ALLAMA IQBAL OPEN UNIVERSITY,

ISLAMABAD

(Department of Economics)

Course: Research & Methodology (9318)

Semester: Spring, 2024
Assignment No # 02

Level: BS Economics
Q.1 What are the major sources of data collection?

Ans. Data collection is a crucial part of the research process, as it involves gathering
the necessary information to answer research questions, test hypotheses, and
achieve research objectives. There are several major sources of data collection, each
with its own strengths and applications. Here’s an explanation of these sources:

1. Primary Data Sources

Primary data is original, first-hand information collected directly by the researcher

specifically for the study. This type of data is often considered more reliable because
it is tailored to the research question.

a. Surveys and Questionnaires

- Explanation: Surveys and questionnaires involve asking a series of questions to

participants. These can be administered in various forms, including online, via
telephone, or face-to-face.

- Strengths: They are versatile, can cover a large population, and allow for both
quantitative and qualitative data collection.

- Examples: Customer satisfaction surveys, employee feedback questionnaires,

public opinion polls.

b. Interviews

- Explanation: Interviews involve direct, in-depth questioning of participants to

gather detailed information. They can be structured, semi-structured, or
unstructured.

- Strengths: Provide deep insights, allow for probing and clarification, and can
capture rich, qualitative data.

- Examples: One-on-one interviews, expert interviews, focus group discussions.

c. Observations

- Explanation: Observation involves directly watching and recording behaviors, events,

or situations as they naturally occur. This can be done either covertly or overtly.

- Strengths: Provides real-time, contextual data and can capture non-verbal cues
that other methods may miss.

- Examples: Ethnographic studies, classroom observations, workplace behavior analysis.

d. Experiments

- Explanation: Experiments involve manipulating one or more variables to observe

the effect on another variable, usually in a controlled environment.

- Strengths: Allows for causal inferences, provides strong internal validity, and can
be replicated.

- Examples: Clinical trials, laboratory experiments, field experiments.

2. Secondary Data Sources

Secondary data is information that has already been collected, processed, and
published by others. This data is not collected specifically for the current research but
can be repurposed.

a. Published Sources

- Explanation: These include books, academic journals, newspapers, and official

reports that contain data and findings from previous research.

- Strengths: Easily accessible, cost-effective, and time-saving as the data is

already collected and analyzed.

- Examples: Government publications, industry reports, peer-reviewed journal

articles, historical records.

b. Official Statistics

- Explanation: Official statistics are data published by government agencies or

international organizations on a wide range of topics like demographics,
economics, health, and education.

- Strengths: High credibility, usually covers large populations, and is often available
for free or at a low cost.

- Examples: Census data, labor market statistics, health surveys, educational statistics.
c. Databases and Repositories

- Explanation: These are digital or physical collections of data sets that researchers
can access for analysis. They often include large amounts of data across various
fields.

- Strengths: Provides access to large, often well-organized datasets that can be used
for extensive analysis.

- Examples: Academic databases like JSTOR, PubMed, or government databases

like Data.gov.

d. Company Records

- Explanation: Internal records and documents from organizations or businesses that

can provide data on operations, sales, customer behavior, and other business-related
activities.

- Strengths: Specific to the organization, provides historical and real-time data that can
be directly relevant to the research.

- Examples: Sales reports, financial statements, customer databases, employee records.

e. Online Sources

- Explanation: Data from websites, social media, blogs, and other online platforms
where information is regularly updated and accessible.

- Strengths: Real-time data, extensive reach, and often free to access. It can provide
both qualitative and quantitative data.

- Examples: Social media analytics, web traffic data, online reviews, digital archives.

3. Tertiary Data Sources

Tertiary data sources compile and summarize primary and secondary data sources,
often used for quick reference or overviews.
a. Encyclopedias and Dictionaries

- Explanation: These sources compile existing knowledge on a wide range of topics

in a concise, easily accessible format.

- Strengths: Useful for quick reference, providing definitions, overviews, and

general information.

- Examples: Encyclopedia Britannica, Oxford English Dictionary.

b. Indexes and Bibliographies

- Explanation: Indexes and bibliographies list sources and references on specific

topics, often guiding researchers to primary and secondary data.

- Strengths: Helps researchers quickly find relevant literature and data sources.

- Examples: Science Citation Index, MLA Bibliography.

Summary

The major sources of data collection include **primary data sources** (e.g., surveys,
interviews, observations, experiments), **secondary data sources** (e.g., published
sources, official statistics, databases, company records, online sources), and **tertiary
data sources** (e.g., encyclopedias, indexes). Each source has its own strengths and is
suitable for different types of research depending on the objectives, resources, and the
nature of the data required. Understanding these sources allows researchers to choose
the most appropriate methods for collecting data that will answer their research
questions effectively and accurately.

