𝑚⁄𝑠 2 . Find the net
force acting on it and the magnitude of the resultant force.
2. Three forces acting on an object. are given by 𝐹1 = (−2.00𝑖̂ + 2.00𝑗̂)𝑁, 𝐹2 = (−2.00𝑖̂ +
2.00𝑗̂), 𝐹3 = (−45.0𝑗̂). The object experiences an acceleration of magnitude 3.75 𝑚⁄𝑠 2 (a)
What is the direction of the acceleration? (b) What is the mass of the object? (c) If the object
is initially at rest, what is its speed after 10.0 s? (d) What are the velocity components of the
object after 10.0s?
3. Suppose you are standing on a horizontal floor, in a room, with one of your feet and leaning
the wall of the room with the other foot. The number of action pair of forces you experience is

60 | P a g e
 A. 3 B. 1 C. 4 D. 2
4. Dynamics is a branch of mechanics concerned with the motion of an object
A. under the action of forces. C. without its causes.
B. under the action of balanced forces. D. whose velocity is constant
5. Equal forces F act on bodies A and B. The mass of B is three times that of A. The
magnitudeof the acceleration of A is:
A. 1/3 times that of B. C. 3times that of B.
B. 9 times that of B. D. 1/9times that of B
6. A box of mass m, placed on a300 frictionless inclined plane, is pulled by a force of 350-N
up the incline parallel to the plane. If the box accelerates at 2 m/s2, what is mass of the box?
A. 80 kg B. 50kg C. 40 kg D. 20 kg

4.2 Friction Force

Frictional force is the force that opposes the motion or attempted motion between two surfaces
that are in contact with each other. It acts parallel to the surfaces in contact and can either prevent
or slow down the relative motion between the surfaces.

Frictional force arises due to the microscopic irregularities on the surfaces in contact. These
irregularities interlock with each other, creating resistance to motion. The amount of frictional
force depends on factors such as the roughness of the surfaces, the applied force, and the type of
materials involved.

Let's consider an example to understand frictional force better. Imagine a person pushing a heavy
box across the floor: When the person applies a force to push the box, there is an equal but opposite
force acting in the opposite direction. This force is the frictional force between the box and the
floor. It prevents the box from sliding effortlessly and opposes the applied force. If the person
increases the force applied to the box, the frictional force also increases. However, there is a limit
to the maximum frictional force that can be exerted between the box and the floor. If the applied
force exceeds this limit, the box will start to slide, and the frictional force transitions from static
friction (when the object is at rest) to kinetic friction (when the object is in motion). Frictional
force plays a crucial role in everyday life. It allows us to walk without slipping, enables car tires

61 | P a g e
to grip the road, and helps us write with a pen on paper. At the same time, frictional force can also
lead to energy losses in mechanical systems and wear and tear of surfaces.

Figure 4.1 Friction

Static friction: - friction occur when object attempt to slid over each other but not yet slid over
each other. Its magnitude given

𝑓𝑠 ≤ 𝜇𝑠 𝐹𝑛

𝑓𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜇𝑠 𝐹𝑛

µs is coefficient of static friction

Kinetic friction: - friction force occur when object sliding over each other. It is given by

𝑓𝑘 = 𝜇𝑘 𝐹𝑛

µk is coefficient of kinetic friction

Normal Force (𝑭𝒏 ) is a type of contact force- two object or surfaces have to touch for there to be
a normal force. On the level surface the normal force is equal to the weight.

𝐹𝑁 = 𝑚𝑔

Note that as the name indicate normal force is always normal (perpendicular) to the surface. Thus,
the weight and the normal force are equal only when the object is placed on a level surface. In
most cases objects are placed on non-leveled surfaces such as on an inclined plane as shown in
figure. But if the object is placed on an inclined plane as shown in the figure, the normal force is
less than the weight by a factor of cos 𝜃 i.e., 𝐹𝑁 = 𝑚𝑔 cos 𝜃

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 Figure 4.2 Inclined plane

Example

1. If a block of mass 6 kg resting on top of a 370 inclined plane, determine the weight and the
normal force.

Solution

The weight of the block is: 𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔 = (6𝑘𝑔)(9.8 𝑚⁄𝑠 2 ) = 58.8 𝑁

The normal force is: 𝐹𝑁 = 𝑚𝑔 cos 𝜃 = (6𝑘𝑔)(9.8 𝑚⁄𝑠 2 ) cos 370 = 47 𝑁

2. A force of 50N accelerates a 6.0kg block at 7.0𝑚⁄𝑠 2 along a horizontal surface. How large is
the friction force? What is the coefficient of kinetic friction?

Solution

a) 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 50𝑁 − 𝑓𝑘 , 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑚𝑎

50𝑁 − 𝑓𝑘 = 𝑚𝑎
𝑓𝑘 = 50𝑁 − (6𝑘𝑔)(7 𝑚⁄𝑠 2 )
𝑓𝑘 = 8𝑁
𝑓
b) 𝑓𝑘 = 𝜇𝑘 𝐹𝑁 ⟹ 𝜇𝑘 = 𝐹 𝑘 but 𝐹𝑁 = 𝑚𝑔 = (6𝑘𝑔)(9.8 𝑚⁄𝑠 2 ) = 58.8𝑁
𝑁

8𝑁
𝜇𝑘 = = 0.14
58.8𝑁

Exercise

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1. A 25.0-kg block is initially at rest on a horizontal surface. A horizontal force of 75.0 N is
required to set the block in motion. After it is in motion, a horizontal force of 60.0 N is required
to keep the block moving with constant speed. Find the coefficients of static and kinetic friction
from this information.
2. A block of mass m slides down an inclined plane as shown in the figure below. Find the
expression for the acceleration of the block. (a)If the inclined plane is frictionless (b)If the
inclined plane has coefficient of kinetic friction 𝜇𝑘 .
3. A man pushes a 25.0 kg object by 250 N force along an inclined plane inclined at an angle of
370 to the horizontal. If the object moves with constant speed, the friction force exerts on the
block is
A. 100.0 N, down the inclined plane.
B. 250.0 N down the inclined plane
C. 250.0 N, up the inclined plane
D. 100.0 N, up the inclined plane.

4. A block of mass m is placed on horizontal surface. The coefficient of static friction between
the block and the surface is. A force of magnitude F acts on the block at an angle as shown in
the figure below.

The minimum magnitude of the force F required to slide the block on the surface
is___________.
𝜇𝑚𝑔 𝜇𝑚𝑔 𝜇𝑚𝑔 𝜇𝑚𝑔
A. B. C. D.
cos 𝜃−sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃+sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃−μsin 𝜃 cos 𝜃+sin 𝜃

5. Which one of the following statements is NOT correct about the concept and units of
coefficient of friction?
A. The coefficient of friction is always less or equal to unity (1)
B. Coefficient of static friction has no unit.
C. Coefficient of static friction is less than its value of kinetic friction.
D. Coefficient of friction is the rate of frictional force to normal force.

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4.3 Work, Energy and Power
4.3.1 Work

In physics, work is defined as the transfer of energy that results from the application of a force
over a distance. It is represented by the symbol "W" and is measured in joules (J). Work can be
positive, negative, or zero, depending on the direction and magnitude of the force and the
displacement of the object.

Work Done by a Constant Force:

When a constant force acts on an object and causes it to move in the same direction as the force,
the work done can be calculated using the formula:

𝑊 = 𝐹𝑆 cos 𝜃

where:

W is the work done, F is the magnitude of the constant force, S is the displacement of the object,
and 𝜃 is the angle between the force and the direction of displacement.

If the force and displacement are in the same direction (𝜃 = 0), the work done is positive. If they
are in opposite directions (𝜃 = 1800 ), the work done is negative. If the force is perpendicular to
the displacement (𝜃 = 900 ), the work done is zero.

Example

̂ N acts on a particle that undergoes a displacement 𝑟 = (3𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂). Find (a) the
A force 𝐹⃑ = (6𝑖̂ − 2𝑗)
work done by the force on the particle and (b) the angle between 𝐹 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟.

Solution

(a) 𝑤 = 𝐹 ∙ ∆𝑟 = 6(3) + (−2)(1) = 16.0𝐽

𝐹 ∙∆𝑟 16
(b) 𝜃 = cos −1 (|𝐹||𝑟|) = = 36.90
√((6)2 +(−2)2 )((3)2 +(1)2 )

Exercise

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Starting from rest, a block of mass 5.0kg slides 2.5 m down a rough 370 incline. The coefficient
of kinetic friction between the block and the incline is 𝜇𝑘 = 0.44. What is the work done by the
friction force on block?

A. -18.92J B. -75.00J C. -59.00J D. -44.00J

Work done by the gravitational force

Figure 4.3 shows an object of mass m that is thrown upward with initial speed vo and thus with
initial kinetic energy Ko = ½ mv 2. As the object rises, it is slowed down by gravitational force 𝐹𝑔 ,
that is, the object’s initial kinetic energy decreases because 𝐹𝑔 does work on the object as it rises.
As the object rises, it is slowed down by a gravitational force𝐹𝑔 ; that is, the object’s initial kinetic
energy decreases because 𝐹𝑔 does work on the object as it rises. The work done by the gravitational
force is

𝑊𝑔 = 𝐹𝑔 𝑑 cos 𝜃

The force magnitude is mg and we write

𝑊𝑔 = 𝑚𝑔𝑑 cos 𝜃

With q = 180o, work done by gravitational force is

𝑊𝑔 = −𝑚𝑔𝑑

Figure 4:3

The minus sign tells us that during the object’s rise, the gravitational force acting on the object
transfers energy equal to 𝑚𝑔𝑑 from the initial kinetic energy that it had at the beginning of its
motion.

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After the object has reached its maximum height and is falling back down, the angle 𝜃 between
force and displacement is zero. Thus, the work done by the gravitational force will be

𝑊𝑔 = 𝑚𝑔𝑑

The plus sign tells us that the gravitational force now transfers energy in the amount 𝑚𝑔𝑑 to the
kinetic energy of the object.

Example

A 5 kg bag is raised to a height of 2.5 m above the ground. What is the work done by the applied
force and by the gravitational force?

Solution

The work done by the applied force is

𝑊𝐹 = 𝐹𝑆 cos 00 = 𝐹𝑆

The force (F) required to raise the bag is the weight

𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔

Taking vertical distance as height, we write 𝑊𝐹 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ = (5𝑘𝑔)(9.8 𝑚⁄𝑠 2 )(2,5𝑚) = 122.5𝐽

The work done by gravitational force is

𝑊𝑔 = 𝐹𝑔 cos 1800

How would the answer change if the bag were lowered from the same height to the ground?

Exercise

Consider a block of mass m is pushed up a rough inclined plane of angle θ by a constant Force F
parallel to the incline, as shown in Figure 4.39. The displacement of the block up the incline is d.

a) by the applied force

b) by the force of gravity
c) by the normal force
d) by the kinetic friction

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Work done by a variable force

In general, a force that acts on a body may vary in magnitude and direction as it displaces the body
between two points in space. Let us consider a varying force F acting on a body to displace the
body along the x axis. In this case using the expression 𝑊 = 𝐹 ∙ 𝑆 will not be appropriate. Instead,
we calculate the infinitesimal work done by the variable force and add those values to get the total
work done. Figure shows an example of the F vs S curve of the case of a variable force acting to
produce displacement S.

Figure 4:4 work done by a varying force = Area under F vs S graph

Exercise

The force acting on a particle varies as in Figure 4.47. Find the work done by the force on the
particle as it moves

a) from x = 0 to x = 8 m,
b) From x = 8 m to x = 10 m, and
c) From x = 0 to x =10 m.

4.3.2 Conservation of energy

Energy is a fundamental concept in physics that describes the capacity of a system to do work or
produce a change. In the context of mechanical systems, energy can exist in two main forms:

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kinetic energy and potential energy. Additionally, the concept of mechanical energy combines both
kinetic and potential energy.

Kinetic energy is the energy possessed by an object due to its motion. It depends on the mass of
the object and its velocity. The kinetic energy (KE) of an object can be calculated using the
equation

1
𝐾𝐸 = 2 𝑚𝑣 2 ,

where m represents the mass of the object and v represents its velocity. Kinetic energy is a scalar
quantity and is always positive.

Example

The velocity of a body of mass 400gm is (3𝑖̂ − 4𝑗̂) 𝑚⁄𝑠. So, its kinetic energy is

1 1 2
𝐾𝐸 = 𝑚𝑣 2 = (0.4𝑘𝑔)((3𝑖̂ − 4𝑗̂) 𝑚⁄𝑠) = (0.2𝑘𝑔)(25 𝑚2 ⁄𝑠 2 ) = 5𝐽
2 2

Kinetic energy is a scalar quantity’

4.3.3 The Work energy theorem

The total work done on a body by external forces is related to the body’s displacement, to change
in its position. But the total work is also related to changes in the speed of the body.

Consider a particle of mass m, moving with an acceleration, under the effect of a net constant force
F along the x axis, figure 4.5.

Figure 4:5

The work done by the applied force is 𝑊 = 𝐹(𝑥 − 𝑥0 )

We know that the effect of the force in moving an object is the acceleration, thus:

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𝑊 = 𝑚𝑎(𝑥 − 𝑥0 )

From kinematic equations, the relation of the acceleration can be expressed in terms of the
displacement and the velocity as:

𝑣𝑓2 − 𝑣𝑖2
𝑣𝑓2 − 𝑣𝑖2 = 2𝑎(𝑥 − 𝑥𝑖 ) ⇒ 𝑎 =
2(𝑥 − 𝑥𝑖 )

Substituting this value of the acceleration into the above equation, the work done will be

𝑣𝑓2 − 𝑣𝑖2
𝑊 = 𝑚( ) (𝑥 − 𝑥𝑖 )
2(𝑥 − 𝑥𝑖 )

Simplifying and rearranging we get

1 1
𝑊 = 𝑚𝑣𝑓2 − 𝑚𝑣𝑖2
2 2
1 1
𝑚𝑣𝑓2 − 2 𝑚𝑣𝑖2 is the change in kinetic energy of the moving object as its velocity is changed from
2

𝑣𝑖 𝑡𝑜 𝑣𝑓 . Therefore, the work done by a net force is equal to the change in kinetic energy. This
principle is called the work-energy theorem. Mathematically

1 1
𝑊= 𝑚𝑣𝑓2 − 𝑚𝑣𝑖2 = 𝐾𝑓 − 𝐾𝑖 = ∆𝐾
2 2

Exercise

1. A force of 7 N, making an angle 𝜃 with the horizontal, acting on an object displaces it by 0.5m
along the horizontal direction. If the object gains KE of 2J, what is the horizontal component
of the force?
A. 2N B. 4N C. 1N D. 14

Potential energy, on the other hand, is the energy that is associated with an object's position or
configuration. It is stored energy that can be converted into other forms. There are different types
of potential energy, such as gravitational potential energy and elastic potential energy.

Gravitational potential energy (PE) is the energy an object possesses by virtue of its height
above the ground. It can be calculated using the equation

𝑃𝐸 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ,
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where m represents the mass of the object, g is the acceleration due to gravity, and h is the height
above the reference point.

Elastic potential energy is the energy stored in an elastic object, such as a stretched or compressed
spring, and it depends on the object's stiffness and deformation. It can be calculated using the
equation

1 2
𝑃𝐸 = 𝑘𝑥
2

Mechanical energy is the sum of the kinetic energy and potential energy of an object or a system.

𝑀𝐸 = 𝐾𝐸 + 𝑃𝐸

4.3.4 Conservative and non-conservative Forces

There are generally two kinds of forces namely, Conservative forces and non- conservative
forces.

Conservative forces have these two equivalent properties:

1. The work done by a conservative force on a particle moving between any two points is
independent of the path taken by the particle.
2. The work done by a conservative force on a particle moving through any closed path is zero.
(A closed path is one in which the beginning and end points are identical).

Gravitational force is an example of a conservative force, and the force that a spring exerts on any
object attached to the spring is also conservative.

A force is non-conservative if it does not satisfy properties 1 and 2 for conservative forces. Non-
conservative forces acting within a system cause a change in the mechanical energy ME of the
system. The work done on a system by a non- Conservative force is equal to the change in
mechanical energy of the system. Typical example of non-conservative force (also known as
dissipative force) is frictional force. Wd is work done by dissipative forces.

𝑊 = ∆𝑀𝐸

𝑓𝑘 𝑑 = ∆𝐾𝐸 + ∆𝑃𝐸

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Where 𝑓𝑘 is frictional force, d is the distance through which frictional force acted.

𝑓𝑘 𝑑 = (𝐾𝐸𝑓 − 𝐾𝐸𝑖 ) + (𝑃𝐸𝑓 − 𝐾𝐸𝑖 )

1 1
Where 𝐾𝐸 = 2 𝑚𝑣 2 , gravitational 𝑃𝐸 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ and Elastic 𝑃𝐸 = 2 𝑘𝑥 2

Note:

• Conservative force: A force in which work done is independent of the path followed.
• Non-conservative force: A force in which work done is path dependent.

Example

A 10 kg block is released from rest at the top of a smooth inclined plane 10 m in length, as shown
in Figure 4:6. Find the speed of the block as it reaches the bottom of the inclined plane.

Figure 4:6

Solution

There is no friction between the block and the inclined surface. Applying the law of conservation
of mechanical energy, we write

∆𝐾𝐸 + ∆𝑃𝐸 = 0

𝐾𝐸𝑖 + 𝑃𝐸𝑖 = 𝐾𝐸𝑓 + 𝑃𝐸𝑓

The block starts from rest so that 𝐾𝐸𝑖 = 0, and at the bottom of the incline 𝑃𝐸𝑓 = 0

𝑃𝐸𝑖 = 𝐾𝐸𝑓

1
𝑚𝑔ℎ = 𝑚𝑣 2
2

𝑣 = √2𝑔ℎ , 𝑙 = hsin 300 = (10𝑚)(0.5) = 5𝑚

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𝑣 = √2(9.8 𝑚⁄𝑠 2 )(5𝑚) = 9.9 𝑚⁄𝑠

Exercise

1. A 5 kg block is set into motion up an inclined plane shown (Figure 4.7) with initial velocity of
10 m/s. How far up along the plane does the block go before coming to rest assuming?
a) no friction between the block and the surface of the inclined plane?
b) the coefficient of friction between block and the surface is 0.25?

