Paper 1

Topic 4- Agencies and Identity

Evaluate the view that [Peers/ Family/

Education/ Media/ Religion] is the most
important agent shaping
[Gender/Age/Ethnicity/Social Class] Identity
Note: Below are all 3 supporting points on how each of the agencies of socialization shapes a
particular aspect of identity. If you are required to make a counter argument, always use the
over-deterministic argument, then explain symbolic interactionism, then use an example to show
how agency overcomes the limitations placed upon them. If in the rare case you need 2 more
evaluation points (i.e., 26 marks), then, in addition to the symbolic interactionist argument,
argue how 2 other agencies are can be considered more important than the one in the question.
But make sure when you are explaining how another agency is more important, you mention why
it’s more important throughout the paragraph. I’ve included two sample counter-arguments
below, one from the interactionist perspective, and one saying how another agency is more
important – both examples are evaluating the view that “education is considered the most
important aspect shaping gender identity”.

Over-deterministic approach evaluation:

(P): One argument against the view that education is the most important influence on gender identity is that it is
over-deterministic.
(E): This perspective overestimates the impact of structural forces, namely the education system, on individuals’
behavior, values, and beliefs regarding their gender identity.
(E): From a symbolic interactionist standpoint, individuals have agency and can negotiate the meanings they
attach to their gender identity within the schooling experience. For instance, students may reject traditional
notions, such as the belief that girls are better at arts or boys are better at STEM subjects. Evidence of this is seen
in the growing number of girls pursuing STEM fields like Computer Science, as well as boys increasingly
engaging in literature and other traditionally female-dominated subjects, both in Western and Asian countries.
(L): This suggests that individuals actively shape their own gender identity, even within the education system,
demonstrating that education is only one of many influences on gender identity.

Other agency more important evaluation: Family is more important than education on gender

(P) Another way to challenge the view that education is the most important agent shaping gender identity is to
argue that the family has a more profound impact than schools.
(E) Families are the earliest source of gender socialization, with parents, siblings, and extended family members
teaching children norms about masculinity and femininity from birth. According to Ann Oakley (1972), children
learn gender roles through processes like manipulation (rewarding “gender-appropriate” behavior)
and canalization (directing children toward certain toys and activities).
(E) For example, if parents provide dolls and domestic play sets to girls while encouraging boys toward sports or
building toys, these messages about gender roles can become ingrained well before children enter the education
system. Even as children grow older, family expectations regarding chores, emotional expression, and career
aspirations can continue to overshadow what they learn in school.
(L) This suggests that family socialization exerts a more fundamental and long-lasting influence on gender
identity than the education system, indicating that education is only one of several agents that shape how
individuals understand and perform their gender.

1
 Peers Gender

Point 1: Peer Pressure and Gender Conformity

(P) One reason peers may be considered the most important agent shaping gender identity is
because they strongly enforce gender conformity, especially during childhood and adolescence.
(E) Sociologist Sue Lees (1993) found that peer groups actively police gender behaviors,
praising peers who conform to traditional gender expectations and ridiculing or isolating those
who deviate.
(E) For example, boys who show sensitivity or emotion may be mocked by their peers as being
weak, encouraging them to adopt more traditionally masculine behaviors to gain acceptance.
Similarly, girls who deviate from expected feminine behaviors may face exclusion or negative
labels.
(L)This suggests peers powerfully shape gender identities by pressuring individuals to conform
to accepted norms within their social group.

Point 2: Role of Peer Interaction in Developing Gender Roles

(P) Another reason peer groups are influential in shaping gender identity is because interactions
within peer groups actively teach and reinforce gender-specific behaviors.
(E) Thorne (1993) argues that during play, children actively learn and reinforce gender roles
through peer interactions, developing their gender identities through imitation and group play
dynamics.
(E) For example, boys often engage in competitive sports or rough play, reinforcing ideas of
masculinity linked to competitiveness and aggression. Girls, conversely, may engage in
cooperative play, emphasizing sharing, empathy, and nurturing behaviors, thereby shaping their
feminine identities.
(L)This suggests peer interactions significantly shape individuals' gender identities by directly
influencing how they learn gender-appropriate behaviors through daily socialization.