Q.2 Differentiate between probability and no-probability sampling.

Ans. Probability and non-probability sampling are two broad categories of
sampling techniques used in research. Each has its own methods, advantages,
and limitations. Here’s a detailed differentiation between the two:

1. Definition

- Probability Sampling: This is a sampling technique where every member of the

population has a known, non-zero chance of being selected in the sample. It relies
on random selection methods.

- Non-Probability Sampling: This is a sampling technique where the samples are

selected based on non-random criteria, and not every member of the population has a
chance of being included in the sample.

2. Selection Method

- Probability Sampling: Involves random selection, meaning every individual in the

population has an equal or known chance of being selected. Methods such as
random number generators or drawing lots are often used.

- Non-Probability Sampling: Involves non-random selection, where the researcher

selects the samples based on subjective judgment, convenience, or other criteria rather
than random chance.

3. Examples of Techniques

- Probability Sampling:
- Simple Random Sampling: Every individual has an equal chance of being selected.
- Systematic Sampling: Every nth individual is selected from a list after a random
start.

- Stratified Sampling: The population is divided into strata, and random samples
are taken from each stratum.

- Cluster Sampling: The population is divided into clusters, and a random sample of
clusters is selected, with all or random members from the chosen clusters being
studied.

- Non-Probability Sampling:

- Convenience Sampling: Samples are selected based on ease of access or availability.

- Judgmental or Purposive Sampling: The researcher selects samples based on who

they think is most appropriate for the study.

- Snowball Sampling: Existing participants recruit future subjects from among

their acquaintances.

- Quota Sampling: Samples are selected to ensure that specific subgroups are
represented in the study in proportion to their occurrence in the population.

4. Representation and Generalizability

 - Probability Sampling: Because the selection is random, the sample is more likely to
be representative of the entire population. This allows for generalizing the results to
the larger population with a known level of confidence.

- Non-Probability Sampling: The sample may not be representative of the population,

as the selection is based on non-random criteria. This limits the ability to generalize
the findings to the larger population.

5. Bias and Accuracy

- Probability Sampling: Reduces the risk of selection bias because of the random
selection process. The results are generally more accurate and reliable.

- Non-Probability Sampling: Higher risk of selection bias as the researcher may

unintentionally select samples that are not representative of the population. The
results may be less accurate and more subjective.

6. Use in Research

- Probability Sampling: Often used in quantitative research where generalization of

results to a larger population is important. It is ideal for large-scale surveys and studies
that require statistical analysis.

- Non-Probability Sampling: Commonly used in qualitative research, exploratory

research, or situations where the research does not aim for generalization but rather
for in depth understanding, case studies, or when the population is hard to access.
7. Complexity and Cost

- Probability Sampling: Often more complex and costly to implement due to the need for
a complete population list and randomization processes.

- Non-Probability Sampling: Generally simpler and less costly, making it more practical
for smaller studies or when time and resources are limited.

8. Examples of Application

- Probability Sampling: Used in national opinion polls, health surveys, and other studies
where it is important to accurately reflect the views or characteristics of a large
population.

- Non-Probability Sampling: Used in case studies, pilot studies, or exploratory

research where the focus is on understanding specific phenomena rather than
generalizing to a larger population.

Summary

- Probability Sampling involves random selection methods where every member

of the population has a known chance of being included, leading to more
representative and generalizable results. It is more complex and costly but ideal
for quantitative research requiring statistical accuracy.

- Non-Probability Sampling involves non-random selection methods, leading to

samples that may not be representative of the population, limiting
generalizability. It is simpler, less costly, and often used in qualitative research or
exploratory studies where in-depth insights are more important than statistical
representation.
Q.3 Define plagiarism and its major consequences.

Ans. What is Plagiarism?

Plagiarism is the act of using someone else’s work, ideas, words, or intellectual
property without proper acknowledgment, presenting them as your own. This can
include copying text, paraphrasing ideas, or using someone else’s data, research, or
creative work without giving due credit. Plagiarism is considered a serious ethical
violation in academia,
publishing, and professional fields.

Types of Plagiarism:

1. Direct Plagiarism: Copying someone else’s work word-for-word without citation.

2. Self-Plagiarism: Reusing your own previous work without acknowledging that it has
been submitted elsewhere.

3. Mosaic Plagiarism: Incorporating phrases, ideas, or text from different sources

without proper citation, even if mixed with original content.

4. Accidental Plagiarism: Unintentionally failing to cite sources correctly or

paraphrasing without acknowledgment.