Figure :4.7

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2. According to the work-energy theorem,
A. Work done by gravity on an object thrown upward and moving upward is negative.
B. Work done by gravitational force on a satellite moving around the earth in a circular orbit
is positive.
C. Work done by tension on an object tied to a string and moving in a horizontal circle is
negative.
D. Work done by gravity on an object thrown downward is negative.

power

Power is a measure of how quickly work is done or how quickly energy is transferred or
transformed. It is the rate at which energy is transferred or work is done per unit of time.
Mathematically, power (P) is defined as:

𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘(𝑊)
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟(𝑃) =
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒(𝑡)

𝑊 𝐹 ∙ ∆𝑟
𝑃= = ⃗
=𝐹∙𝑉
∆𝑡 ∆𝑡

In general, power is defined for any type of energy transfer. Therefore, the most general expression
for power is

𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦(𝐸)
𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟(𝑃) = 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒(𝑡)

The unit of power in the International System of Units (SI) is the watt (W), which is equal to one
1𝐽
joule per second ( 𝑠 ).

4.4 linear momentum

Linear momentum (𝑝) is a measure of how much force an object can exert to resist changes in its
motion. It depends on the object's mass and velocity. For example, a fast-moving train has a large
linear momentum, so it would take a significant force to stop it or change its direction. Conversely,
a stationary ball has zero linear momentum because it is not in motion.

Linear momentum is given by

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𝑝 = 𝑚𝑣

Linear momentum is a vector quantity. The direction of an object’s linear momentum is the same
as the direction of its velocity. Its SI unit is 𝑘𝑔 𝑚⁄𝑠

Impulse (𝐽): Impulse is defined as the product of the force acting on an object and the
time for which the force acts. Mathematically, impulse can be expressed as: From Newton’s
second law

∆𝑣 ∆(𝑚𝑣) ∆𝑝
𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑚 = =
∆𝑡 ∆𝑡 ∆𝑡

This can be written as, ∆𝑝 = 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 ∆𝑡 = 𝐽

∆𝑝
Or 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = ∆𝑡

This is the relation between 𝑝 and resultant force acting on it.

Exercise

1. A car of mass 1.50 X 103 kg collides with a wall and rebounds. The initial and final velocities
of the car are 𝑣𝑖 = −15.0 𝑚⁄𝑠 and 𝑣𝑓 = 2.60 𝑚⁄𝑠, respectively. If the collision lasts for 0.15
s, what is the magnitude of the average force exerted on the car?
A. 3.96 × 103 𝑁
B. 2.60 × 104 𝑁
C. 1.76 × 105 𝑁
D. 2.64 × 104 𝑁
2. Which one of the following statements is correct about the impulse on an object?
A. The impulse on an object is changed when the net force acting on the object is zero.
B. The area under the curve of momentum versus time graph is the impulse on an object.
C. Impulse is the change in momentum when a force is exerted on an object for a very short
period of time.
D. Impulse is the rate of change in momentum due to external force exerted on an object for
a very short period of time.

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4.4.1 Conservation of linear momentum

Whenever two or more particles in an isolated system (in which net external force acting on
the system is zero) intract, the total momentum of the system remain constant (conserved).

∑ 𝑝𝑖 = ∑ 𝑝𝑓

𝑚1 𝑢1 + 𝑚2 𝑢2 = 𝑚1 𝑣1 + 𝑚2 𝑣2

Where 𝑢1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑢2 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑚1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑚2respectively, and 𝑣1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣2 ae final velocity
of 𝑚1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑚2 respectively

4.4.2 Collision in one dimension

In the context of physics, a collision refers to an event where two or more objects come into contact
with each other, resulting in a transfer of energy and momentum between them. The behavior of
objects during a collision can vary, depending on factors such as their masses, velocities, and the
forces acting upon them. There are generally two types of collisions: elastic collisions and inelastic
collisions.

Elastic Collision

Elastic collision: An elastic collision is a type of collision where both kinetic energy and
momentum are conserved. In an elastic collision, the total kinetic energy before the collision is
equal to the total kinetic energy after the collision. Additionally, the total momentum before the
collision is equal to the total momentum after the collision. This means that the objects bounce off
each other without any loss of kinetic energy. Examples of elastic collisions include billiard balls
colliding on a table.

𝑚1 𝑢1 + 𝑚2 𝑢2 = 𝑚1 𝑣1 + 𝑚2 𝑣2

1 1 1 1
𝑚1 𝑢12 + 𝑚2 𝑢22 = 𝑚1 𝑣12 + 𝑚2 𝑣22
2 2 2 2

By using the two equations, we can show

𝑢1 − 𝑢2 = −(𝑣1 − 𝑣2 )

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This equation, in combination with the equation of the law of conservation of momentum can be
used to solve problems dealing with elastic collisions.

Example

Consider two masses 𝑚1 of 4 kg and 𝑚2 of 6kg moving along the same line in opposite direction
as shown in figure, with velocity of 2 𝑚⁄𝑠 and 1 𝑚⁄𝑠 respectively, along the directions indicated.
If the masses make an elastic collision, what are the velocity of each of the masses after collision?

Given

𝑚1 = 4𝑘𝑔, 𝑢1 = +2 𝑚⁄𝑠

𝑚2 = 6𝑘𝑔, 𝑢2 = −1 𝑚⁄𝑠

For an elastic collision both momentum and kinetic energy are conserved and we write

𝑚1 𝑢1 + 𝑚2 𝑢2 = 𝑚1 𝑣1 + 𝑚2 𝑣2

(4𝑘𝑔)(2 𝑚⁄𝑠) + (6𝑘𝑔)((−1 𝑚⁄𝑠) = 4𝑣1 + 6𝑣2

4𝑣1 + 6𝑣2 = 2

2𝑣1 + 3𝑣2 = 1

And also 𝑢1 − 𝑢2 = −(𝑣1 − 𝑣2 )

2 𝑚⁄𝑠 − (−1 𝑚⁄𝑠) = 𝑣2 − 𝑣1

Solving the simultaneous equation

2𝑣1 + 3𝑣2 = 1

𝑣2 − 𝑣1 = 3

8 7
We get 𝑣1 = − 5 𝑚⁄𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣2 = 5 𝑚⁄𝑠

8
The final results show that after collision 𝑚1 moves to the left with a speed of 5 𝑚⁄𝑠 and 𝑚2
7
moves the right with a speed of 5 𝑚⁄𝑠.

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Inelastic collision: An inelastic collision is a type of collision where kinetic energy is not
conserved. In this case, the objects stick together or deform upon collision, and some or all of the
kinetic energy is converted into other forms of energy, such as heat or sound. The total momentum,
however, is still conserved. Inelastic collisions are often characterized by a change in the shape or
structure of the objects involved. An example of an inelastic collision is when a car collides with
a wall and crumples upon impact.

𝑚1 𝑢1 + 𝑚2 𝑢2 = 𝑚1 𝑣1 + 𝑚2 𝑣2

1 1 1 1
𝑚1 𝑢12 + 𝑚2 𝑢22 ≠ 𝑚1 𝑣12 + 𝑚2 𝑣22
2 2 2 2

Perfectly inelastic collision

A perfectly inelastic collision is a type of inelastic collision where the colliding objects stick
together and move as a single unit after the collision. While it is classified as an inelastic collision
due to the loss of kinetic energy, it can be considered a special case of an elastic collision where
the maximum amount of kinetic energy is lost. In a perfectly inelastic collision, the objects become
permanently deformed or fused together, and they have the same final velocity after the collision.
The total momentum is conserved, but the kinetic energy is not.

𝑚1 𝑢1 + 𝑚2 𝑢2 = (𝑚1 + 𝑚2 )𝑣

Example

A ball of mass 0.2 kg has a velocity of 5.0 m/s collide with a mass of 0.3kg which has a velocity
of -0.4 m/s, if the type of collision is perfectly inelastic what will be their final velocity after
collision?

Given

𝑚1 = 0.2𝑘𝑔, 𝑢1 = 5.0 𝑚⁄𝑠

𝑚2 = 0.3𝑘𝑔, 𝑢2 = −4.0 𝑚⁄𝑠

For perfectly inelastic collision, we have

𝑚1 𝑢1 + 𝑚2 𝑢2 = (𝑚1 + 𝑚2 )𝑣

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 𝑚1 𝑢1 + 𝑚2 𝑢2
𝑣=
𝑚1 + 𝑚2

(0.2𝑘𝑔)(5.0 𝑚⁄𝑠) + (0.3𝑘𝑔)(−4.0 𝑚⁄𝑠)

𝑣= = −0.4 𝑚/𝑠
0.2𝑘𝑔 + 0.3𝑘𝑔

Exercise

1. The following three collisions occur in different systems.

I. A billiard ball A collide with an identical ball B and comes to rest after collision, while B
moves with the same velocity as ball A was moving before.
II. A bullet moving with speed v hits a suspended mass and it imbedded in it and the
combination moves with common velocity.
III. Two cars moving in opposite direction become at rest after collision.

Which of the following statement is correct about these collisions?I, II and III are inelastic
collisions.

A. I and III are elastic collisions.

B. II and III are inelastic collisions.
C. I and II are elastic collisions.
2. Consider two collisions, that occurred between two trollies having the same mass; moving with
the same speed, and in opposite directions,
Collision 1;- after collision the two trollies bounce back with the same speed.
Collision 2:- after collision the two trollies stick together due to magnetic coupler. Which of
the following statement is correct about the two collisions?
A. Both collisions are elastic.
B. Collision 1 is elastic and collision 2 is inelastic.
C. Both collisions are inelastic
D. Collision 1 is inelastic and collision 2 is elastic.
4.5 Centre of mass

The center of mass is a concept used in physics to describe the average position of mass in a system
of objects. It is a point in space where the total mass of the system can be considered to be
concentrated.

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For a system of objects, the center of mass is calculated based on the masses and positions of the
individual objects. Mathematically, it is determined using the following formula:

(𝑚1 𝑥1 + 𝑚2 𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑚𝑛 𝑥𝑛 )
𝑥𝑐𝑚 =
(𝑚1 + 𝑚2 + ⋯ + 𝑚𝑛 )

(𝑚1 𝑦1 + 𝑚2 𝑦2 + ⋯ + 𝑚𝑛 𝑦𝑛 )
𝑦𝑐𝑚 =
(𝑚1 + 𝑚2 + ⋯ + 𝑚𝑛 )

where 𝑥𝑐𝑚 and 𝑦𝑐𝑚 are the x and y coordinates of the center of mass, 𝑚1 , 𝑚2 , ..., 𝑚𝑛 are the
masses of the individual objects, and 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , ..., 𝑥𝑛 and 𝑦1 , 𝑦2 , ..., 𝑦𝑛 are their corresponding x and
y positions.

The center of mass has several important properties. It behaves as if all the mass of the system
were concentrated at that point, and external forces acting on the system can be treated as if they
were applied at the center of mass. Additionally, the motion of the center of mass follows Newton's
laws of motion, making it a useful concept for analyzing the overall motion of a system.

In simple systems with symmetric distribution of mass, the center of mass coincides with the
geometric center of the objects. However, in more complex systems with irregular shapes or non-
uniform mass distribution, the center of mass may not be located within the objects themselves.

Example

Four objects are found along y-axis. A 2.0kg object at +3.0m, a 2.5kg at the origin, a 3.0kg object
at +2.5m and a 4.0kg object at -1.5m, then the center of mass of these objects is

Solution

𝑚1 𝑦1 + 𝑚2 𝑦2 + 𝑚3 𝑦3
𝑦𝑐𝑚 =
𝑚1 + 𝑚2 + 𝑚3 + 𝑚4

(2.0𝑘𝑔)(3. 𝑜𝑚) + (2.5𝑘𝑔)(0) + (3.0𝑘𝑔)(2.5𝑚) + (4.0𝑘𝑔)(−1.5𝑚)

𝑦𝑐𝑚 = = 0.65𝑚
2.0𝑘𝑔 + 2.5𝑘𝑔 + 3.0𝑘𝑔 + 4.0𝑘𝑔

Unit Work sheet Unit 4

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1. A block is slide down on a frictionless incline plane of angle 30o, the acceleration of the
block is (g = 10m/s2, sin30o = 0.5) ____
2. Bishar pushes a box horizontally with 45N across a 6m on frictionless floor, find the work
by Bishar.
3. A cart rolls down an inclined plane with constant speed as shown below in the diagram.
Identify forces indicated by letters A, B, C and D.

4. A 10kg block is pulled horizontally on frictional surface with a force of 45N and the
frictional force on the block is 25N. Calculate the acceleration of the block.

5. A man puts a brick down on a concrete slope. The brick just starts to slip. The angle of
the slope is 35°. Work out the coefficient of static friction between the brick and the
concrete.

6. A block is moving down a smooth inclined plane of 28o. Find: a) the normal force b) the
downward force along the inclined. Repeat for frictional inclined plane.
7. A box of weight W rests on inclined plane of 50o. Indicate all forces acting on the box.

8. A bag pulled on the rope with a force of 175 N at an angle of 40° to the floor.
a) Draw a diagram to show the directions of the forces.
b) What is the force need to move a bag?

9. A man is pulling a string, which is attached to a box. The string is at an angle of 40° to the
horizontal. The force applied to the box is 50 N. What is the force needed to move the box?
10. A car travels with a constant speed of 5.0m/s. The car engine produces a 600.0N
pushingforce in order to keep the speed constant. How much power is developed by
the engine?
A. 120.0W B. 605.0W C. 3.0x103W D. 30.0W

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 UNIT 5: EQUILIBRIUM

After completing this unit, student will be able to:

• define the term equilibrium.

• find the resultant of two or more concurrent forces acting at a point.
• state the conditions of equilibrium.
• describe the equilibrium conditions for a body acted on by coplanar forces.
• determine forces and moment of force in equilibrium.
• differentiate static equilibrium from dynamic equilibrium.

3.1 Equilibrium of a particle

A body is in equilibrium when the net force and net moment on the body is zero.
Equilibrium point is a point at which all forces on the particle is equal that is no net
force.
Concurrent Forces are forces that all pass through the same point.

The above definition of equilibrium can be expressed mathematically as:

When the sum of all the forces acting on a body along x-axis is zero and the sum of all the forces
acting on a body along y-axis is zero, the body will be in equilibrium:

∑ Fx = 0 and ∑ Fy = 0, gives us the vector form of net force ∑ F = 0.

A body is in equilibrium if there is no resultant force acting on it.

Vector addition can be used to find the sum of the forces, to determine the equilibrium.

Example
1. Determine that the following concurrent forces are in equilibrium or not.
a) 𝐹1 = (4𝑖̂ + 5𝑗̂)𝑁 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐹2 = (−3𝑖̂ − 5𝑗̂)𝑁
b) 𝐴 = (𝑖̂ − 3𝑗̂)𝑁 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 ⃗ = (−𝑖̂ + 3𝑗̂)𝑁

Solution

𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐹1 + 𝐹2 = (4𝑖̂ + 5𝑗̂)𝑁 + (−3𝑖̂ − 5𝑗̂)𝑁 = (𝑖̂ + 2𝑗̂)𝑁 , not in equilibrium

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2. Are these concurrent vectors in equilibrium?
−6 1 5
C=[ ], D = [ ] and E = [ ]
2 1 −3
−6 1 5 −6 + 1 + 5 0
F=C+D+E=[ ]+[ ] +[ ]=[ ] = [ ] in equilibrium
2 1 −3 2+1−3 0
3. For the figure show below (Figure 5.1), are these three concurrent vectors in equilibrium? Find
their resultant vector along x and y components.

Figure 5.1 concurrent vectors

Let F1 = 13N, F2 = 5N and F3 = 16N, then F1x = F1cos22.62o = 13Nx0.93 = -12N

F1y = F1sin22.62o = 13Nx0.38 = 5N

F2x = F2cos36.87o = 5Nx0.8 = -4N and F2y = F2sin36.87o = 5Nx 0.6 = 3N

F3x = F3 cos6.75o = 16Nx 0.99 = 16N and F3y = F3sin6.75o = 16Nx0.12 = 2N

The resultant vector along x is ∑ Fx = F1x + F2x + F3x

= - 12N – 4N + 16N = 0

The resultant vector along y is ∑ Fy = F1y + F2y + F3y = -5N + 3N + 2N = 0

Therefore, yes concurrent vectors in equilibrium.

3.2 Moment of force or torque

The moment of force is the force multiplied by the perpendicular distance from the
point about which the moment is being measured, τ = Force x distance = Fd.

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The moment of force is given by 𝜏 = 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 × 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝐹𝑑, for force and distance are
perpendicular to each other. When force and distance are at an angle θ to each other,

𝜏 = 𝑟 × 𝐹 = 𝑟𝐹 sin 𝜃

Moments and torque are the same, but moments deal with statics and torque is to do with
rotational motion. When we calculate moments, we take the moments about an axis, both
clockwise and anticlockwise. Anticlockwise is taken to be positive and clockwise negative.

➢ List some examples of moments and torque that you come across in everyday life?

1. What is the moment about point X in the figure 6.2 shown below?

Figure 5.2 Moment of forces

Forces B and C are equal and opposite, balanced. Only force A causes moment, 𝜏 = 𝐹𝐴 𝑑 =
20𝑁 × 0.2𝑚 = 4𝑁𝑚

2. What are the moments about R and S in figure 6.3 below?

Taking moments about R: Clockwise moment 𝜏𝑐 = 0.1 m x 10 N x sin 45° + 0.2 m x15 N x
sin 60° = 0.71 N m + 2.60 Nm = 3.31N m
Anticlockwise moment 𝜏𝐴 = 0.2 m × 12 N × sin 70°
𝜏𝐴 = 2.26 N m
Net moment τ = anticlockwise moment 𝜏𝐴 – clockwise
moment 𝜏𝑐 = 2.26 N m - 3.31 N m = -0.05 Nm, that is
clockwise about R
Taking moments about S:

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 Clockwise moment 𝜏𝑐 = 0.45 m × 10 N × sin 45° + 0.15 m × 12 N× sin 70° = 3.18 N m +
1.69 N m = 4.87 N m.
Anticlockwise moment 𝜏𝐴 = 0.15 m × 15 N × sin 60° = 1.95 N m
Net moment = 𝜏𝐴 -𝜏𝑐 = 1.95 N m – 4.87 N m = –2.92 Nm, that is anticlockwise about S.
3. Three forces act on a bar as shown in Figure 6.3. What is the net torque about:
a) axis A b) axis B, find the vertical component of force F
The net torque about A: τ = 𝜏𝐴 - 𝜏𝑐 = 0.9×10N×sin65° - 0.4×25×sin55° = 8.1N – 8.1N = 0

The net torque about B:

τ = 𝜏𝐴 - 𝜏𝑐 = 0

= 0.5×25×sin55° - 0.9×Fsinθ = 0, then

𝐹 sin 𝜃 = (12.5×0.8)/0.9 = 11N

Figure 5.4

5.3 Conditions of equilibrium

A rigid object is in equilibrium if and only if the resultant external force acting on it is zero and
the resultant external torque on it is zero about any axis:

For a body to be in equilibrium, two conditions must be satisfied:

First Condition:
The net force (or the sum of the force vectors) must be zero.
∑F = 0
Second Condition:
The net torque must be zero.
∑τ = 0

The first condition is the condition for translational equilibrium, and the second is the condition
for rotational equilibrium. These two equations allow you to analyze a great variety of problems.