Point 3: Peer Influence and Gender Identity Through Subcultures

(P) Finally, peer groups strongly shape gender identity by creating specific subcultures that
reinforce distinct forms of masculinity and femininity.
(E) Sociologist Mac an Ghaill (1994) studied school peer groups and found that boys developed
masculine identities through peer groups like "macho lads," valuing toughness and rejecting
femininity or academic achievement as unmasculine. (You can also use Willis here)
(E) Similarly, female peer groups often form around common ideas of femininity, beauty
standards, and relationship norms, reinforcing shared gender expectations. These group cultures
profoundly influence how young people see themselves and their gender identities.
(L)This suggests peers actively construct gender identities by creating subcultures that define
and reinforce what it means to be masculine or feminine.

2
 Peers Ethnicity (most likely will never show up in any form)

Point 1: Creation of Shared Ethnic Experiences through Peer Interaction

(P) One reason peer groups can be considered crucial in shaping ethnic identity is because peer
interactions help to form shared experiences that define ethnic identity.
(E) According to sociologist Tony Sewell (1998), peer groups are essential for young people
from ethnic minorities to develop a collective sense of identity based on shared experiences of
marginalization or discrimination.
(E) For example, minority students who experience racism or prejudice at school often seek
emotional support from peers who share similar ethnic backgrounds. Through these shared
experiences, individuals develop a stronger sense of ethnic pride, identity, and solidarity.
(L)This suggests peer interactions play a vital role in shaping ethnic identity by creating a
collective sense of belonging and shared cultural understanding.

Point 2: Peer Influence on Hybrid Ethnic Identities

(P) Another way that peer groups significantly shape ethnic identities is by influencing
individuals’ blending or hybridization of cultural identities, particularly among second-
generation immigrant youth.
(E) Paul Gilroy (1993) argues that peer groups play a crucial role in helping minority youths
form hybrid identities that blend elements of their family's traditional ethnic culture with aspects
of mainstream culture.
(E) For instance, British Asian youth may combine elements of their parents' traditional cultures
with British cultural norms, such as adopting language, fashion, or music styles influenced by
peer groups, creating hybrid identities like ‘Brasian’ identities.
(L)This suggests peer groups significantly shape ethnic identities by encouraging young people
to form hybrid cultural identities through social interactions with peers.

Point 3: Peer Influence in Resisting Dominant Cultural Identities

(P) Another way that peer groups can be essential in shaping ethnic identities through resisting
dominant or mainstream cultural identities.
(E) Sewell (1998) observed how young Black British males often form subcultures with their
peers to actively resist racist stereotypes and societal expectations imposed by mainstream
institutions like schools or media.
(E) For example, some young Black males adopt distinct fashion styles, music tastes, and slang
within peer groups as a form of resistance and cultural affirmation. This collective resistance
strengthens their ethnic identity as separate from the mainstream culture.
(L)This suggests that peer relationships significantly shape ethnic identity by enabling minority
groups to collectively resist dominant cultural pressures and assert their unique ethnic identities.

3
 Peers Age

Point 1: Peer Pressure and Age Identity

(P) One reason peer groups are the most important agent shaping age identity is because they
exert powerful pressure to conform to age-specific norms and behaviors.
(E) Sociologist Sue Lees (1987) studied peer pressure on teenage girls and argues that peer
groups strongly enforce conformity by rewarding individuals who act in age-appropriate ways
and isolating those who do not.
(E) For example, teenagers often encourage peers to engage in age-specific behaviors such as
experimenting with fashion trends, music choices, or risk-taking activities like smoking or
drinking alcohol, reinforcing a sense of shared youth identity. Those who resist these norms risk
rejection or bullying.
(L)This suggests peer groups significantly shape age identity by clearly defining and enforcing
expectations about how individuals should behave at different ages.

Point 2: Peer Interaction and Youth Subcultures

(P) Another way peers are influential in shaping age identity is through the formation of youth
subcultures, which reinforce shared identities among young people.
(E) Sociologist Mike Brake (1985) highlights how youth subcultures, like punks, goths, or
skaters, create strong collective identities based on shared interests, values, and behaviors tied
specifically to their age group.
(E) For instance, groups such as "emos" or "gamers" share distinctive fashion styles, music
tastes, and slang, creating a collective sense of identity and belonging based specifically on age
and peer connection.
(L)This suggests peer groups significantly shape age identity by providing young people with
distinct subcultural identities separate from adult influences.

Point 3: Peer Influence on Transitions between Life Stages

(P) Finally, peer groups can be seen as the most influential agent shaping age identity because
they guide and influence transitions between life stages.
(E) Sociologist Tony Sewell (1998) observed that peer groups help young people navigate key
age-related transitions by setting expectations and offering role models and guidance for moving
from childhood to adolescence or adulthood.
(E) For instance, peer groups commonly shape teenagers' attitudes toward dating, independence,
or career aspirations, affecting their decisions and experiences in transitioning into adulthood.
(L)This suggests peer groups critically shape individuals' age identities by guiding their
transition and understanding of what is appropriate at different stages of life.