Major Consequences of Plagiarism:

1. Academic Penalties

- Explanation: In educational settings, plagiarism can lead to severe academic

penalties, such as receiving a failing grade on an assignment, failing a course, or even
expulsion from an academic institution.

- Impact: These penalties can significantly impact a student’s academic record and
future opportunities.
2. Damage to Reputation

- Explanation: For professionals, researchers, and academics, being caught

plagiarizing can severely damage one’s reputation. It undermines trust and credibility
in their work.

- Impact: This damage can lead to loss of professional standing, termination of

employment, and difficulty in securing future opportunities.

3. Legal Consequences

- Explanation: Plagiarism can also lead to legal consequences, particularly if the

plagiarized material is copyrighted. This can result in lawsuits, fines, and other
legal actions.

- Impact: Legal consequences can be financially damaging and lead to further

reputational harm.

4. Loss of Opportunities

- Explanation: Plagiarism can result in loss of scholarships, research funding, and

publishing opportunities. Publishers may retract articles, and organizations may
withdraw funding if plagiarism is discovered.

- Impact: Loss of opportunities can hinder academic and professional progress,

limiting career advancement.
5. Ethical and Moral Consequences

- Explanation: Plagiarism is considered a breach of academic and professional ethics.

It reflects poorly on an individual’s integrity and character.

- Impact: Ethical violations can lead to long-term consequences in one’s personal

and professional life, affecting relationships and trust.

6. Professional Disciplinary Actions

- Explanation: In some professions, plagiarism can result in disciplinary actions from

professional bodies, including loss of professional licenses, membership, or
certifications.

- Impact: This can severely restrict one’s ability to practice in their field or result
in permanent exclusion from professional organizations.

7. Academic Retraction and Loss of Academic Integrity

- Explanation: In academia, if plagiarism is discovered in published research, it can

lead to the retraction of papers and loss of academic integrity.

- Impact: Retractions can damage the credibility of all associated research and can
have lasting effects on an academic’s career.

Summary
Plagiarism is the unethical practice of using another’s work without proper
acknowledgment. Its major consequences include academic penalties, damage
to reputation, legal issues, loss of opportunities, ethical ramifications,
professional
disciplinary actions, and potential retraction of published work. These consequences
highlight the importance of maintaining academic and professional integrity by
properly citing and acknowledging all sources of information.

Q. 4. What important steps we must keep in mind, while reporting to the

reader of Owner?

Ans. When reporting to the owner or a key stakeholder, it's essential to

communicate clearly, concisely, and effectively. Here are some important steps
to keep in mind:

1. Understand the Audience

- Explanation: Know the background, interests, and expectations of the owner or

reader. Understand what they prioritize (e.g., financial performance, operational
efficiency, market position) and tailor the report accordingly.

- Importance: This ensures that the report is relevant and resonates with the
owner, addressing their specific concerns and objectives.

2. Be Clear and Concise

- Explanation: Avoid unnecessary jargon, technical language, or lengthy explanations.
Use straightforward language and focus on the key points.

- Importance: The owner is likely busy and needs to grasp the report’s key
messages quickly. Clear and concise communication makes it easier for them to
make informed decisions.

3. Focus on Key Metrics and Data

- Explanation: Highlight the most important metrics, data points, and outcomes
relevant to the owner's interests. Use charts, graphs, and tables to present data
visually.

- Importance: Focusing on key metrics helps the owner quickly assess the situation
and understand the implications of the report.

4. Provide Context and Analysis

- Explanation: Don’t just present data—interpret it. Explain the significance of

the findings, trends, or outcomes, and how they impact the business or project.

- Importance: Context and analysis help the owner understand not just what
happened, but why it happened and what it means for the future

5. Highlight Achievements and Challenges

- Explanation: Clearly outline the successes and any challenges or obstacles faced
during the reporting period. Be honest about issues and potential risks.

- Importance: Owners need a balanced view of performance. Highlighting both

achievements and challenges allows them to appreciate successes while
addressing potential problems.

6. Provide Actionable Recommendations

- Explanation: Offer clear, actionable recommendations based on the report’s

findings. Suggest next steps, potential strategies, or areas for improvement.

- Importance: Recommendations help the owner understand what actions are

needed and guide their decision-making process.

7. Structure the Report Logically

- Explanation: Organize the report in a logical flow, typically starting with an

executive summary, followed by detailed sections, and concluding with
recommendations.

- Importance: A well-structured report is easier to read and ensures that the owner
can follow the progression of ideas and information logically.

8. Use an Executive Summary

- Explanation: Begin the report with a concise executive summary that outlines the
key points, findings, and recommendations.