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➢ Static equilibrium: is defined as a type of equilibrium that occurs when a body is at rest and
there is no net force or net torque acting on it.
➢ Dynamic equilibrium: is a type of equilibrium that occurs when a body is moving at a steady
velocity and there is no net force or net torque acting on it.

Unit Work sheet Unit 5

1. State the second condition of equilibrium.

2. Describe the equilibrium conditions for a body acted on by coplanar forces.
3. Define moment of force and how clockwise and counter clockwise rotations produced
4. Three concurrent forces as shown in figure below. Are they in equilibrium?

5. A ladder, of length 3 m and mass 20 kg, leans against a smooth, vertical wall so that the angle
between the horizontal ground and the ladder is 60°. Find the magnitude of the friction and
normal forces that act on the ladder if it is in equilibrium.
6. Two coplanar forces act on a uniform beam as shown in the figure below.

The moment of force on the beam is

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 A. 30.0 N.m B. 24.0 N.m C. 48.0 N.m D. 12.0 Nm
7. The necessary condition for an object to be in rotational equilibrium is
A. The net moment of all forces should be non-zero.
B. The net torque acting on the object is different from zero.
C. The net force exerting on the object must be zero.
D. The sum of clockwise torques equals to the sum of counterclockwise torques

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 UNIT 6: FLUID MECHANICS

After completing this unit, student will be able to:

• define the terms stress, strain, Young’s modulus, shear modulus, and elastic limit.
• carry out calculations involving stress, strain, elastic modulus, Young’s modulus in a
stretched material.
• define the terms density, atmospheric pressure, absolute, pressure, pressure, volume.
• describe the concepts related to hydraulic press
• state and apply Archimedes’ principle
• identify factors affecting laminar flow and give examples.

5.1 Properties of Bulk Matter (Modulus)

We shall discuss the deformation of solids in terms of the concepts of stress and strain. Stress is
the applied force that acts on area of the object, S = F/A. Strain is a measure of the degree of
deformation of the object in length, area and volume. Three deformations: Length strain s =
∆𝐿/Lo, Area strain s = ∆𝐴/Ao and Volume strain s = ∆𝑉/Vo

The ratio of the stress to the re-sulting strain is defined as elastic modulus:
𝐒𝐭𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐬
Elastic Modulus = 𝐒𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐢𝐧

What is deformation? We consider three types of deformation and define an elastic modulus for
each:
1. Young’s modulus (Y), which measures the resistance of a solid to a change in its length
2. Shear modulus (S), which measures the resistance of a solid to a change in its area due to a
solid sliding past each other
3. Bulk modulus (B), which measures the resistance of solids or liquids to changes in their volume

Change Strain Modulus Formula

𝐹/𝐴
Length s= ∆𝐿/Lo Young’s
∆𝐿/Lo

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 𝐹/𝐴
Area s = ∆𝐴/Ao Shear
∆𝐴/Ao
𝐹/𝐴
Volume s = ∆𝑉/Vo Bulk Modulus
∆𝑉/Vo

Exercise
2. Tensile stress is the
A. Parallel component of the applied force divided by the cross-sectional area of an object.
B. Ratio of change in length of an object to the original length.
C. Perpendicular component of the applied force divided by the cross-sectional area of an
object.
D. Ratio of original length to the change in length of the object.

5.2 Fluid Statics

Properties of Solids, Liquids, and Gases:

Solids, liquids, and gases are three states of matter. Solids have a definite shape and volume, while
liquids have a definite volume but take the shape of their container. Gases have neither a definite
shape nor volume and can expand to fill any container. Solids are characterized by strong
intermolecular forces, while liquids have weaker forces, and gases have negligible forces between
particles.

Pressure in Fluid

Pressure (P) in a fluid is defined as the force per unit area exerted by the fluid on its surroundings.
It is a fundamental property of fluids and is exerted equally in all directions. Pressure can be
calculated using the equation:

𝐹
𝑃=
𝐴

The SI unit of pressure is the pascal (Pa): 1𝑃𝑎 = 1𝑁⁄𝑚2

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In addition to pascal there are other units of pressure such as millimeter mercury
(mmHg), torr, atmosphere (atm) and pounds per square meter (psi) with their relation
shown as follow.

1𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 760𝑚𝑚𝐻𝑔 = 760𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑟 = 101.3𝐾𝑝𝑎 = 14.7𝑝𝑠𝑖

Example

Nail tips exert tremendous pressures when they are hit by hammers because they exert
a large force over a small area. What force must be exerted on a nail with a circular
tip of 1.00 mm diameter to create a pressure of 3.00 × 109 N /m2.

Solution:

𝐹
From the definition of pressure 𝑃 = 𝐴, the force F is

𝐹 = 𝑃𝐴

Here, the pressure P is given, and the area of the end of the nail is given by

𝑑 2
𝐴 = 𝜋( )
2
2
1×103 𝑚
Thus, 𝐴 = (3.14) ( ) = 7.85𝑚2
2

𝐹 = 𝑃𝐴 = (3.00 × 109 𝑛/𝑚2 )(7.85 × 10−7 𝑚2 )

𝐹 = 2.36 × 103 𝑁 the result shows that the magnitude of pressure is far greater than the force
applied. The reason is that the area of the tip of the nail is very small. This is why nails are easily
hammered into wood and concrete.

Pressure in Gases:

In gases, pressure arises due to the collisions of gas molecules with the walls of the container. In
the context of gases, there are three important pressure measurements: gauge pressure, absolute
pressure, and atmospheric pressure. The relationship between gauge pressure, absolute pressure,
and atmospheric pressure can be described as follows:

𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠 = 𝑃𝑔𝑎𝑔𝑒 + 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚

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In other words, absolute pressure (𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠 ) is the sum of the gauge pressure (𝑃𝑔𝑎𝑔𝑒 ) and the
atmospheric pressure (𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 ). Gauge pressure represents the pressure relative to atmospheric
pressure, while atmospheric pressure is the pressure exerted by the Earth's atmosphere at a specific
location. By adding the gauge pressure to the atmospheric pressure, we obtain the absolute
pressure, which represents the total pressure exerted by the gas

Example

What is the absolute pressure at a location where the atmospheric pressure is 14.3 psi
and the gauge pressure of an automobile tire is 32.0 psi?

Solution

The absolute pressure is determined by

𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠 = 𝑃𝑔𝑎𝑔𝑒 + 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 14.3 𝑝𝑠𝑖 + 32.0𝑝𝑠𝑖 = 46.3𝑝𝑠𝑖

Exercise

The absolute pressure in water at a depth of 8m is read to be 174 Kpa. Determine the
local atmospheric pressure if the gauge pressure at this depth is 78.4Kpa.

Density:

Density (𝜌) is a measure of how much mass (m) is contained within a given volume (V) of a
substance. It is defined as mass per unit volume. The density of a substance determines its
buoyancy in a fluid. Density can be calculated using the equation:

𝑚
𝜌=
𝑉

The SI unit of density is 𝐾𝑔⁄𝑚3

Relative Density:

Relative density, also known as specific gravity (𝑆𝐺 ), compares the density of a substance to the
density of a reference substance, usually water. It is defined as the ratio of the density of the
substance to the density of water. Relative density has no units since it is a ratio.

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 𝜌
(𝑆𝐺 ) =
𝜌𝐻2 𝑂

Ideal gas equation

The simplest and best-known equation in the gas phase that relate density and pressure
of gases is the ideal-gas equation of state, expressed as

𝑚
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅𝑇 = 𝑚𝑅𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑇
𝑀
𝑚
This gives us, 𝑃 = 𝑅𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑇 = 𝜌𝑅𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑇
𝑉

where P is the absolute pressure, V is the gas volume, n is number of mole, T is the thermodynamic
𝑚 𝑅
(absolute) temperature, 𝜌 = is the density, and 𝑅𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 = 𝑀 is the specific gas constant.
𝑉

The specific gas constant is different for different gases and R is the universal gas constant whose
value is R = 8.314 J/mol. K and M is the molar mass of the gases.

Example

Determine the density, specific gravity, and mass of the air in a room whose dimensions are
4𝑚 × 5𝑚 × 6𝑚 at 100 kPa and 250C.

Solution

𝑅
Air can be treated as an ideal gas. The gas constant of air is 𝑀 = 0.287𝑘𝑃𝑎 𝑚3 ⁄𝑘𝑔. 𝑘

The density of the air is determined from the ideal-gas relation

𝑃 100𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝜌= = 3
= 1.17𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
(𝑅/𝑀)𝑇 (0.287𝑘𝑃𝑎 𝑚 ⁄𝑘𝑔. 𝑘)(25 + 273.15)𝑘

Note that the temperature is converted to(absolute) unit k from (relative) unit 0C before using it in
the ideal-gas relation.

The specific gravity of the air becomes

𝜌 1.17𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
𝑆𝐺 = = = 0.00117
𝜌𝐻2 𝑜 1000𝑘𝑔/𝑚3

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The volume of the air is equal to the volume of the room

𝑉 = (4𝑚)(5𝑚)(6𝑚) = 120𝑚3

Finally, the mass of the air in the room is

1.17𝑘𝑔
𝑚 = 𝜌𝑉 = ( ) (120𝑚3 ) = 140𝑘𝑔
𝑚3

5.3 Pressure in Fluid at Rest:

In a fluid at rest, the pressure is the same at all points at the same depth. This is known as Pascal's
law. It means that the pressure in a fluid is transmitted undiminished in all directions and acts
equally on all surfaces immersed in the fluid.

Pascal's Principle:

Pascal's principle states that a change in pressure applied to an enclosed fluid is transmitted
uniformly to all parts of the fluid and the walls of the container. This principle forms the basis for
hydraulic systems, where a small force applied to a small piston can generate a larger force on a
larger piston.

Hydraulic Press:

A hydraulic press is a device that utilizes Pascal's principle to amplify force. It consists of two
pistons of different sizes connected by a common fluid. Applying a force to the smaller piston
generates a larger force on the larger piston, allowing for the amplification of force.

𝑭𝟏 𝑭
= 𝑨𝟐
𝑨𝟏 𝟐

Figure 6:1

93 | P a g e
Example

Two pistons of a hydraulic lift have diameters of 60 cm and 5 cm. what is the force exerted by the
larger piston when 50 N is placed on the smaller piston?

Solution

5 2
Area of smaller piston, 𝐴1 = 𝜋 (2) = 𝜋(2.5)2

60 2
Area of larger piston, 𝐴2 = 𝜋 ( 2 ) = 𝜋(30)2

𝑭𝟏 𝑭
Using the equation = 𝑨𝟐
𝑨𝟏 𝟐

𝐴2 30 2
𝐹2 = 𝐹 = (50𝑁) ( ) = 7200𝑁
𝐴1 1 2,5

This means, with the force of 50 N, the force of 7200 N can be lifted.

Exercise

The small piston of a hydraulic lift has an area of 0.20m2. A car weighing 1.2 × 104 𝑁 sits on a
rack mounted on the large piston. The large piston has an area of 0.90 m2. how large force must be
applied to the small piston to support the car?

Variation of Pressure with Depth:

In a fluid, the pressure increases with increasing depth. This is known as hydrostatic pressure. The
increase in pressure is due to the weight of the fluid above pushing down on the fluid at lower
depths. The relationship between pressure and depth is given by the equation:

𝑃 = 𝜌gℎ

Where, P is Pressure, 𝜌 density, g gravity, h depth of the fluid.

94 | P a g e
Example

Calculate the force on a circular area of diameter 0.40m on the bottom of the ocean which is 25.0m
below the surface. Take atmospheric pressure and density of sea water at the bottom to be 1 atm
and 1. 03k.kg/m3 respectively.

Solution

The absolute pressure is obtained from the relation:

𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠 = 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ

103 𝑘𝑔
Where 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 1 𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 101.3𝑘𝑃𝑎, 𝜌 = 1.03 × , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ℎ = 25𝑚. Therefore,
𝑚3

103 𝑘 9.8𝑚
𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠 = 101.3𝑘𝑃𝑎 + (1.03 × ) ( 2 ) (25𝑚) = 353.65𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝑚3 𝑠

𝑑 2 0.4 2
Similarly, the area is obtained as 𝐴 = 𝜋 ( 2 ) = 3.14 ( 2 𝑚) = 0.1256𝑚2

𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡
We can use the relation 𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠 = . Then the force exerted is
𝐴

𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠 𝐴 = 353.65𝑘𝑃𝑎 × 0.1256𝑚2 = 4.44 × 104 𝑁

Atmospheric Pressure:

Atmospheric pressure is the pressure exerted by the Earth's atmosphere on objects on the surface.
It is caused by the weight of the air above and decreases with increasing altitude. Atmospheric
pressure is typically measured using a barometer.

Measuring Pressure:

Pressure can be measured using various instruments such as manometers, barometers, and pressure
gauges. These instruments rely on the principle of balancing the pressure of the fluid being
measured with a known reference pressure.

The Barometer:

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A barometer is an instrument used to measure atmospheric pressure. The most common type is the
mercury barometer, which utilizes the height of a column of mercury in a sealed tube to determine
atmospheric pressure.

The Manometer:

A manometer is a device used to measure the pressure of a fluid, typically a gas, in a closed system.
It consists of a U-shaped tube partially filled with a liquid, such as mercury or water. The pressure
difference between the two arms of the manometer can be used to determine the pressure of the
gas.

5.4 Archimedes' Principle:

Archimedes' principle states that an object submerged in a fluid experience an upward buoyant
force equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the object. This principle explains why objects
float or sink in a fluid and is used to calculate the buoyant force acting on an object.

Buoyant Force:

The buoyant force is the upward force exerted on an object immersed in a fluid. It is equal to the
weight of the fluid displaced by the object and acts in the opposite direction to gravity. The buoyant
force is responsible for the apparent weight loss of objects submerged in a fluid. It is given by

𝐹𝐵 = 𝑊𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑑 = 𝜌𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑉𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝 𝑔

Where, 𝜌𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 is density of fluid, 𝑉𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝 is volume of displaced fluid and g, is gravity

Totally submerged object

When an object is totally submerged in a fluid of density 𝜌𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 , the volume 𝑉𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝 of the displaced
fluid is equal to the volume of the object 𝑉𝑜𝑏𝑗 ; so, the magnitude of the upward buoyant force is
𝐹𝐵 = 𝜌𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑔𝑉𝑜𝑏𝑗 . If the object has a mass M and density 𝜌𝑜𝑏𝑗 , its wight is equal to𝐹𝑔 = 𝑚𝑔 =
𝜌𝑜𝑏𝑗 𝑔𝑉𝑜𝑏𝑗 , and the net force on the object is 𝐹𝐵 − 𝐹𝑔 = (𝜌𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 − 𝜌𝑜𝑏𝑗 ). Hence, if the density of
the object is less than the density of the fluid, the down ward gravitational force is less than the
buoyant force and the unsupported object accelerated upward. If the density of the object is greater

96 | P a g e
than the density of the fluid, the upward buoyant force is less than the downward gravitational
force and the unsupported object sink.

If the density of the submerged object equals the density of the fluid, the net force on the object is
zero and the object remains in equilibrium. It can be anywhere inside the fluid. Therefore, the
direction of motion of an object submerged in a fluid is determined only by the density of the
object and the fluid.

Floating object

Now consider an object of volume 𝑉𝑜𝑏𝑗 and density 𝜌𝑜𝑏𝑗 < 𝜌𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 in static equilibrium floating on
the surface of a fluid, that is, an object that is only partially submerged. In this case, the upward
buoyant force is balanced by the downward gravitational force acting on the object. If 𝑉𝑑𝑖𝑝 is the
volume of the fluid displaced by the object (this volume is the same as the volume of that part of
the object beneath the surface of the fluid), the buoyant force has a magnitude 𝐹𝐵 = 𝜌𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑔𝑉𝑜𝑏𝑗 .
Because the weight of the object is 𝐹𝑔 = 𝑚𝑔 = 𝜌𝑜𝑏𝑗 𝑔𝑉𝑜𝑏𝑗 and 𝐹𝑔 = 𝐹𝐵 we see that 𝜌𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑔𝑉𝑜𝑏𝑗 =
𝜌𝑜𝑏𝑗 𝑔𝑉𝑜𝑏𝑗 or

𝑉𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝 𝜌𝑜𝑏𝑗
=
𝑉𝑜𝑏𝑗 𝜌𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝

Example

Consider an iceberg floating in sea water. The density of sea water is 1030 kg/m3 and that of ice is
917 kg/m3. What fraction of the iceberg lies below the water level?

Solution

Using
𝑉𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝 𝜌𝑜𝑏𝑗
=
𝑉𝑜𝑏𝑗 𝜌𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝

𝑉𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝 917𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
= = 0.89 = 89%
𝑉𝑜𝑏𝑗 1030𝑘𝑔/𝑚3

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Therefore, the visible fraction of ice above the water’s surface is about 11%. It is the unseen 89%
below the water that represents the danger to a passing ship. This hidden ice can damage a ship
that is still at a considerable distance from the visible ice.

Fluid Flow

Fluid flow refers to the movement of a fluid from one location to another. It can occur in two
forms: steady flow and turbulent flow. Steady flow is a smooth and continuous flow with constant
velocity at any given point, while turbulent flow is characterized by irregular changes in velocity
and flow patterns.

Flow Rate:

Flow rate refers to the volume of fluid that passes through a given point in a specified amount of
time. It is usually measured in units such as liters per second or cubic meters per hour. In symbols,
this can be written as

𝑉
𝑄=
𝑡

Where, 𝑄 is flow rate, 𝑉 is the volume and 𝑡 is the elapsed time.

Equation of Continuity:

The equation of continuity states that the mass flow rate of a fluid remains constant along a pipe
or conduit of varying cross-sectional area. It can be expressed as

𝐴1 𝑉1 = 𝐴2 𝑉2

where 𝐴1 and 𝐴2 are the cross-sectional areas and 𝑉1 and 𝑉2 are the velocities at two different
points along the flow.

Example

Water enters a tube of non-uniform diameter. The speed of the force at the entry of area A1 is 12
m/s and the speed becomes 4 m/s at the exit opening of area A2. Which one is correct about the
𝐴
ratio of 𝐴1
2

Solution

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Let the speed of the water at the entry is 𝑣1 = 12 𝑚/𝑠

At the exit let, 𝑣2 = 4 𝑚/𝑠

Using continuity equation in fluids 𝐴1 𝑉1 = 𝐴2 𝑉2

𝐴1
Then the ration is
𝐴2

𝐴1 𝑣2
=
𝐴2 𝑣1

𝐴1 4 𝑚/𝑠 1
= =
𝐴2 12 𝑚/𝑠 3

5.5 Safety and High Pressure:

When dealing with high-pressure systems, safety precautions are crucial. High pressures can pose
risks such as equipment failure, explosions, or injuries. It is important to follow safety guidelines,
use appropriate materials that can withstand the pressure, and ensure proper installation and
maintenance of the system. Safety valves and pressure relief devices are commonly employed to
protect against excessive pressure buildup and prevent potential hazards.

Unit Work sheet Unit 6

1. Calculate the absolute pressure at an ocean depth of 1.0 × 103 𝑚. assume that the density of
the water is 1.025 × 103 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 and that 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 1.01 × 105 𝑃𝑎
2. An aluminum wire of initial length where increased by in its length being on application of a
force of . What is the strain energy of the material?
3. An aluminium wire of initial length 2.0m where increased by 2.0 cm in its length being on
application of a force of 9.0 N. what is the strain energy of the material?
A. 0.18 J
B. 0.9 J
C. 9.0 × 10−2 𝐽

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 D. 9.0 × 10−2 𝐽
4. Water flows at the rate of 500.0 cm3/s at small cross-section 5 cm2. The larger cross-section is
25 cm2. What is the ratio of the speed of the water at A1 to A2.
A. 0.2 B. 20 C. 5 D. 100

5. A fluid travelling over an object surface exerts less pressure than if the fluid was static. This is
a statement of
A. Pascal’s principle. C. Bernoulli’s principle.
B. Archimedes’ principle. D. Principle of continuity.

6. A 200kg load is hung on a wire with a length of 4m, a cross-sectional area of 2x104 m2, and a
Young’s modulus of 8x1010 N/m2. What is its increase in length L?
7. A 20N force applied to the ends of a wire 4m long, and produces an extension of 0.5m. if the
diameter of wire is 2cm a) Find the stress on the wire b) Find the strain c. Young’s modulus
8. Which statement is correct about the pressure under a fluid in a container?
A. It depends on the volume of the fluid.
B. It depends on the density of the fluid.
C. It depends on the shape of the container.
D. It is independent of the depth of the fluid.
9. Suppose a stream of fluid flows past a solid object, which one of the following does NOT
affect the laminar flow of the fluid?
A. Viscosity of the fluid C. The shape of the solid object
B. The density of the solid object D. The speed of the solid object

10. Water enters a tube of non-uniform diameter. The speed of the force at the entry of area A1 is
12 m/s and the speed becomes 4 m/s at the exit opening of area A2. Which one is correct about
𝐴
the ratio of 𝐴1
2

1 B. 4 C. 3 1
A. D.
4 3

11. Hydraulic lifts and hydraulic brakes are based on

A. Pascal’s law C. Archimedes’ principle
B. Bernoulli’s principle D. Stokes principle

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12. Which of the following statements best describes the buoyant force on an object submerged
in water?
A. The buoyant force is equal to the weight of the water displaced by the object
B. The buoyant force is equal to the weight of all of the water
C. The buoyant force is equal to the volume of water displaced by the object
D. The buoyant force is equal to the weight of the object submerged in water
13. A body of 4 kg mass displaces 100cm3 of water when fully immersed in water. The volume
of a body is A. 400cm3 B. 25cm3 C. 100cm3 D. 4 cm3
14. According to the law of floatation, an object must displaces a volume of fluid equal to its
______
15. If two pieces of metals fully immersed into a liquid have equal upthrust on them; then both
pieces of metals have equal
A. Masses B. Densities C. Volumes D. Weights

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 Unit 7: Temperature and Heat

After completing this unit, student will be able to:

• gain knowledge and understanding of temperature scales and heat energy

• define linear, area and volume of expansion of materials
• state heat, specific heat capacity and heat capacity
• calculate heat energy from specific heat capacity and heat capacity

4.1 Temperature and heat

What is Heat?
Heat is a transfer of energy from hotter regions to colder regions. It is one form of energy
and its unit is joule.

The amount of heat energy Q added to the system is given by

Q = ∑ 𝐸𝑘 + ∑ U

Where, Ek is kinetic energy and U is potential energy. For example, when heat energy is added to
a substance:

➢ the particles of the substance gain kinetic energy and so move rapidly.
➢ the bonds between the particles in the substance are broken and potential energy of the
particles increases, which result in the substance changes state. Specific example is boiling
of water, changes from liquid to steam.

What is temperature?
Temperature is a measure of hotness or coldness. It indicates the direction in which
heat energy will spontaneously flow from hotter body to a colder body.

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The temperature of a substance is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles within
the substance. If the particles in a substance have a higher average kinetic energy then the object
is at a higher temperature.

Temperature scales

Kelvin scale (K), Celsius scale (oC) and Fahrenheit scale (oF) are known as temperature scales.
The SI unit of temperature is Kelvin. These temperature scales related using freezing and boiling
point of water as standard conversion relationship.

Kelvin scale is a temperature scale that uses absolute zero as one of its fixed points.

Absolute zero is the temperature at which a substance has no thermal energy. It’s the minimum
possible temperature in nature.

Water Kelvin (K) Celsius (oC) Fahrenheit (oF)

Freezing point 273.15 0 32
Boiling point 373.15 100 212

➢ Kelvin scale TK and Celsius scale TC can be related as

TK = TC + 273.15 and TC = TK – 273.15

Example: 10 oC temperature is equal to 283K

➢ Celsius scale TC and Fahrenheit scale TF relationship calculated by comparing their

freezing and boiling point.

100 − 0 TC − 0
= , this gives us
212−32 TF −32

5 9 5
TC = 9(TF − 32), TF = 5 TC + 32 and TK = 9(TF − 32) + 273.15

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 Convert the following
1. 20 oC to oF and K
2. 70 oF to oC and K
3. At what temperature the reading on Celsius is equal to the reading on
Fahrenheit?
4. At what temperature in Kalvin and Celsius a substance has no thermal energy?

Questions
5. What is the SI unit of temperature?
6. What are the different temperature scales? What are fixed points in each scale?
7. Explain the meanings of lower and upper fixed points?
8. How many divisions are there between the lower and the upper fixed points, in
each scale?

4.2 Expansion of solids, liquids and gases

What is Thermal Equilibrium?

Thermal Equilibrium is situation where there is no net movement of heat energy
between bodies.

➢ If two bodies are in thermal equilibrium, they will also be at the same temperature.
➢ When bodies are in thermal contact, heat energy flows from hot object to cold object until
thermal equilibrium is reached and the bodies are at the same temperature.
➢ No heat exchange between two systems in thermal contact if they are in thermal
equilibrium?

Key words?
o Expand to increase in size
o Thermal contact when there is a movement of heat energy
o Thermal expansion the increase in size of a substance as a result of heating

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Thermal Expansion: There are three types of thermal expansion: Linear expansion, Area
expansion and volume expansion

Linear expansion: the increase in length of a solid is proportional to its initial length lo and the
change in its temperature∆T.

Linear expansion: ∆l = αlo∆T  l = lo (1 + αlo∆T)

Area Expansion: ∆A = βAo∆T  A = Ao (1 + β∆T)

Volume expansion: ∆V = βVo∆T  V = Vo (1 + γ∆T)

4.3 Quantity of heat, specific heat capacity and heat capacity

Energy that flows from a warmer object to a cooler one because of the difference in temperature
is called heat (Q).

Heat capacity (C)

Heat capacity is the heat energy Q required to raise the temperature of a given substance by 1K or
1oC,

∆Q
C = ∆T

Specific heat capacity (c)

Specific heat capacity is the heat energy Q required to raise the temperature of 1kg of a given
substance by 1K.

∆Q C
c = m∆T = m implies that C = mc, and ∆Q = cm∆T

J
The SI unit of specific heat capacity c is Kg.K

Latent Heat (L)

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The heat required to change the phase of substance at constant temperature is called Latent Heat
(L).

Q = mL

Worked example

Calculate the quantity of heat energy required to heat a 1.00 kg block of iron from 290 K to 320
K. The specific heat capacity of iron is 470J/kg K.

Solution

Q = mc∆T In this case, m = 1.00 kg, c = 470 J/ kg K,

ΔT = (320 K – 290 K) = 30 K

Q = 1.00 kg × 470 J/kg K × 30 K

Q = 14,100 J = 14.1 kJ

So, 14.1 kJ of heat energy would be required to increase the temperature of a 1.00 kg iron block
by 30 K. Equally, if the 1.00 kg iron block cooled by 30 K, the iron block would have to lose 14.1
kJ of heat energy to the surroundings.

Unit Work sheet Unit 7

1. A circular copper plate of uniform thickness has a circular hole in its center. The plate
expands when it is heated from 20oC to 300oC. Does the hole expand?
2. A 5kg of water at an initial temperature of 15oC is mixed with a 2kg of water at 95oC. What
is the final temperature of the mixture?

Heat exchange: Heat lost = Heat gained, Qlost = Qgained

3. What is the heat capacity of a 3kg of copper?

4. Find the change in volume of a 1m3 block of copper when it is heated from 10oC to 100 oC.
5. A 4g of water at 50oC is poured into a well-insulated 30g of copper calorimeter at 20oC.
The temperature of water at equilibrium is ____.

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6. A metal block increases in temperature from 15 °C to 60 °C when supplied with 13 500 J
of heat energy.
a) Calculate the heat capacity of the metal.
b) Calculate the specific heat capacity of the metal, if this sample has a mass of 0.75kg.

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 Unit 8: Wave motion and sound

After completing this unit, student will be able to:

• define the terms wave and wave pulse.

• describe longitudinal and transverse waves.
• identify crest, trough, wavelength, frequency, amplitude and time period.
• state the wave equation and use it to solve problems.
• describe the properties of waves.
• define the terms diffraction and interference.
• identify sound waves as longitudinal mechanical waves
• define the intensity of a sound wave and solve problems using the intensity formula.

8.1 Wave Propagation

Wave propagation refers to the movement of waves through a medium or space. Waves transfer
energy from one point to another without physically displacing the medium itself. The propagation
of waves can occur through various mechanisms, such as mechanical oscillations, electromagnetic
disturbances, or the interaction of particles.

Wave Pulse and Continuous Waves:

Wave Pulse: A wave pulse is a single disturbance or oscillation that travels through a medium. It
consists of a single wavefront and can be produced by a localized disturbance. Once the wave
pulse passes through a medium, the particles return to their equilibrium positions.

Continuous Waves: Continuous waves are periodic disturbances that repeat over time. They
consist of a series of wave pulses or wavefronts that maintain a constant frequency and amplitude.
Continuous waves are produced by a continuous source of oscillation.

Longitudinal and Transverse Waves:

Longitudinal Waves: In longitudinal waves, the particles of the medium oscillate parallel to the
direction of wave propagation. This results in compressions (where particles are closer together)

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and rarefactions (where particles are spread apart) propagating through the medium. Sound waves
are examples of longitudinal waves.

Transverse Waves: In transverse waves, the particles of the medium oscillate perpendicular to the
direction of wave propagation. This creates crests and troughs that propagate through the medium.
Examples of transverse waves include waves on a string, electromagnetic waves, and light waves.

Wave Characteristics:

Amplitude (A): The amplitude of a wave refers to the maximum displacement of particles in the
medium from their equilibrium positions. It represents the intensity or strength of the wave and is
related to the wave's energy.

Wavelength (𝝀): The wavelength is the distance between two consecutive points in a wave that
are in phase, such as two adjacent crests or troughs. It is denoted by the symbol λ and is related to
the frequency and speed of the wave.

Frequency (f): Frequency is the number of oscillations or cycles of a wave that occur per unit of
time. It is measured in hertz (Hz) and is inversely proportional to the wavelength.

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Period (T): The period of a wave is the time it takes for one complete oscillation or cycle. It is the
reciprocal of the frequency and is denoted by the symbol T.

1
𝑇=
𝑓

Velocity (V): The velocity of a wave is the speed at which the wave propagates through a medium.
It is determined by the frequency and wavelength of the wave and can be calculated using the
equation,

𝑉 = 𝑓𝜆, this is known as wave equation.

Mechanical Wave

Mechanical Waves: Mechanical waves require a medium to propagate, such as air, water, or solids.
They involve the transfer of energy through the oscillation or vibration of particles in the medium.
Sound waves and waves on a string are examples of mechanical waves.

Properties of Waves

Reflection: Reflection occurs when a wave encounters a boundary or obstacle and bounces back
into the medium it came from. The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.

Refraction: Refraction is the bending of a wave as it passes from one medium to another, caused
by a change in the wave's speed. The change in speed leads to a change in direction.

Diffraction: Diffraction is the bending or spreading out of waves as they encounter an obstacle or
pass through a narrow opening. It occurs when the size of the obstacle or opening is comparable
to the wavelength of the wave.

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Interference: Interference occurs when two or more waves overlap or interact with each other. It
can result in the reinforcement or cancellation of the waves, depending on the phase relationship
between them. Constructive interference occurs when the waves are in phase and leads to an
increase in amplitude. Destructive interference occurs when the waves are out of phase and results
in a decrease in amplitude.

8.2 Sound Waves

Sound waves are mechanical waves that propagate through a medium, typically air. They are
produced by vibrating sources, such as vocal cords, musical instruments, or speakers. Sound waves
travel as longitudinal waves, with compressions and rarefactions propagating through the medium.
When sound waves reach the ear, they cause the eardrum to vibrate, which stimulates the auditory
system and allows us to perceive sound.

The Speed of Sound Waves:

The speed of sound waves depends on the properties of the medium through which they travel. In
general, sound waves travel faster in denser mediums and at higher temperatures. In dry air at room
temperature, the speed of sound is approximately 343 meters per second (m/s). However, the speed
of sound can vary in different mediums, such as liquids and solids.

The Intensity of Sound Waves:

The intensity of a sound wave refers to the amount of energy carried by the wave per unit of area.
It is related to the amplitude of the wave and represents the perceived loudness of the sound. The
intensity is measured in units of watts per square meter (W/m²). The intensity of sound waves
follows an inverse square law, meaning that it decreases with the square of the distance from the
source. As sound waves spread out from their source, the energy becomes distributed over a larger
area, resulting in a decrease in intensity.

𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎

𝑃
𝐼=
4𝜋𝑟 2

Example

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A speaker has a power output of 150 W. determine the intensity of the sound 1.5 m from the
speaker.

𝑃 150 𝑊
Solution, 𝐼 = 4𝜋𝑟 2 = 4×3,14×(1,5𝑚)2 = 5.3 𝑊 ⁄𝑚2

Applications of Sound Waves:

Sound waves have numerous applications in various fields, including:

Communication: Sound waves are used for speech and audio transmission through devices such
as microphones, speakers, and telephones.

Medical Imaging: Ultrasound uses high-frequency sound waves to create images of internal body
structures for diagnostic purposes.

Sonar: Sound waves are used in sonar systems to measure distances and detect objects underwater.

Music and Entertainment: Sound waves form the basis of music and are used in audio recording,
production, and playback.

Unit Work sheet Unit 8

1. The frequency of a wave is 10 Hz. What is its period?

A. The period of the wave is 100 s.
B. The period of the wave is 10 s.
C. The period of the wave is 0.01 s.
D. The period of the wave is 0.1 s.
2. What is the velocity of a wave whose wavelength is 2 m and whose frequency is 5 Hz?
A. 20 m/s B. 2.5 m/s C. 0.4 m/s D. 10 m/s

3. What is the amplitude of a wave?

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 A. A quarter of the total height of the wave
B. Half of the total height of the wave
C. Two times the total height of the wave
D. Four times the total height of the wave
4. What is meant by the wavelength of a wave?
A. The wavelength is the distance between adjacent identical parts of a wave, parallel to the
direction of propagation.
B. The wavelength is the distance between adjacent identical parts of a wave, perpendicular
to the direction of propagation.
C. The wavelength is the distance between a crest and the adjacent trough of a wave, parallel
to the direction of propagation.
D. The wavelength is the distance between a crest and the adjacent trough of a wave,
perpendicular to the direction of propagation.
5. A boat in the trough of a wave takes 3 seconds to reach the highest point of the wave. The
velocity of the wave is 5 m/s. What is its wavelength?
A. 0.83 m B. 15 m C. 30 m D. 180 m

6. What kind of waves are electromagnetic waves?

A. Longitudinal waves
B. Transverse waves
C. Mechanical waves
D. P-waves
7. Calculate the intensity of a wave if the power transferred is 10 W and the area through which
the wave is transferred is 5𝑚2 .
A. 200 W/m2 B. 50 W/m2 C. 0.5W/m2 D. 2W/m2

8. Give an example of longitudinal waves.

A. light waves
B. water waves in a lake
C. sound waves in air
D. seismic waves in Earth’s surface

113 | P a g e
 UNIT 9: ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND GEOMETRICAL
OPTICS

After completing this unit, student will be able to:

• describe electromagnetic waves

• explain the rectilinear propagation of light.
• state the laws of reflection.
• find the position of a virtual image produced by a plane mirror using a ray tracing method
• distinguish between concave and convex mirrors
• distinguish between real and virtual images.
• state Snell’s law of refraction
• explain the index of refraction

9.1 Electromagnetic waves

Electromagnetic waves are produced when a magnetic field and an electric field are at right angles
to each other. Charges that are accelerated in an electric and magnetic field produce
electromagnetic waves. They carry energy and momentum to transfer information.

➢ Electromagnetic waves are produced when electric fields and magnetic fields are at right
angles to each other.
➢ Electromagnetic waves are transverse waves that can travel in a vacuum
➢ Electromagnetic waves are transverse waves.
➢ Mechanical waves transfer energy and need a medium through which to travel.
➢ Electromagnetic spectrum is the entire frequency range of electromagnetic wave: radio,
microwave, infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, x-ray, γ-ray.
➢ X-rays are used to take pictures of inside the body to show any bone fractures. They are
absorbed more by bone (which is denser than the surrounding muscles)
➢ Infrared radiation is used in infrared cameras, which are used in rescue operations to detect
the presence of bodies.

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 ➢ Microwaves and radio waves are used for communications – for example, radio and
telephone signals.

Questions

1. Explain how electromagnetic waves are produced.

2. Describe the nature of electromagnetic waves.
3. Compare mechanical and electromagnetic waves.
4. What is the relationship between speed, frequency and wavelength for a transverse wave?
5. Give some types of electromagnetic waves on the electromagnetic spectrum.
6. What is the frequency of an X-ray with a wavelength of 1 × 10−10 m?

9.2 Reflection of light

Rectilinear propagation is a wave property by which waves travel in straight lines. Light waves
travel in straight lines.

The laws of reflection

The angle of reflection is equal to the angle of incidence, 𝜃𝑟 = 𝜃𝑖

Figure 9.1 Angles are measured from the normal.