- Importance: The executive summary provides a quick overview, allowing the owner
to grasp the main points without reading the entire report.

9. Be Transparent and Objective

- Explanation: Present the information honestly and objectively, without sugarcoating

or omitting important details. Include both positive and negative aspects.
- Importance: Transparency builds trust with the owner and ensures they have a
complete and accurate understanding of the situation

10. Consider the Timing

- Explanation: Deliver the report at an appropriate time, considering deadlines,

decision making timelines, or key meetings.

- Importance: Timely reporting ensures that the information is relevant and can be
acted upon promptly

11. Use Professional Presentation

- Explanation: Ensure the report is well-presented, with a clean layout,

consistent formatting, and no grammatical or spelling errors.

- Importance: A professionally presented report reflects well on the writer and

enhances the credibility of the information provided.

12. Follow Up if Necessary

- Explanation: After submitting the report, be prepared to follow up with

additional information, clarifications, or discussions as needed.

- Importance: Following up ensures that any questions are answered and that the
owner fully understands the report's content and implications.

Summary

When reporting to the owner or key stakeholder, it's essential to understand their
needs, communicate clearly and concisely, focus on key data, provide context and
actionable recommendations, and present the report professionally. By following
these steps, you ensure that the owner receives the information they need in a
manner that supports effective decision-making and strategic planning.
Q.5 Explain the cluster sampling with appropriate examples.

Ans. Cluster Sampling is a type of probability sampling method where the

population is divided into distinct groups, or “clusters,” and a random sample of
these clusters is selected. After selecting the clusters, all or a random sample of
elements within each chosen cluster are surveyed. This method is particularly
useful when dealing with large populations spread over a wide geographic area, as
it can be more practical and cost effective than other sampling methods.

Steps in Cluster Sampling:

1. Define the Population and Clusters:

- Identify the entire population and divide it into non-overlapping clusters. These
clusters should ideally be heterogeneous within themselves but homogeneous
between each other.

2. Select Clusters:

- Randomly select a sample of clusters from the total list of clusters. This can be
done using methods such as simple random sampling or systematic sampling.

3. Survey Within Clusters:

- Collect data from all individuals within each selected cluster (one-stage cluster
sampling) or select a random sample of individuals within each chosen cluster (two-
stage cluster sampling).

4. Analyze Data:

- Combine the data from the selected clusters to make inferences about the
entire population.

Examples of Cluster Sampling:

1. Educational Research:

- Scenario: A researcher wants to study the educational outcomes of high

school students in a large country.

- Application: Instead of sampling individual students across the country, the

researcher might divide the country into clusters based on schools. Randomly select a
sample of schools (clusters), and then collect data from all students within those
selected schools.

2. Health Surveys:

- Scenario: A public health organization wants to assess the prevalence of a

specific health condition across a large region.

- Application: The region is divided into clusters based on geographic areas or

neighborhoods. A random sample of these geographic clusters is selected, and health
surveys are conducted within these clusters to estimate the condition’s prevalence
across the entire region.

3. Market Research:

- Scenario: A company is conducting market research to understand consumer

preferences in a large city.

- Application: The city is divided into clusters based on neighborhoods or districts. A

random sample of these neighborhoods is chosen, and then surveys are conducted
within these selected neighborhoods to gather data on consumer preferences.

4. Agricultural Studies:

- Scenario: An agricultural researcher is studying crop yields across a large

farming region.

- Application: The region is divided into clusters based on farms or fields. A random
sample of farms is selected, and then data on crop yields is collected from these
selected farms to make inferences about the entire region’s crop yield.

Advantages of Cluster Sampling:

1. Cost-Effective: Cluster sampling can be more economical compared to other

methods, especially when the population is geographically dispersed, as it
reduces the need for extensive travel and logistics.
 2. Practical: It simplifies the data collection process by focusing on specific
clusters rather than having to sample from the entire population.

3. Convenient: It can be easier to implement in certain contexts, such as large-

scale surveys where a complete list of the population is difficult to obtain.

Disadvantages of Cluster Sampling:

1. Less Precision: The estimates from cluster sampling may be less precise than
those from simple random sampling, especially if the clusters are not homogeneous
within themselves.

2. Cluster Variability: If the clusters are very different from each other, the results
may not be as generalizable to the whole population.

3. Potential for Increased Sampling Error: The variability within clusters can lead
to increased sampling error compared to other sampling methods.

Summary

Cluster sampling is a probability sampling method that involves dividing the population
into clusters and then randomly selecting some of these clusters to survey. It is
particularly useful for large populations spread over wide areas, offering a cost-effective
and practical way to gather data. However, it may result in less precision and
generalizability compared to other sampling methods.