➢ Concave mirror is a mirror with a reflecting surface that bulges inwards, away from the
light source
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 ➢ Convex mirror is a mirror with a reflecting surface that bulges outwards, towards the
light source
➢ Focus is the point at which light rays converge.
➢ Focal length is the distance from the center of a curved mirror to the principal focus.
➢ Real images can be focused on a screen.
➢ Virtual image is an image that cannot be captured on a screen.

Figure 9.2 Concave and convex mirrors curve.

The mirror and lens equation

1 1 1
+𝑆 =
𝑆𝑜 𝑖 𝑓

So, is the distance from the object to the center of the mirror.

Si, is the distance from the center of the mirror to where the image is formed.

𝑓, is the focal length of the mirror.

Note: If the image is virtual, then we use a negative sign for the distances.

Example

1. A mirror has a focal length of 200 mm (0.2m). If an object is placed 0.60m from the mirror,
where will the image be formed?

1 1 1 1 1 1
+𝑆 =  +𝑆 =  Si = 0.3m
𝑆𝑜 𝑖 𝑓 0.6 𝑖 0.2

The magnification relationship for mirrors: magnification is defined to be:

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 the height of the image hi
Magnification = the height of the object = ho

Review questions

1. Explain what is meant by the rectilinear propagation of light.

2. State the laws of reflection.
3. Use the laws of reflection to explain how images are formed in a plane mirror.
4. An object is 10 cm from a plane mirror. The angle of incidence on a plane mirror is 35°.
Draw a diagram to show the situation and work out:
a) the angle of reflection
b) the position of the virtual image.
5. Give examples of the uses of plane mirrors.
6. Distinguish between concave and convex mirrors.
7. Define magnification in relation to concave and convex mirrors.
8. Distinguish between real and virtual images.
9. State the mirror equation and the sign convention that you need to apply when using it.
10. You stand 15 cm away from a converging mirror of focal length 20 cm.
a) work out the distance to the image.
b) Calculate the magnification of the image.

9.3 Refraction of light

Refraction is the change in direction of travel of a light beam as the light crosses the boundary
between one transparent medium and another.

Light crossing a boundary as it travels from medium 1 to medium 2 is refracted, or bent. The
angle of refraction θ2 is defined by

sin 𝜃2 𝑣
= 𝑣2 = constant
sin 𝜃1 1

The refractive index n of a medium is defined by the ratio

𝑐
𝑛=
𝑣

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where c is the speed of light in a vacuum and v is the speed of light in the medium. In general, n
varies with wavelength and is given by

𝜆
𝑛=
𝜆𝑛

where, λ is the vacuum wavelength and 𝜆𝑛 is the wavelength in the medium. As light travels
from one medium to another, its frequency remains the same.

Refractive index, n is a measure of the extent to which a medium refracts light.

Snell’s law of refraction states that

𝑛1 sin 𝜃1 = 𝑛2 sin 𝜃2

where 𝑛1 and 𝑛2 are the indices of refraction in the two media. The incident ray, the reflected ray,
the refracted ray, and the normal to the surface all lie in the same plane.

Figure 9.3 Snell’s law

Total internal reflection

Total internal reflection occurs when light travels from a medium of high index of refraction to
one of lower index of refraction. The critical angle 𝜃c for which total internal reflection occurs at
an interface is given by
𝑛
sin 𝜃𝑐 = 𝑛2 (for n1 > n2)
1

Total internal reflection is shown as:

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Figure 9.3 Total internal reflection.

➢ The critical angle θc is the angle of incidence in a dense medium when the angle of refraction
in a less dense medium is 90°.

Figure 9.4 Critical angle, 𝜃𝑐

➢ Total internal reflection occurs when the angle of incidence is more than the critical angle.
➢ We can find the critical angle when 𝜃1 = 𝜃𝑐 and 𝜃2 = 90o, then n = 1/sin𝜃𝑐
➢ Total internal reflection is used in optical fibers because the light is trapped within the cable
as shown in Figure 9.5.
➢ Find the critical angle for an air–water boundary. The index of refraction of water is 1.33: n =
1/sin𝜃𝑐  𝜃𝑐 = sin-1(1/1.33) = 48.8o

Figure 9.5 Optical fiber cable: Light travels in a curved transparent rod by multiple internal
reflections.
The power of a lens is defined by

1
Power of a lens = its focal length in meters

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The Nature of Light and the Laws of Geometric Optics

➢ Mirror and Lens

o Mirror: Plane, Concave and convex mirrors
o Lens: Concave and convex lens

Image formation in concave and convex lens

Figure 9.6 Convex and concave lens, respectively.

Unit Work sheet Unit 9

1. Define the term refraction.

2. Define the refractive index of a material.
3. A light ray initially in water enters a transparent substance at an angle of incidence of 37.0°,
and the transmitted ray is refracted at an angle of 25.0°. Calculate the speed of light in the
transparent substance.
4. Find the refractive index of a material where the angle of incidence is 56° and the angle
of refraction is 34o
5. A laser in a compact disc player generates light that has a wavelength of 780 nm in air.
Find: a) the speed of this light once it enters the plastic of a compact disc (n = 1.55). b)
the wavelength of this light in the plastic?
6. Find the refractive index of a liquid in which the real depth was 5 cm and the apparent
depth was 3 cm.
7. State the conditions in which refraction occurs.
8. Identify the conditions necessary for total internal reflection to occur.
9. Define the critical angle

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10. What is the critical angle for total internal reflection to occur when the refractive index of
the material is 1.52 and the angle of incidence is 32°?
11. Describe how total internal reflection is used in optical fibers.
12. Distinguish between convex and concave lenses.
13. The wavelength of red helium–neon laser light in air is 632.8 nm. (a) What is its frequency?
(b) What is its wavelength in glass that has an index of refraction of 1.50? (c) What is its
speed in the glass?
14. A ray of light is incident on a flat surface of a block of crown glass (1.52) that is surrounded
by water. The angle of refraction is 19.6°. Find the angle of reflection.
15. An object is placed 40 cm from a converging lens of focal length 20 cm. where will the
image be formed, and what is its magnification?
16. Define the power of a lens.
17. Which one of the following statements is NOT correct about power of a lens?
A. The power of a lens decreases as the focal length of the lens increases
B. The larger the focal length of the lens the greater is the power of the lens.
C. The power of a lens is the measure of the strength of the lens.
D. Optician gives the name diopters for the unit of power of a lens.

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 UNIT 10: ELECTROMAGNETISM AND ELECTRONICS

After completing this unit, student will be able to:

• state properties of charges

• explain electric field
• define Coulomb’s law
• discuss magnetism
• explain magnetic field
• compute capacitance in series, parallel and series-parallel.
• describe electronics

10.1 Electric charges

Electric charge is a fundamental property of matter. There are two types of electric charges:
positive and negative. Like charges repel each other, while opposite charges attract each other. The
unit of electric charge is the coulomb (C).

Properties of Electric Charges:

• Conservation of Charge: The principle of conservation of charge states that electric

charge is neither created nor destroyed but is merely transferred from one object to another.
In any charging process, the total amount of charge before and after remains constant. This
principle is a fundamental law of nature and is always observed in electrical phenomena.
• Quantization of Charge: Electric charge is quantized, meaning it exists in discrete
amounts. The smallest unit of charge is the elementary charge, denoted as "e," which is
approximately equal to 1.6 × 10−19 coulombs. All charges observed in nature are integer
multiples of the elementary charge.
• Additivity of Charges: The total charge of a system is the algebraic sum of the individual
charges present in the system. If there are more positive charges than negative charges, the
system has a net positive charge, and vice versa.

Methods of Charging: there are three primary methods of charging an object:

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 • Friction (rubbing): When two objects are rubbed against each other, electrons can be
transferred from one object to another. The object that gains electrons becomes negatively
charged, while the object that loses electrons becomes positively charged.
• Conduction: Charging by conduction occurs when a charged object comes into direct
contact with a neutral object. Electrons flow from the charged object to the neutral object,
resulting in both objects having the same charge.
• Induction: Charging by induction involves bringing a charged object near a neutral object
without direct contact. The presence of the charged object induces a separation of charges
in the neutral object. As a result, one side of the neutral object becomes positively charged,
while the other side becomes negatively charged.

Electroscope

An electroscope is a simple instrument used to detect the presence and magnitude of electric
charges. It consists of a metal rod or wire with a metal foil or leaves attached to the bottom.

When an electroscope is charged, its leaves acquire the same charge. If the electroscope is charged
positively, the leaves repel each other due to the like charges, and they move apart. Similarly, if
the electroscope is charged negatively, the leaves repel each other and move apart.

The behavior of an electroscope can be explained as follows:

• Charging by Conduction: If a charged object is brought into contact with the electroscope,
electrons can flow between the object and the electroscope, causing the electroscope to
acquire the same charge. The leaves then repel each other due to the like charges.
• Charging by Induction: If a charged object is brought near the electroscope without direct
contact, the presence of the charged object induces a separation of charges in the
electroscope. The leaves acquire a charge opposite to that of the charged object, leading to
their repulsion.

The electroscope can also be used to determine the nature (positive or negative) of a charged object.
If a positively charged object is brought near the electroscope, the leaves repel each other,
indicating a negative charge induced in the electroscope. Conversely, if a negatively charged object
is brought near the electroscope, the leaves also repel each other, indicating a positive charge
induced.

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The electroscope is a valuable tool in electrostatics experiments and demonstrations. It allows us
to detect the presence of electric charges and determine their approximate magnitude, providing a
visual indication of the electrostatic phenomena at play.

Figure 10: charging an electroscope by induction.

Figure 10.1: charging an electroscope by conduction

Exercise

1. The study of electric charges at rest under the action electric forces is called:
A. Electromagnetism C. Electronics
B. Electrostatics D. Induction
2. One of the following is a correct description of the charging process?
A. When a neutral metallic sphere is charged by induction using a negatively charged rod, the
sphere acquires a net negative charge.
B. During charging a neutral object by induction using a negatively charged rod, charge flows
from the rod to the object.
C. When a plastic rod is rubbed with wool, the two objects acquire a net charge of the same
sign.

124 | P a g e
 D. When a positively charged object is momentarily brought into contact with a neutral
metallic sphere, the sphere acquires a net positive charge

Coulomb's Law
Coulomb's law describes the electrostatic interaction between two charged objects. It states that
the force of attraction or repulsion between two-point charges is directly proportional to the
product of their magnitudes and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.
Mathematically, Coulomb's law can be expressed as:

𝑞1 𝑞2
𝐹=𝐾
𝑟2

Where:

F is the magnitude of the electrostatic force between the charges (in newtons),

2
k is the electrostatic constant (approximately 9 × 109 𝑁 𝑚 ⁄𝑐 2)

𝑞1 and 𝑞2 are the magnitudes of the charges (in coulombs),

r is the distance between the charges (in meters).

Force on a charge due to multiple electric charges

Electrostatic force is a vector quantity. Therefore, if there are more than one force acting on a
charged particle, then the resultant force acting on the particle will be the vector sum of all these
forces. This is known as the superposition principle.

Consider a system of n stationary charges 𝑞1 , 𝑞2 , 𝑞3 , , , , 𝑞𝑛 in vacuum. The force on

𝑞1 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑞2 , 𝑞3 , , , , 𝑞𝑛 is obtained by taking the vector sum of the individual forces.

𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐹12 + 𝐹13 +, , , +𝐹1𝑛

Where, 𝐹12 is the force that 𝑞2 exert on 𝑞1 , 𝐹13 is the force that 𝑞3 exert on 𝑞1 .

Example

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A test charge of 𝑞 = +1 × 10−6 𝐶 is placed halfway between a charge of 𝑞1 = +5 × 10−6 𝐶and
a charge of 𝑞2 = +3 × 10−6 𝐶 that are 20cm apart in the figure 10.3 below. Find the magnitude
and direction of the Force on the test charge

Solution

Figure 10.3

The force exerted on the test charge

𝑞1 𝑞1 109 𝑁𝑚2 (1 × 10−6 𝐶)(5 × 10−6 𝐶)

𝐹1 = 𝐾 = (9 × ) = 4.5𝑁
𝑟12 𝐶2 (0.1)2

The force is to the right and taken as positive. The force exerted by the charge 𝑞2 on q is

𝑞1 𝑞2 109 𝑁𝑚2 (1 × 10−6 𝐶)(3 × 10−6 𝐶)

𝐹2 = 𝐾 = (9 × ) = 2.7𝑁
𝑟22 𝐶2 (0.1)2

This force is to the left. If the right is taken as positive, 𝐹2 is taken as negative

𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐹1 + 𝐹2 = 4.5𝑁 − 2.7𝑁 = 1.8𝑁

it acts to the right, that is, towards the +3 × 10−6 𝐶

Exercise

Two charges, one of +5 × 10−7 𝐶 and the other −2 × 10−7 𝐶 attract each other with a force of
100N. how far apart are they?

Electric Fields

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An electric field is a region of space around a charged object or group of objects where electric
forces can be experienced by other charged objects. Electric fields are created by electric charges
and affect charged objects placed within their vicinity.

An electric field strength is defined as the force per unit charge experienced by a positive test
charge placed in the field. Mathematically, electric field (E) can be expressed as:

𝐹
𝐸=𝑞
0

𝑞
𝐸=𝑘
𝑟2

where, E is the electric field strength, F is the electric force experienced by the test charge, 𝑞0 is
the magnitude of the test charge.

The direction of the electric field is defined as the direction in which a positive test charge placed
in the field would experience a force. Electric field lines are used to represent the direction and
strength of the electric field. The lines originate from positive charges and terminate on negative
charges. The density of the electric field lines is proportional to the strength of the electric field.

Electric field of point charge: the electric field of a point charge can be obtained from coulombs
law. From coulomb’s law, the equation for the force between two electric charges is:

𝑞𝑄
𝐹=𝐾
𝑟2

The electric field strength is then the force per unit of charge.

𝐹 𝑄
𝐸= =𝐾 2
𝑞 𝑟

Where E is the electric field strength due to a point charge Q, and r is the distance from charge Q
to the point of interest.

The SI unit for electric field strength is newton per coulomb (N/C).

Example

What are the magnitude and direction of the electric field at 1.5Cm from a point charge of
+1.2 × 10−10 𝐶?

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Solution

The magnitude of the electric field is computed from

𝑄 9 2 2
1.2 × 10−10 𝐶
𝐸=𝑘 = 9 × 10 𝑁𝑚 /𝑐 = 4.8 × 103 𝑁/𝐶
𝑟2 (0.015𝑚)2

Exercise

What electric force does the electric field found in the above example. Would exert on a point
charge of −0.25𝜇𝐶?

Electric field for multiple point charges

To determine the net electric field at a given point due to multiple charges, the individual electric
fields created by each charge can be obtained and then summed together. Let's consider n number
of charges, each producing an electric field with a magnitude of 𝐸⃗1 , 𝐸⃗2 , … 𝐸⃗𝑛 at the given point.
The net electric field is obtained by taking the vector sum of each electric field:

The electric fields of the individual charges can be obtained by taking the vector sum of the electric
fields of the individual charges. Consider n number of charges whose electric field have magnitude
of

𝐸⃗𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐸⃗1 + 𝐸⃗2 + ⋯ + 𝐸⃗𝑛

Note that the direction of 𝐸⃗1is the direction of the force 𝑞1 exerted on the positive test charge
placed at that point, and the direction of 𝐸⃗2 is the direction of the force 𝑞2 exerted on the positive
test charge placed at that point, and so on.

Example

Two-pint charges 𝑞1 = 5𝑛𝐶 and 𝑞2 = −4𝑛𝐶 are separated by a distance of 10 Cm. what is the
magnitude of the electric field in between the charges?

Figure 10.4

128 | P a g e
Solution

The magnitude of the electric field at point p due to 𝑞1 is:

𝑞1 9 2 2
5 × 10−9 𝐶
𝐸1 = 𝑘 = 9 × 10 𝑁𝑚 /𝑐 ( ) = 1.8 × 104 𝑁/𝑚
𝑟12 (0.05𝑚)2

Since 𝑞1 is positive it exerts a repulsive force to the right on the positive test charge placed at a
point P.

Similarly, the magnitude of the electric field at point p due to

𝑞2 9 2 2
4 × 10−9 𝐶
𝐸2 = 𝑘 2 = 9 × 10 𝑁𝑚 /𝑐 ( ) = 1.44 × 104 𝑁/𝑚
𝑟2 (0.05𝑚)2

Since 𝑞2 is negatively charged it exerts an attractive force to the right on the positive test charge
placed at point P.

Finally,
𝐸⃗𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐸⃗1 + 𝐸⃗2 = 1.8 × 104 𝑁/𝑚 + 1.44 × 104 𝑁/𝑚 = 3.24 × 104 𝑁/𝑚 to the right.

Exercise

Repeat example, if (a) both 𝑞1 and 𝑞2 are positively charged, and (b) they are both negatively
charged.

Electric flux

Electric flux is a measure of the number of electric field lines passing through a given surface. It
quantifies the amount of electric field passing through the surface area.

Electric flux is defined as the product of the electric field strength and the area of the surface,
multiplied by the cosine of the angle between the electric field and the surface normal vector.

Mathematically, the electric flux (Φ) can be expressed as:

Φ = 𝐸𝐴 cos 𝜃

where:

129 | P a g e
Φ is the electric flux, E is the magnitude of the electric field, A is the area of the surface and θ is
the angle between the electric field direction and the surface normal vector.

The electric flux is positive when the electric field lines pass through the surface in the same
direction as the surface normal vector (angle θ < 90 degrees). It is negative when the electric field
lines pass through the surface in the opposite direction to the surface normal vector (angle θ > 90
degrees). If the electric field lines are parallel to the surface, the electric flux is zero (angle θ = 90
degrees).

Electric Potential Energy

Electric potential energy refers to the energy associated with the configuration or arrangement of
electric charges in an electric field. It is the potential energy that a charged particle possesses by
virtue of its position relative to other charges in the field.

The electric potential energy (U) between two charged particles is given by Coulomb's law:

𝑞1 𝑞2
𝑈=𝐾
𝑟

The equation shows that the potential energy is directly proportional to the product of the charges
and inversely proportional to the distance between them. When the charges have the same sign
(both positive or both negative), the potential energy is positive, indicating a repulsive force
between the charges. Conversely, when the charges have opposite signs, the potential energy is
negative, indicating an attractive force between the charges.

The electric potential energy of a system of multiple charges can be calculated by summing up the
potential energies between each pair of charges. For example, if there are three charges q1, q2, and
q3, the total potential energy of the system would be:

𝑈𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑈12 + 𝑈13 + 𝑈23

Where, 𝑈12 is the potential energy between 𝑞1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑞2 , 𝑈13 is the potential energy between
𝑞1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑞3 and 𝑈23 is the potential energy between 𝑞2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑞3 ,

Electric Potential

130 | P a g e
Electric potential (V) is a scalar quantity that represents the electric potential energy per unit charge
at a given point in an electric field. It is a measure of the work done in moving a unit positive test
charge (𝑄) from a reference point to a specific point in the field. Mathematically, electric potential
can be expressed as:

𝑄𝑞
𝑈 (𝑘 𝑟 ) 𝑄
𝑉= = =𝐾
𝑞 𝑞 𝑟

Thus, the equation for electric potential at a distance r from a source charge Qis given by:

𝑄
𝑉=𝐾
𝑟

The SI unit of electric potential is the volt (V). Electric potential is a fundamental concept in
understanding the behavior of charged particles in electric fields. It helps determine the direction
of the electric field, the movement of charged particles, and the distribution of charges within
conductors.

Example

Determine the electric potential produced by a charge of 1𝜇𝐶 at a distance of 1mm from it.

Solution

𝑄 (1 × 10−6 𝐶)
𝑉=𝑘 = 9 × 109 𝑁 𝑚2 ⁄𝑐 2 = 9 × 106 𝑉
𝑟 1 × 10−3 𝑚

Capacitors and Capacitance

Capacitors

A capacitor is an electronic component that stores electric charge and energy in an electric field. It
consists of two conductive plates separated by a dielectric material. When a voltage difference is
applied across the plates, opposite charges accumulate on each plate, creating an electric field
between them.

Capacitors are commonly used in electronic circuits for various purposes, such as energy storage,
filtering, timing, and coupling. They can store and release electrical energy rapidly, making them
useful in applications like camera flashes, power supplies, and electronic devices.

131 | P a g e
Capacitance

Capacitance (C) is a measure of a capacitor's ability to store electric charge and energy. It is defined
as the ratio of the magnitude of the charge on one plate of a capacitor to the potential difference
(voltage) across the plates. Mathematically, capacitance can be expressed as:

𝑄
𝐶=
𝑉

Where:

C is the capacitance, Q is the charge stored on one plate, V is the voltage across the plates.

The SI unit of capacitance is the farad (F). A capacitor has a higher capacitance if it can store more
charge for a given voltage. The capacitance depends on the physical characteristics of the capacitor,
such as the area of the plates, the distance between them, and the properties of the dielectric
material.

Capacitance plays a vital role in determining the behavior of capacitors in circuits. It affects the
time it takes to charge and discharge a capacitor, the amount of energy stored in the capacitor, and
the frequency response of capacitors in AC circuits.

Combination of Capacitors:

Capacitors can be combined in various configurations to achieve desired capacitance values or to

meet specific circuit requirements. Some common combinations include series and parallel
arrangements.

Capacitor connected in parallel

Consider three capacitors connected in parallel as shown in fig.

Figure 10.5: Three capacitor connected in parallel.

The same potential difference is provided for each capacitor.

132 | P a g e
𝑉 = 𝑉1 = 𝑉2 = 𝑉3

Charge 𝑄1 is stored on capacitor 𝐶1 , and charge 𝑄2 on capacitor 𝐶2 and so on.

Therefore, the total charge will be

𝑄 = 𝑄1 + 𝑄2 + 𝑄3

Since the potential difference across the capacitors is the same, V. then,

𝑄1 = 𝐶1 𝑉, 𝑄2 = 𝐶2 𝑉, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑄3 = 𝐶3 𝑉

𝑄 = 𝑄1 + 𝑄2 + 𝑄3 = (𝐶1 + 𝐶2 + 𝐶3 )𝑉

𝑄
From which, 𝑉 = 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 + 𝐶3

𝑄
But we know that, 𝑉 = 𝐶𝑒𝑞 , which yields

𝐶𝑒𝑞 = 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 + 𝐶3

For any number of capacitors connected in parallel

𝐶𝑒𝑞 = 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 + ⋯ 𝐶𝑛

Capacitors connected in series

Consider three capacitors of capacitance 𝐶1 , 𝐶2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶3 connected in series to a potential

difference of V as shown in fig.

Figure 10.6: Three capacitor connected in series

Since the capacitors are connected in series and are charged by induction, they will all cary the
same amount of charge. Thus, the magnitude of charge on all plates is the same. That is

133 | P a g e
𝑄𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑄1 = 𝑄2 = 𝑄3

Therefore, if 𝑉1 is the voltage across 𝐶1 , 𝑉2 is the voltage across 𝐶2 , and 𝑉3 is the voltage across
𝐶3 , then

𝑄 𝑄 𝑄
𝑉1 = , 𝑉2 = , 𝑉3 =
𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3

𝑉 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉3

𝑄 𝑄 𝑄 1 1 1
𝑉= + + = 𝑄( + + )
𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3

The equivalent capacitance of the capacitor is given by

𝑄 𝑄
𝐶𝑒𝑞 = 𝑉 ⇒ 𝑉 = 𝑉 combining this equation, we get

1 1 1 1
= + +
𝐶𝑒𝑞 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3

For any number of capacitors in series therefore,

1 1 1 1
= + +⋯
𝐶𝑒𝑞 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶𝑛

The equivalent capacitance is less than the capacitance of any individual capacitor in the series.

Exercise

For the network of capacitors shown in the figure below, determine (a) the equivalent capacitance,
(b) the charge stored on each capacitor, and (c) the voltage across each capacitor.

Figure 10.6

Parallel plate capacitor and the factors that affect its capacitance

134 | P a g e
For a parallel plate capacitor, the capacitance is directly proportional to the area of the plates (A)
and the permittivity of free space (ε₀), and inversely proportional to the separation between the
plates (d):

𝐴
𝐶 = 𝜀0
𝑑

Effect of a Dielectric Material: When a dielectric material is inserted between the plates of a
parallel plate capacitor:

• The electric field between the plates is weakened, resulting in electric field lines that are
closer together.
• The potential difference across the plates remains unchanged.
• The capacitance of the capacitor increases. The dielectric material has a relative
permittivity (εᵣ) greater than 1, which enhances the capacitor's ability to store electric
charge and energy. The capacitance with the dielectric material is given by
𝐴
𝐶 = 𝜀0 𝜀𝑟
𝑑

The higher the relative permittivity of the dielectric material, the greater the increase in
capacitance.

The electric potential energy stored in a capacitor

If a capacitor holds a charge Q at a potential V, then the energy it contains is given by:

1
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝑄𝑉
2
𝑄
An alternative form of the same expression, including 𝐶 = 𝑉

1
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝐶𝑉 2
2

Review question on electro statics

1. Which one of the following units is NOT a possible unit of electric field strength?
𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡 𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒 𝑛𝑒𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑛
A. B. C. D.
(𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏×𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟) 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏

135 | P a g e
2. The electric potential at a distance of 2 cm from −1.6 × 10−9 𝐶 point charge is
A. 720V B. 4.4V C. 720V D. -14.4V
3. A positive point charge exerts a force of magnitude F on a negative point charge placed a
distance x away. If the distance between the two point charges is halved, what is the magnitude
of the new force that the positive point charge exerts on the negative point charge?
A. 4F B. 2F C. F/2 D. F/4
4. A charged particle produces an electric field of magnitude E at a point 2 m away. At a
point1m from the particle the magnitude of the field is:
A. 4E B. 2E C. ¼ E D. ½ E
5. The capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor is 10 𝜇𝐹. If the distance between the plates is
halved, keeping all other quantities constant, then what is the new capacitance of the capacitor?
A. 0.2𝜇𝐹 B. 5𝜇𝐹 C. 10𝜇𝐹 D. 20𝜇𝐹

10.2Electric Current

Electric current is the flow of electric charge in a conductor. It is the rate at which electric charges
pass through a given cross-sectional area of a conductor.

𝑄
𝐼=
𝑡

Where, Q stands for the quantity of charge that passes when a current I flow for a time t.

The SI unit of electric current is the ampere (A), which is defined as one coulomb of charge passing
through a point in a circuit per second.

Example

How long will a current of 5 A take to pass 100 C of charge?

Solution

𝑄
𝐼 = , solving for t
𝑡

𝑄 100𝐶
𝑡= = = 20𝑠
𝐼 5𝐴

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Exercise

A very sensitive ammeter records a current of 30𝜇𝐶. How long will it take before 6μC of charge
has flowed through it?

Conventional Current Flow

Conventional current flow assumes that positive charges are the carriers of electric current. In
reality, negatively charged electrons are the primary carriers of current in most conductors.
However, for historical reasons, the convention of conventional current flow was established,
which assumes that current flows from the positive terminal to the negative terminal of a power
source.

Calculating the number of electrons that pass a point at a given length of time when the
current in the wire is known

The wire shown in Figure 10.6 carries a current of I amperes. There are n free electrons per cubic
metre of wire. Each electron carries a charge of e coulombs, the cross-sectional area of the wire is
A square metres and the average drift speed of the electrons in this material is v metres per second.

Figure 10.7

Assuming that it takes t seconds for an electron to pass from X to Y (and using the formula
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 × 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒), so, the distance from X to Y is 𝑣𝑡 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟. The volume of wire
between X and Y is therefore 𝐴𝑣𝑡 cubic meters. The number of electrons between X and Y is
therefore 𝑛𝐴𝑣𝑡.

As each electron carries a charge of e coulombs, the total charge passing point Y in t seconds is
𝑛𝐴𝑒𝑣𝑡
𝑛𝐴𝑒𝑣𝑡. The current, I, is the charge per second 𝐼 = or 𝐼 = 𝑛𝐴𝑒𝑣 As the charge carried by an
𝑡

electron is known to be 1.6 × 10−19 𝐶, the number of electrons passing through a wire can be
calculated if the current in the wire is known.

137 | P a g e
Example

A current of 5 A is flowing through a 2 mm diameter wire. The drift speed of electrons in the wire
is 10−5 𝑚/𝑠 and the charge on the electron is 1.6 × 10−19 𝐶. Calculate the number of electrons
passing a point in the wire in a second.

Solution

2
2×10−3 𝑚
The cross-sectional area (A) of the wire is 𝜋𝑟 2 = 3.14 ( ) = 3.14 × 10−6
2

𝐼 5𝐴
Using 𝑛 = 𝐴𝑒𝑣 = (3.14×10−6)(1.6×10−19 𝐶)(10−5) = 9.947 × 1029

Exercise

The drift velocity of electrons through a point in a wire of radius 2.5 × 10−3 𝑚 is 1.5 × 10−5 𝑚/𝑠.
Calculate the number of electrons passing the point for an electric current of 10A through the wire.

10.2.2 Ohm's Law and Electrical Resistance

Ohm's Law

Ohm's Law states that the current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the
voltage across it and inversely proportional to its resistance. Mathematically, Ohm's Law can be
expressed as:

𝑉
𝐼=
𝑅

Where: I, is the electric current flowing through the conductor (in amperes), V is the voltage across
the conductor (in volts), R is the resistance of the conductor (in ohms).

Example

A 12 V battery is connected to a circuit. If the current is 2 mA, what must the resistance of the
circuit be?

Solution

𝑉
𝐼=
𝑅

138 | P a g e
 𝑉 12𝑉
𝑅= = = 6000Ω
𝐼 2 × 10−3

Exercise

1. A 12 V car battery is connected to a circuit for which total resistance is 6 Ω. What current will
flow?

Electrical Resistance

Electrical resistance is a property of a conductor that opposes the flow of electric current. It is
determined by the material, dimensions, and temperature of the conductor. The resistance (R) of a
conductor can be calculated using the formula:

𝐿
𝑅=𝜌
𝐴

Where:

R is the resistance of the conductor (in ohms), ρ (rho) is the resistivity of the material (measured
in ohm-meters), L is the length of the conductor (in meters), A is the cross-sectional area of the
conductor (in square meters).

Resistivity is a material-specific property that quantifies how strongly a material resists the flow
of electric current. Conductors with higher resistivity have higher resistance, while conductors
with lower resistivity have lower resistance.

Example

What is the resistance of a copper cable that has a cross sectional area of 1𝐶𝑚2 and a length of
2 𝐾𝑚? The resistivity of copper is 2 × 10−8 Ω𝑚.

Solution

𝑙 = 2𝑘𝑚 = 2 × 103 𝑚

𝐴 = 1𝐶𝑚2 = 1 × 10−4 𝑚2

𝐿 −8
(2 × 103 𝑚)
𝑅 = 𝜌 = 2 × 10 Ω𝑚 = 0.4Ω
𝐴 (1 × 10−4 𝑚2 )

139 | P a g e
 Exercise

1. The resistivity of iron is 2 × 10−8 Ω𝑚. Find the resistance of a 12 km length of a railway line
with a cross-sectional area of 200 Cm2.

10.2.3 Combinations of Resistors

Resistors can be combined in different configurations to create various electrical circuits. The two
most common configurations are series and parallel.

Series Circuits

In a series circuit, resistors are connected end-to-end in a line to form a single path for electrons to
flow. The defining characteristic of a series circuit is that there is only one path for electron to flow.

Figure 10.8: Three resistor connected in series

In series circuit the amount of current is the same through any component in the circuit.

𝐼 = 𝐼1 = 𝐼2 = 𝐼3 …

Using ohm’s law (𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅), the potential difference across each resistor is given by:

𝑉1 = 𝐼1 𝑅1 , 𝑉2 = 𝐼2 𝑅2 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉3 = 𝐼3 𝑅3

The potential difference V across all three resistors is given by

𝑉 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉3 = 𝐼(𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 )

The total resistance R of the three resistor is then given by

𝑅 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3

Parallel Circuits

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In a parallel circuit, resistors are connected across the same two points, creating multiple paths for
current to flow.

Figure 10.9: Three resistors connected in parallel.

In a purely parallel circuit, the potential difference across any resistor is the same,

𝑉 = 𝑉1 = 𝑉2 = 𝑉3 ,

To find the equivalent resistance of the combination, let us apply a potential difference V between
the points P and N. the current ‘I’ is divided at the junction P. suppose current 𝐼1 goes through 𝑅1 ,
𝐼2 through 𝑅2 and 𝐼3 through 𝑅3 . These combine at N to give a total current. Therefore, 𝐼 = 𝐼1 +
𝐼2 + 𝐼3 .

So,

𝑉 𝑉1 𝑉2 𝑉3
= + +
𝑅 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3

Since the pd across each resistor is the same, 𝑉 = 𝑉1 = 𝑉2 = 𝑉3. This gives

𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
= + +
𝑅 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3

V cancels throughout to give

1 1 1 1
= + +
𝑅 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3

For any two resistors connected in parallel, the equivalent resistance can be determined by the
equation.

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 𝑅1 𝑅2
𝑅𝑒𝑞 =
𝑅1 + 𝑅2

Example

1. For the circuit shown in the figure below, determine

Figure 10.10

Solution

𝑅 𝑅 4×12
𝑅2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅3 are in parallel, 𝑅23 = 𝑅 2+𝑅3 = 4+12 = 3Ω
2 1

Then, all the three are connected in series, therefore,

𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅23 + 𝑅4 = 5Ω + 3Ω + 8Ω = 16Ω

The current from the battery can then be determined by using Ohm’s law.

𝑉 24𝑉
𝐼= = = 1.5𝐴
𝑅 16Ω

Since 𝑅1 , 𝑅23 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅4 are in series with the source, they will have the current of the source. Thus,

𝐼𝑇 = 𝐼1 = 𝐼23 = 𝐼4 = 1.5𝐴

Using ohm’s law:

𝑉1 = 𝐼1 𝑅1 = 1.5𝐴 × 5Ω = 7.5𝑉

𝑉23 = 𝐼23 𝑅23 = 1.5𝐴 × 3Ω = 4.5𝑉

𝑉23 4.5𝑉 𝑉23 4.5𝑉

Then, 𝐼2 = = 4.0Ω = 1.125𝐴 and 𝐼3 = = = 0.375𝐴
𝑅2 𝑅3 12Ω

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𝑉4 = 𝐼4 𝑅4 = 1.5𝐴 × 8Ω = 12𝑉

Exercise

1. For the circuit shown below, list resistors that are connected (a) in series, (b) in parallel, (c) the
equivalent resistance of the circuit and (d), the current through each resistor, and the potential
difference across each resistor..

Figure 10.11

2. What should ammeters (a), (b) and (c) read in Figure 10.12?

Figure 10.12

Emf and Internal Resistance of a Cell

Electromotive Force (emf)

The electromotive force (emf) of a cell or battery is the maximum potential difference it can
provide when no current is flowing through it. It is a measure of the cell's ability to do work on
charges and is typically measured in volts (V). The emf represents the energy per unit charge
supplied by the cell.

The relationship between e.m.f., current and internal resistance in a circuit

The relationship between a cell’s e.m.f. (E) and internal resistance (r) and the current (I) and
resistance (R) in a circuit is given by the expression:

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𝐸 = 𝑝. 𝑑. 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑅 + 𝑝. 𝑑. 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑟
using Ohm’s law

𝐸 = 𝐼𝑅 + 𝐼𝑟

𝐸 = 𝐼(𝑅 + 𝑟)

Figure 10:13

Example

In the circuit above the cell’s 𝑒. 𝑚. 𝑓 is 10 V and its internal resistance is 2 Ω. Find the p.d. across
the terminals of the cell when it is connected to a 3 Ω resistor.

Solution

First find the current in the circuit:

𝐸 10𝑉
𝐼= = = 2𝐴
𝑅 + 𝑟 3Ω + 2Ω

The p.d. across the cell terminals is equal to the p.d. across the resistor (3 Ω). Find the p.d. across
the resistor:

𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅 = 2𝐴 × 3Ω = 6𝑉

Therefore the p.d. across the terminals of the cell is 6 V.

Exercise

A battery has an e.m.f. of 3 V and an internal resistance of 1 Ω. What current will it give if it is
connected to a circuit of resistance: a) 2 Ω b) 4 Ω?

Electric Energy and Power

Electric Energy

Electric energy is the amount of work done or energy transferred by an electric circuit or device.
It is measured in joules (J) or kilowatt-hours (kWh). The electric energy (E) consumed by a device
can be calculated using the formula:

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𝐸 = 𝑃𝑡

Where:

E is the electric energy consumed (in joules or kilowatt-hours), P is the power rating of the device
(in watts or kilowatts), t is the time for which the device operates (in seconds or hours).

Electric Power

Electric power is the rate at which electric energy is consumed or delivered in an electric circuit
or device. It is measured in watts (W) or kilowatts (kW). The electric power (P) consumed or
delivered can be calculated using the formula:

𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼

Where:

P is the electric power consumed or delivered (in watts or kilowatts).

V is the voltage across the device or circuit (in volts).

I, is the current flowing through the device or circuit (in amperes).

Example

1. Calculate the power of a water heater that draws a current of 10 A from a 220 V supply.

Solution

𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼 = 220𝑉 × 10𝐴 = 2200𝑊

2. A current of 4 A flows through an electric fire for 1 hour. The supply voltage is 240 V. What
energy is transformed by the fire in 1 hour? (1 hour = 60 × 60 seconds)
𝑊 = 𝑉𝐼𝑡 = 240𝑉 × 4𝐴 × 60𝑠 = 3.456𝑀𝐽

Review question on current electricity

1. Three resistors connected in series have individual voltage labeled 𝑉1 , 𝑉2 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉3 respectively.
Which of the following express the value of the total voltage 𝑉𝑇 taken over the three resistors
together?
A. 𝑉𝑇 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉3 B. 𝑉𝑇 = 𝑉1 = 𝑉2 = 𝑉3

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 1 1 1 1 1 1
C. 𝑉𝑇 = (𝑉 + 𝑉 + 𝑉 ) D. ∆𝑉𝑇 = 𝑉 + 𝑉 + 𝑉
1 2 3 1 2 3

2. A 64V battery is connected to a series combination of 3𝑘Ω bulb and 4𝑘Ω electric iron. If the
total current in the circuit is 8mA, what is the internal resistance of the battery?
A. 15 𝑘Ω B. 8 𝑘Ω C. 7𝑘Ω D. 1 𝑘Ω
3. Which one of the following statement is correct about the resistance of a conductor with a
circular cross-section?
A. The resistance of the conductor increases as its length increases and it diameter decreases.
B. At a given temperature, the resistance of copper and silver wires of the same length and
diameter is the same.
C. The resistance of the conductor decreases as it is heated.
D. The resistance of the conductor increases as its length and diameter.

10.3 Electromagnetism:

Electromagnetism deals with the study of the relationship between electricity and magnetism. It
describes how electric charges and currents interact with magnetic fields and how changing
magnetic fields generate electric fields.

Magnets and Magnetic Field:

Magnets: Magnets are objects that produce a magnetic field and have the ability to attract certain
materials like iron, cobalt, and nickel. They have two poles, a north pole (N) and a south pole (S),
which exert attractive or repulsive forces on other magnets or magnetic materials.

Magnetic Field: A magnetic field is a region of space around a magnet or a current-carrying

conductor where magnetic forces are experienced. It represents the influence of a magnet or current
on other magnetic objects. Magnetic fields are vector quantities, characterized by both magnitude
and direction.

Difference between Electric Field and Magnetic Field:

Electric Field:

• Created by: Electric charges (static or moving).

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 • Source: Charges (positive or negative).
• Field Lines: Electric field lines originate from positive charges and terminate on negative
charges. They always point away from positive charges and towards negative charges (if
present).
• Effect on Charges: Electric field exerts forces on charges, either attracting or repelling
them.
• Strength: Electric field strength is determined by the magnitude of electric charges and the
distance from the charges.
• Units: Electric field is measured in volts per meter (V/m).

Magnetic Field:

• Created by: Moving charges or magnetic materials.

• Source: Moving charges (currents) or magnetic dipoles.
• Field Lines: Magnetic field lines form closed loops. They do not have distinct starting or
ending points.
• Effect on Charges: Magnetic field exerts forces on moving charges (currents) but does not
directly affect stationary charges.
• Strength: Magnetic field strength depends on the magnitude of the current and the distance
from the source.
• Units: Magnetic field is measured in tesla (T) or gauss (G).

Magnetic Field Lines and Properties:

Magnetic Field Lines:

• Magnetic field lines are imaginary lines used to visualize and represent the magnetic field.
• They form closed loops, indicating that there are no magnetic monopoles (single poles).
• The direction of the magnetic field at any point is tangent to the magnetic field line at that
point.
• Magnetic field lines never intersect, as it would imply two directions for the magnetic field
at the same point, which is not possible.
• The density of magnetic field lines represents the strength of the magnetic field, with denser
lines indicating a stronger field.
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Properties of Magnetic Field Lines:

• Magnetic field lines emerge from the north pole of a magnet and enter the south pole.
• They are closer together in regions of stronger magnetic field and farther apart in regions
of weaker field.
• The direction of the field lines indicates the direction in which a north pole of a compass
needle would point if placed at that location.
• Magnetic field lines are continuous, having no breaks or gaps.
• The shape of the magnetic field lines depends on the configuration of the magnetic source,
such as a bar magnet, solenoid, or current-carrying wire.

Figure 10:14 Comparison of magnetic and electric field line.

Current and Magnetism:

Current: Current refers to the flow of electric charges. It is the rate at which electric charges pass
through a given cross-section of a conductor. Current is measured in amperes (A) and is denoted
by the symbol "I."

Magnetic Field due to Current: When an electric current flows through a conductor, it creates a
magnetic field around it. This phenomenon is known as the magnetic effect of current or
electromagnetism.

Ampere’s law

Ampere’s law can be stated as: “the magnetic field created by an electric current is proportional to
the size of that electric current with a constant of proportionality equal to the permeability of free
space.”

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The Magnetic Field Created by a Long Straight Current-Carrying Wire:

Magnetic Field Direction: When a current flows through a long straight wire, the magnetic field
lines form concentric circles around the wire. The direction of the magnetic field can be determined
using the right-hand rule: if you point your right thumb in the direction of the current, the curled
fingers will indicate the direction of the magnetic field lines.

Magnetic Field Strength (B): The magnetic field strength at a perpendicular distance (r) from the
wire is determined by the following relationship:

𝜇0 𝐼
𝐵=
2𝜋𝑟

B represents the magnetic field strength.

μ₀ (pronounced "mu naught") is the permeability of free space, which is a constant value
approximately equal to (4𝜋 × 10−7 𝑇 𝑚⁄𝐴)

I, is the current flowing through the wire, π is a mathematical constant, approximately equal to
3.14, r is the perpendicular distance from the wire.

Example

Find the current in a long straight wire that would produce a magnetic field twice the strength of
the Earth’s magnetic field (The Earth’s magnetic field is about 5.0×10−5T) at a distance of 5.0 cm
from the wire.

Solution

Magnetic field due to the earth (BE) is 5 × 10−5 𝑇

Magnetic field due to the current carrying wire B is 𝐵 = 2𝐵𝐸 = 2 × 5 × 10−5 𝑇 = 1 × 10−4 𝑇.

The equation 𝐵 = 𝜇0 𝐼 ⁄2𝜋𝑟 can be used to find I, since all other quantities are known . solving for
I and entering known values gives

2𝜋𝑟𝐵 2𝜋(5.0 × 10−2 𝑚)(1.0 × 10−4 𝑇)

𝐼= = = 25𝐴
𝜇0 4𝜋 × 10−7 𝑇. 𝑚/𝐴

Exercise

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A long straight wire carrying current produces a magnetic field of 0.8T at a distance 0.5m from the
wire. Find the magnetic field at a distance of 1 cm.

Magnetic Field

Dependence: The magnetic field strength decreases as the distance from the wire increases. This
relationship is inversely proportional, meaning that doubling the distance from the wire would
result in half the magnetic field strength.

Magnetic Field Lines: The magnetic field lines around a long straight current-carrying wire are
concentric circles that are evenly spaced and centered on the wire. The density of the field lines
decreases as the distance from the wire increases.

10.3.4 Electromagnetic Induction:

Electromagnetic Induction: Electromagnetic induction is the process of generating an

electromotive force (EMF) or voltage in a conductor when it is exposed to a changing magnetic
field. This phenomenon was discovered by Michael Faraday in the early 19th century.

Magnetic Field and Electric Current: A changing magnetic field induces an electric current in a
conductor according to the principles of electromagnetic induction.

Magnetic Flux:

Magnetic Flux: magnetic flux is a measurement of the total magnetic lines of force which passes
through a given area A as shown in figure. For a plane of surface area placed in a uniform magnetic
field B, magnetic flux is mathematically written as:

Φ = 𝐵 ∙ 𝐴 = 𝐵𝐴 cos 𝜃

Φ represents the magnetic flux, B is the magnetic field., A is the area.

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 Figure10:15 a plane of surface area A placed in a uniform magnetic field.

Magnetic Flux and Magnetic Field Direction: The magnetic flux is maximum when the area is
perpendicular to the magnetic field lines. If the angle between the area and the field lines is less
than 90 degrees, the magnetic flux decreases.

Example

A square loop of side 3 cm is positioned in a uniform magnetic field of magnitude 0.5 T so that the
plane of the loop makes an angle of 600 with the magnetic field as shown in figure above. Find the
flux passing through the square loop?

Solution:

Putting the known values into the magnetic flux equation

Φ𝐵 = 𝐵𝐴 cos 𝜃 = (0.5)(0.03 × 0.03)(cos 600 ) = 0.225 𝑚𝑊𝑏

Exercise

A circular loop of area 200 cm2 sits in the xz plane. If a uniform magnetic field of 𝐵
⃗ = 0.5𝑇 is
applied on it. Determine the magnetic flux through the square loop?

Faraday's Law of Electromagnetic Induction:

Faraday's Law: Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction states that the magnitude of the
induced electromotive force (EMF) or voltage in a conductor is directly proportional to the rate of
change of magnetic flux passing through the conductor. Mathematical Formulation:

∆Φ
𝜀 = −𝑁
∆𝑡

𝜀 represents the induced electromotive force or voltage, N is the number of turns in the conductor,
∆Φ is change in magnetic flux and ∆𝑡 change in time.

Faraday's Law and Magnetic Field Direction: The direction of the induced EMF is such that it
opposes the change in magnetic flux that caused it. This is known as Lenz's law.

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Lenz's Law: Lenz's law is a consequence of Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction. It states
that the direction of the induced current in a conductor due to a changing magnetic field is such
that it creates a magnetic field that opposes the change in the original magnetic field.

Conservation of Energy: Lenz's law follows the principle of conservation of energy. The induced
current creates a magnetic field that opposes the change in the original magnetic field, thus
preventing a sudden change in magnetic energy and maintaining energy conservation.

Example

A square loop of side 10 cm and resistance 0.5 Ω is placed vertically in the east-west plane. A
uniform magnetic field of 0.10 T is set up across the plane in the north- east direction. The magnetic
field is decreased to zero in 0.70 s at a steady rate. Determine the magnitudes of induced emf and
current during this time-interval.

Solution

The angle 𝜃 made by the area vector of the coil with the magnetic field is 45 0. From the equation
of magnetic flux:

Φ = 𝐵𝐴 cos 𝜃

the initial magnetic flux is:Φ𝑖 = 𝐵𝑖 𝐴 cos 𝜃 = (0.10𝑇)(0.1𝑚 × 0.1𝑚)(cos 450 )

Φ𝑖 = 7.1 × 10−4 𝑊𝑏

Φ𝑓 = 0

The change in flux is brought about in 0.70s. the magnitude of the induced emf is given by:

∆Φ𝐵 |Φ𝑓 − Φ𝑖 | 7.1 × 10−4 𝑊𝑏

𝜀=− = = = 1.01𝑚𝑣
∆𝑡 ∆𝑡 0.7𝑠

And the magnitude of the current is

𝜀 1.01𝑚𝑣
𝐼= = = 2.01𝑚𝐴
𝑅 0.5Ω

Exercise

1. The emf induced in a coil can be increased by:

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 A. increasing the number of turns in the coil ( N ).
B. increasing magnetic field strength surrounding the coil.
C. increasing the speed of the relative motion between the coil and the magnet.
D. All
2. Faraday’s Law states that the induced voltage or emf is proportional to:
A. the resistance of the coil
B. the cross-sectional area of the coil.
C. the rate of change of the magnetic flux in the coil.
D. All
3. Lenz’s law is the result of the law of conservation of: A.
A. mass C. energy
B. charge D. Momentum

Transformer

A transformer is an electrical device that is used to transfer electrical energy between two or more
circuits through electromagnetic induction. It consists of two or more coils of wire, known as the
primary and secondary windings, which are usually wound around a common core made of
laminated iron.

Working Principle of a Transformer in Household Appliances:

The working principle of a transformer involves the phenomenon of electromagnetic induction.

When an alternating current (AC) flows through the primary winding, it creates a changing
magnetic field around the primary coil. This changing magnetic field then induces a voltage in the
secondary winding, which is connected to the load or the device being powered.

Step-up and Step-down Transformers:

Step-up Transformer: A step-up transformer increases the voltage from the primary winding to
the secondary winding. It has more turns in the secondary coil, allowing it to produce a higher
voltage output compared to the input voltage.

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Step-down Transformer: A step-down transformer decreases the voltage from the primary
winding to the secondary winding. It has fewer turns in the secondary coil, resulting in a lower
voltage output compared to the input voltage.

AC Current and Magnetic Field: When an AC current flows through the primary winding, it
creates a changing magnetic field around the primary coil. This changing magnetic field induces a
voltage in the secondary winding through electromagnetic induction.

Voltage Relation: In an ideal transformer, neglecting losses, the ratio of the output voltage (V₂) to
𝑉 𝑁
the input voltage (V₁) is equal to turns ratio: 𝑉2 = 𝑁2
1 1

Electromagnets at Home or School:

Electromagnets: An electromagnet is a type of magnet that is created by passing an electric current

through a coil of wire. It consists of a ferromagnetic core, typically made of iron, and the coil of
wire wrapped around it.

Applications in Home or School:

Doorbells: Many doorbells use an electromagnet. When the doorbell button is pressed, an electric
current flow through the coil, creating a magnetic field that attracts a metal striker, producing the
ringing sound.

Magnetic Locks: Some security systems use electromagnets to control access. The electromagnet
is energized to secure the lock and de-energized to release it.

Magnetic Toys: Magnetic toys, such as magnetic building sets or levitating toys, often utilize
electromagnets to create magnetic interactions and provide entertainment and educational
experiences.

Magnetic Relays: A magnetic relay is an electrical switch that uses an electromagnet to control
the flow of current in another circuit. It consists of a coil of wire and a switch mechanism that is
actuated by the magnetic field produced by the coil.

Electric Bell: An electric bell is a device that uses an electromagnet to produce sound. It consists
of a coil of wire, a metal striker, and a bell.

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DC Electric Motor: A DC electric motor converts electrical energy into mechanical energy using
the principles of electromagnetism. It consists of a stator (stationary part) and a rotor (rotating
part)..

AC Generator: An AC generator, also known as an alternator, is a device that converts mechanical

energy into electrical energy. It operates based on the principles of electromagnetic induction.

Review question on electromagnetism

1. A long straight wire carrying a current produces a magnetic field of 0.8 T at a distance 0.5 cm
from the wire. Find the magnetic field at a distance of 1 cm.
2. Which one of the following does not affect the magnetic field produced by a long straight wire?
A) The current in the wire B) the distance from the wire C) the type of the wire D) None
3. The magnetic field B at a distance r from a long straight wire carrying current I is directly
proportional to r. A) True B) False
4. Define magnetic flux.
5. A circular loop of area 200 cm2 sits in the xz plane. If a uniform magnetic field of B= 0.5 T is
applied on it. Determine the magnetic flux through the square loop?
6. The magnetic flux is maximum when the angle between magnetic field lines and the line
perpendicular to the plane of the area is:
A. 0o B. 900 C. 450 D. 300
7. A magnetic field of 2.5T passes perpendicular through a disc of radius 2cm. Find the magnetic
flux associated with the disc.
8. The emf induced in a coil can be increased by:
A. increasing the number of turns in the coil ( N ).
B. increasing magnetic field strength surrounding the coil.
C. increasing the speed of the relative motion between the coil and the magnet.
D. All
11. Faraday’s Law states that the induced voltage or emf is proportional to:
A. the resistance of the coil
B. the cross-sectional area of the coil.
C. the rate of change of the magnetic flux in the coil.
D. All

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12. Lenz’s law is the result of the law of conservation of:
A. mass C. energy
B. charge D. Momentum
13. In Lenz’s law the induced emf opposes the magnetic flux.
A. True B. False
14. a) Calculate the induced emf when a coil of 100 turns is subjected to a magnetic flux change
at the rate of 0.04Wb/s. b) Calculate the induced current if the resistance of the coil is 0.08Ohm.
15. A transformer has primary coil with 1200 loops and secondary coil with 1000 loops. If the
current in the primary coil is 4 Ampere, then what is the current in the secondary coil.
16. Calculate the turn ratio to step 110 V AC down to 20 V AC.
17. Why does a transformer cannot raise or lower the voltage of a DC supply? Explain your answer.

10.4 Basics of electronics

Semiconductors

Semiconductors are a class of materials that have electrical conductivity between conductors (e.g.,
metals) and insulators (e.g., ceramics). They can be pure elements like silicon or germanium, or
compound materials such as gallium arsenide or cadmium selenide. At absolute zero temperature
(zero kelvin), semiconductors behave as insulators, but as the temperature increases, they transition
into conductors. This transition occurs because the thermal energy enables electrons in the
semiconductor's atomic structure to break away from their covalent bonds and move freely,
allowing for electrical conduction. Doping is a process where small amounts of impurities are
intentionally introduced into pure semiconductors, leading to significant changes in the material's
conductivity and electrical properties. Doping can create regions with excess electrons (n-type) or
excess holes (p-type) in the semiconductor, crucial for the functioning of various semiconductor
devices.

Types of Semiconductors

1. Intrinsic Semiconductor: A semiconductor in its pure state is called intrinsic semiconductor.

2. Extrinsic Semiconductor: A semiconductor doped with suitable impurity to increase its
impurity, is called extrinsic semiconductor.

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 On the basis of doped impurity extrinsic semiconductors are of two types

1. n-type Semiconductor:
• Extrinsic semiconductor doped with pentavalent impurity like As, Sb, Bi, etc. in which
negatively charged electrons works as charge carrier, is called n-type semiconductor. Every
pentavalent impurity atom donates one electron in the crystal; therefore, it is called a doner
atom.
• In N-type semiconductors, the majority charge carriers are electrons. The concentration of
electrons is higher than the concentration of holes. The electrons can move through the
material as negatively charged carriers.
2. p -type Semiconductor:
• Extrinsic semiconductor doped with trivalent impurity like Al, B, etc., in which positively
charged holes works as charge carriers, is called p-type semiconductor. Every trivalent
impurity atom has a tendency to accept one electron, therefore it is called an acceptor atom.
• In P-type semiconductors, the majority charge carriers are holes. The concentration of holes
is higher than the concentration of electrons. The holes can move through the material as
positively charged carriers.

p-n Junction

An arrangement consisting a p -type semiconductor brought into a close contact with n-type
semiconductor, is called a p -n junction.

Figure 10:16 The P-N junction diode formed between P-type and N-type semiconductors.
Terms Related to p-n Junction

• Depletion Layer At p-n. junction a region is created, where there is no charge carriers. This
region is called depletion layer.

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 • Potential Barrier The potential difference across the depletion layer is called potential
barrier. Barrier potential for Ge is 0.3 V and for Si is 0.7 V.

Biasing of P-N Junction Diode:

Biasing a P-N junction diode involves applying an external voltage across the diode to control its
operation and allow it to function in different modes. The two common types of biasing are forward
bias and reverse bias.

1. Forward Bias: In forward bias, the positive terminal of the voltage source is connected to the
P-type region of the diode, and the negative terminal is connected to the N-type region. This
configuration allows current to flow through the diode.

Working Principle:

When a forward bias voltage is applied, the positive terminal repels the holes in the P-type region
and attracts the electrons in the N-type region. This reduces the width of the depletion region at
the P-N junction and lowers the barrier potential. As a result, the diode becomes conductive, and
current can flow from the P-type region (anode) to the N-type region (cathode).

Characteristics:

• The forward bias voltage must overcome the barrier potential of the P-N junction before
significant current can flow.
• The current-voltage (I-V) characteristics of a forward-biased diode follow an exponential
relationship, described by the diode equation.
• The forward voltage drops across a silicon diode is typically around 0.7 volts, while for a
germanium diode, it is around 0.3 volts.

Applications:

• Rectification: Forward biasing is used in diodes for rectification, where alternating current
(AC) is converted into direct current (DC).

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 Figure 10:17 a) Forward bias PN-junction b) Forward bias circuit diagram

2. Reverse Bias:

In reverse bias, the positive terminal of the voltage source is connected to the N-type region of the
diode, and the negative terminal is connected to the P-type region. This configuration opposes the
flow of current through the diode.

Working Principle:

When a reverse bias voltage is applied, the positive terminal attracts the electrons in the P-type
region, and the negative terminal repels the holes in the N-type region. This widens the depletion
region at the P-N junction and increases the barrier potential.

Characteristics:

• The reverse bias voltage opposes the flow of current, resulting in only a small leakage current
called the reverse saturation current.
• The reverse breakdown voltage is the maximum voltage that can be applied in reverse bias
before the diode breaks down and conducts a large reverse current.

Applications:

• Diode Protection: Reverse biasing is used to protect sensitive electronic components from
reverse voltage or voltage spikes.

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 Figure 10:18 a) Reverse bias PN-junction b) Reverse bias circuit diagram

Current-Voltage Characteristics of the semiconductor diode

The current-voltage (I-V) characteristics of a semiconductor diode describe how the current
through the diode varies with the applied voltage across it. The I-V characteristics of a diode can
be divided into three regions see figure 10:19.

1. Forward Bias Region:

When a positive voltage is applied to the P-region and a negative voltage to the N-region, the diode
is said to be forward-biased. In this region:

• Initially, there is a small current called the reverse saturation current, which is due to the
minority carriers crossing the PN junction.
• As the forward voltage increases, the current through the diode increases exponentially.
This is due to the majority carriers (electrons in N-region, holes in P-region) being pushed
towards the junction, where they combine and form a current flow.
• The forward-biased diode has a low resistance, allowing a significant current to flow
through it.
2. Reverse Bias Region:
• When a positive voltage is applied to the N-region and a negative voltage to the P-region,
the diode is said to be reverse-biased. In this region:
• Initially, there is a small leakage current, which is due to the minority carriers that can cross
the PN junction.
• As the reverse voltage increases, the current remains very small until a certain point called
the breakdown voltage or reverse breakdown voltage.

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 • At the breakdown voltage, the current through the diode increases rapidly, and the diode is
said to be in the breakdown region. This can cause excessive current flow and potentially
damage the diode if not properly controlled.
3. Breakdown Region:
• In the breakdown region, the diode is subjected to a reverse voltage beyond its breakdown
voltage. The diode exhibits a sudden increase in current, and its voltage drops sharply. This
region is characterized by a high current flow and low resistance.

The IV characteristics of a diode are typically represented on a graph with voltage (V) on the x-
axis and current (I) on the y-axis. The forward bias region shows an exponential increase in current
with voltage, while the reverse bias region shows a very small leakage current until the breakdown
voltage is reached.

Figure 10:19 I-V characteristics of a p-n junction diode

Rectification:

Rectification is the process of converting alternating current (AC) into direct current (DC). It
involves the conversion of a signal or power source that alternates in polarity into a unidirectional
flow of current. Rectification is a fundamental operation in electronics and is achieved using
devices called rectifiers.

Types of Rectifiers:

1. Half-Wave Rectifier:

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A half-wave rectifier allows the passage of only one half-cycle of the input AC signal while
blocking the other half. It consists of a single diode and a load resistor. The diode conducts current
only when it is forward-biased, allowing the positive half-cycle of the AC signal to flow through
the load resistor. The negative half-cycle is blocked by the diode. The output of a half-wave
rectifier is a pulsating DC signal with a frequency equal to the input AC signal frequency.

Figure 10:20 Basic half wave rectifier circuit

2. Full-Wave Rectifier:

A full-wave rectifier allows the passage of both half-cycles of the input AC signal, thereby
producing a more steady DC output compared to a half-wave rectifier. Example of full-wave
rectifier is bridge rectifier. A bridge rectifier consists of four diodes arranged in a bridge
configuration. During the positive half-cycle of the AC signal, two diodes conduct, and during the
negative half-cycle, the other two diodes conduct. This allows both half-cycles to pass through the
load resistor, resulting in a smoother DC output.

Figure10:21 Basic full wave rectifier circuit

Bridge Rectifier with Capacitor Filter:

The output of a rectifier, whether half-wave or full-wave, contains ripple or variations in the DC
voltage. To reduce the ripple and obtain a smoother DC output, a capacitor is often connected in

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parallel with the load resistor. The capacitor acts as a filter, storing charge during the peaks of the
rectified waveform and discharging during the troughs, effectively smoothing out the variations.

Figure 10:22 Smoothing the output voltage using a capacitor in a full-wave rectifier.

Photodiode:

A photodiode is a semiconductor device that converts light energy into electrical current. It is a
type of light sensor that operates in reverse bias mode, where an external voltage is applied across
the diode. When photons (light particles) strike the photodiode, they create electron-hole pairs in
the depletion region of the diode, generating a current flow proportional to the incident light
intensity.

Figure 10:23 photo diode symbol

Exercise

1. What is rectification?
2. Describe the function of resistor and capacitor in electronic circuit
3. The dc current through each forward-biased diode in a full-wave rectifier equals: (A) the load
current (B) half the dc load current (C) twice the dc load current (D) one-fourth the dc load
current.
4. The basic reason why a full-wave rectifier has a twice the efficiency of a half-wave rectifier is
that: (A) it makes use of transformer (B) the heating loss is much less (C) it utilizes both half-
cycles of the input (D ) its output frequency is double the line frequency

Transistor and their application

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A transistor is a three-terminal semiconductor device that can amplify or switch
electronic signals and electrical power. The two main types of transistors are bipolar
junction transistors (BJT) and field-effect transistors (FET). Note that when we use the
term transistor, it means bipolar junction transistor (BJT).

Some Facts about the Transistor

Before discussing transistor action, it is important that the reader may keep in mind the
following facts about the transistor:

i. The transistor has three regions, namely; emitter, base and collector. The base is
much thinner than the emitter while **collector is wider than both as shown in
Fig. 8.3. However, for the sake of convenience, it is customary to show emitter
and collector to be of equal size.

ii. The emitter is heavily doped so that it can inject a large number of charge carriers
(electrons or holes) into the base. The base is lightly doped and very thin; it passes
most of the emitter injected charge carriers to the collector. The collector is
moderately doped.
• Charge carriers is : Holes if emitter is p-type and electrons if the emitter is n-type.
• During transistor operation, much heat is produced at the collector junction. The collector is
made larger to dissipate the heat.

Figure 10: 24 Block diagrams of (i) pnp transistor (ii) npn transistor.
iii. The transistor has two PN junctions i.e. it is like two diodes. The junction between emitter
and base may be called emitter-base diode or simply the emitter diode. The junction
between the base and collector may be called collector-base diode or simply collector diode.
iv. The emitter diode is always forward biased whereas collector diode is always reverse

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 biased.
v. The resistance of emitter diode (forward biased) is very small as compared to collector
diode (reverse biased). Therefore, forward bias applied to the emitter diode is generally
very small whereas reverse bias on the collector diode is much higher.
Basic transistor operation

NPN transistor. Fig. 10.25 bellow shows the NPN transistor with forward bias to emitter- base
junction and reverse bias to collector-base junction. The forward bias causes the electrons in the n-
type emitter to flow towards the base. This constitutes the emitter current 𝐼𝐸 . As these electrons
flow through the p-type base, they tend to combine with holes. As the base is lightly doped and very
thin, therefore, only a few electrons (less than 5%) combine with holes to constitute base current 𝐼𝐵 .
The remainder (more than 95%) cross over into the collector region to constitute collector current 𝐼𝐶 .
In this way, almost the entire emitter current flows in the collector circuit. It is clear that emitter
current is the sum of collector and base currents i.e.

𝐼𝐸 = 𝐼𝐵 + 𝐼𝐶

• The reasons that most of the electrons from emitter continue their journey through the base
to collector to form collector current are: (i) The base is lightly doped and very thin.
Therefore, there are a few holes which find enough time to combine with electrons. (ii) The
reverse bias on collector is quite high and exerts attractive forces on these electrons.

Figure 10:25

PNP transistor. Fig. 10:26 shows the basic connection of a PNP transistor. The forward bias
causes the holes in the P-type emitter to flow towards the base. This constitutes the emitter current
𝐼𝐸 . As these holes cross into n-type base, they tend to combine with the electrons. As the base is
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lightly doped and very thin, therefore, only a few holes (less than 5%) combine with the electrons.
The remainder (more than 95%) cross into the collector region to constitute collector current IC.
In this way, almost the entire emitter current flows in the collector circuit. It may be noted that
current conduction within pnp transistor is by holes. However, in the external connecting wires,
the current is still by electrons.

Figure 10:26

Figure 10: 27 Transistor Symbols: The symbols used for NPN and PNP transistors

The symbol used for NPN and PNP transistor are shown in figure 10:27. Note that emitter is shown
by an arrow which indicates the direction of conventional current flow with forward bias. For npn
connection, it is clear that conventional current flows out of the emitter as indicated by the outgoing

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arrow in Fig.10:27 (i). Similarly, for pnp connection, the conventional current flows into the
emitter as indicated by inward arrow in Fig. 10:27 (ii).

Transistor configurations

There are three possible ways to connect a transistor in an electronic circuit with one terminal
being common to both the input and output signal. These configurations are common-emitter,
common-collector and common-base (figure 10:28). Each method of connection responds
differently to its input signal in a circuit as the characteristics of the transistor vary with each circuit
arrangement.

Figure 10:28

Common-collector (CC): in the CC, the input signal is applied between the base and collector
terminal and the output is taken between the emitter and collector terminal. It provides good current
gain but no voltage gain.

Common-base (CB): in the CB, the input signal is applied between the emitter and the base
terminal. this leaves the base common to both the emitter and collector. The circuit has voltage
gain but no current gain.

Common-emitter (CE): in the CE, the input signal is applied between the base and emitter
terminal. The circuit(figure) has both current and voltage gain.

The CE is commonly used its current and voltage power gain are quite high. The ratio of collector
current to base current is called the amplification factor or current gain 𝛽. Amplification is the
property of a transistor to raise the strength of a weak signal. It is calculated using the equation:

𝐼𝐶
𝛽=
𝐼𝐵

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Example

The maximum collector current that a transistor can carry is 500 mA. If the transistor has a current
gain of 300, what is the maximum allowable base current for the device?

Solution

𝐼
From the relation 𝛽 = 𝐼 𝐶
𝐵

𝐼𝐶 500 𝑚𝐴
𝐼𝐵 = = = 1.67 𝑚𝐴
𝛽 300

Output characteristics of common-emitter

The output characteristics for a CE transistor describe the change in collector current IC
when an increasing voltage VC E is placed between the collector and emitter. A greater
amount of current flows from the emitter to the collector when there is a small change of
current through the base. To determine the output characteristics, the input current or base
current IB is kept constant. However, the graph is usually plotted for more than one base
current (Figure 10.29). Notice that the base current is small in micro-Ampere, but the
collector current is in milli- Ampere. For example, with the transistor represented by the
graph, a change of 10 µA in the base current would produce a change of around 2 mA in
the collector current, which is about 200 times more than the base current.

Figure 10:29

Exercise

1. Describe the function of transistor in electronic circuit

2. Which of the transistor currents is the largest? Which is the smallest?

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3. The doping concentration of base in PNP transistor is (A) lightly doped (B) moderately doped
(C) heavily doped (D) not doped
4. Which junction in the transistor is forward biassed? Which junction reverse biassed?
5. In transistor, if the current gain is 100 and the collector current is 10 mA, what is the emitter
current?

Integrated Circuits (ICs):

Integrated circuits are electronic devices that contain a large number of circuit components (such
as transistors, resistors, and capacitors) integrated onto a single semiconductor chip.

They are widely used in various electronic devices, including computers, smartphones, televisions,
and automotive systems.

Advantages of Integrated Circuits:

• ICs allow for the miniaturization of electronic circuits. Multiple components can be
combined onto a single chip, leading to smaller and more compact devices.
• ICs can provide improved performance compared to discrete components. The integration
of components on a chip reduces signal losses and improves the speed and reliability of
electronic circuits.
• Mass production of ICs leads to economies of scale, making them cost-effective compared
to individual discrete components.
• Integrated circuits often consume less power than discrete components, making them more
energy-efficient.
• ICs can integrate complex logic and functionality into a single chip, enabling advanced
features and functionalities in electronic devices.

Disadvantages of Integrated Circuits:

• The design and fabrication of integrated circuits require specialized knowledge and
sophisticated manufacturing processes, making them more complex compared to discrete
component circuits.
• In many cases, if an IC fails, it cannot be repaired or replaced individually. The entire chip
needs to be replaced, which can be costly.

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 • Some integrated circuits can be sensitive to heat. Excessive heat can affect their
performance or even cause permanent damage.
• Once an IC is manufactured, it is challenging to modify or customize its circuitry. This
limitation may restrict its adaptability to specific applications.

Logic Gates
A large number of electronic circuits (in computers, control units, and so on) are made up of logic
gates. These logic gates process signals, and provide outputs (true or false). The input values for
digital logic circuits may be + 5 and -5 volts, or the values may be 0.5 and 3.5 volts. In digital,
these signals represent the values of (0 and 1).

Truth table
A truth table will define the logical outputs (0 or 1) of the logic gate for all possible logical
inputs. The basic logic gates are (NOT, AND, and OR) gates and other logic gates can be obtained
from these gates such as (NOR, NAND, X-OR, and X-NOR).

1. NOT Gate

This gate is an electronic circuit that produces an inverted version of the input at its output. It
is also known as an inverter. The logic symbol ofthis gate is shown in figure (10:30)

Figure 10:30 The Not Gate symbol

The truth table of NOT gate is shown below by assuming the input is A then the output will be
̅.
A

Input B Output
0 1
1 0

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The electrical circuits shown in figure (2a) & (2b) can represent the NOT gate, where the switch
represents input and the light represents the output of the logic circuit.

Figure 10:31 Switch circuit for Not Gate

When the switch is off then the current is flow in the circuit towards the light and this mean that
the O/P is logic (1) Fig(2a). While if the switch is on this leads to short circuit on the light and
this mean that the O/P is logic (0).

2. OR Gate

OR Gate It is a two input and one output logic gate. It gives a true output (1) if one or more of its
inputs are true. A plus (+) sign is used to show the (OR) operation. The logic symbol is shown in
figure (3) for OR gate with two inputs, this gate can take N inputs

Figure 10:32 The OR Gate symbol

The truth table of OR gate is shown in the following table with A and B inputs.

Input A Input B Output

0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1

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To express OR gate using electrical circuit. Two switch that represent inputs and light to
represent the output as shown in figure (4)

Figure 10:33 Switch circuit for OR Gate

If one of the two switches is on, then the light will turn on, which mean that the o/p is logic (1).

3. AND Gate
The AND gate is an electronic circuit that gives a true output (1) only ifall its inputs are true. All
other cases give zero output. The logic symbol of AND gate with two inputs is shown in figure.

Figure 10:34 AND Gate symbol

The truth table of AND Gate is shown in the following table with A and B inputs.

Input A Input B Output

0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

To express AND gate in an electrical circuit we can use circuit shown in figure (6), the current can
reach to the light only when the two switches are on.

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 Figure 10:35 AND Gate switch circuit

4. NOR Gate
The NOR gate represents the complement of the OR operation. The logic symbol of NOR gate
with two inputs is shown in figure (7).

Figure 10:36 NOR Gate symbol

The equivalent logic circuit is OR gate with NOT gate. The truth table that represents the relation
between the inputs and outputs is given below.

Input A Input B Output

0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0

The electrical circuit of NOR gate is shown in figure (8)

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 Figure 10:37 NOR Gate switch circuit
NAND Gate
NAND gate is the complement of AND gate, the logic symbol of this gate is shown in figure (9).

Figure 10:38 NAND Gate symbol.

The equivalent logic circuit is AND +NOT operation, and the electrical circuit that represents
NAND gate is shown in figure (10).

Figure 10:39 NAND Gate switch circuit

Chapter review questions

1. The electric potential at a distance of 2 cm from −1.6 × 10−9 𝐶 point charge is

A. -720V B. 4.4V C. 720V D. -14.4V

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2. Two resistors 𝑅1 = 1Ω and 𝑅2 = 4Ω are connected in parallel to each other and their
combination is connected in series with a third resistor 𝑅3 = 2Ω. The whole combination is
connected to a voltage source potential difference 14V.

3. The potential difference across 𝑅1 is

A. 14V B. 4V C. 5V D. 10V

6. A student wants to investigate ohm’s law using an ammeter (A) and a voltmeter (v) to measure
current through a current through and potential difference across a resistor R. moreover, she-
employ a reheostat to vary the potential difference across the resistor. Which of the following
connection is correct set up of the circuit to perform the experiment?

7. The primary coil of a transformer has 250 turns and its secondary coil consists of 1500 turns.
If 220 V is applied to its primary coil, the voltage induced in the secondary coil and the ratio
of current in the primary coil to the current in the secondary coil, respectively,
are__________
A. 1330V and 6 B. 1320V and 6

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 C. 1320V and 60 D. 1220V and 60
8. The figure below shows a logic circuit and its incomplete truth table. Complete its truth table.

A B C D Q
0 0
0 1
1 0
1 1

9. The figure below shows a logic circuit and its incomplete truth table. Complete the below truth
table.

A B C D Q
0 0
0 1
1 0
1 1

10. A diode is an electronic component that

A. Allows electric current to pass through it in one direction
B. Is useful to convert a DC voltage to AC voltage.
C. Allows current to pass through it either from cathode to anode or from anode to
cathode.
D. Allows the flow of current when its p-type region is connected to the negative
terminal of a cell.

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