4
 Peers Social Class

Point 1: Formation of Class-based Subcultures through Peer Groups

(P) Peers are influential in shaping social class identity by creating distinct class-based
subcultures that define group identity and values.
(E) Paul Willis’s (1977) study showed how working-class boys ("the lads") formed peer groups
in school that valued resistance to authority, toughness, and rejection of academic achievement
as symbols of their working-class identity.
(E) Similarly, in contemporary society, middle-class students often form peer groups
emphasizing academic achievement, future-oriented goals, and conformity to middle-class
expectations, further reinforcing their social class identities.
(L)This suggests that peers profoundly shape class identity through the development and
maintenance of class-specific subcultures.

Point 2: Peer Influence on Class-specific Consumption

(P) Another reason peer groups significantly shape social class identity is because they influence
consumption patterns and lifestyle choices connected to social class.
(E) Pierre Bourdieu (1984) argues that individuals' preferences—such as fashion, leisure
activities, or music tastes—reflect their class background, and these preferences are strongly
shaped by peer interactions.
(E) For instance, middle-class peer groups might pressure each other into wearing branded
clothing or attending certain cultural events (such as theatre), while working-class peer groups
may value simpler or more affordable leisure activities.
(L)This suggests peers shape class identities by influencing everyday lifestyle and consumption
choices.

Point 3: Peer Pressure

(P) One reason peer groups are the most important influence shaping social class identity is that
they strongly pressure individuals to conform to behaviors typical of their social class.
(E) Diane Reay (1998) found that peer groups within schools reinforce class identities by
rewarding behaviors that align with class norms and isolating individuals who deviate.
(E) For example, middle-class students might face pressure from peers to excel academically and
engage in extracurricular activities, reinforcing a middle-class identity that values achievement
and future success. Conversely, working-class students might pressure peers to reject academic
success to demonstrate loyalty to working-class values.
(L)This suggests peer influence is powerful in shaping class identities by enforcing conformity
to social class expectations.

5
 Family Gender

Point 1: Early Socialization into Gender Roles in the Family

(P) One reason the family can be considered the most important agent shaping gender identity is
because it introduces children to gender roles from a very early age.
(E) Sociologist Ann Oakley (1972) argues that parents actively shape gender identity through
processes like manipulation (rewarding gender-appropriate behaviors) and canalization (directing
children toward gender-specific toys and activities).
(E) For example, parents often buy dolls for girls and trucks for boys, reinforcing expectations
about what behaviors are appropriate for their gender.
(L) This suggests families significantly shape gender identity by actively teaching children
gendered norms from an early stage.

Point 2: Family Control and Gender Differences

(P) Another reason the family strongly influences gender identity is because parents apply
different social controls and expectations based on gender.
(E) Angela McRobbie (2000) argues that families often enforce stricter controls on girls
compared to boys, limiting girls' social interactions and freedoms, while allowing boys more
independence.
(E) For instance, she highlights how girls typically spend more time indoors under parental
supervision, engaging in family-approved activities, whereas boys are encouraged to spend more
time outside the home with peers, developing independence and confidence.
(L)This suggests that family significantly shapes gender identity by reinforcing different
expectations and levels of freedom based on gender, ultimately impacting how boys and girls
perceive their roles in society.

Point 3: Gender Identity through Family Role Models

(P) Finally, the family can be viewed as the primary agent shaping gender identity because it
provides role models that children imitate in forming their gender identities.
(E) According to Bandura’s (1977) Social Learning Theory, children develop their gender
identities by observing and imitating their parents or siblings, adopting behaviors they consider
gender-appropriate. (Note: this is similar to Oakley’s argument last way of gender socialization--
see p. 29 blue—but we can use another study to expand our range of socio material).
(E) For example, daughters may observe and mimic their mothers performing domestic tasks,
while sons might model their fathers’ behaviors in work or recreational activities.
(L) This suggests that family members significantly shape children’s gender identities through
direct observation and imitation of gendered role models.

6
 Family Ethnic Identity

Point 1: Reinforcing Ethnic Identity through Family Traditions

(P) One reason the family is the most important agent shaping ethnic identity is because it
reinforces ethnic traditions and cultural practices within the household.
(E) Shaw’s (2000) study of British-Pakistani Muslims in Oxford found that even third-generation
children continued to follow their Islamic values and traditions due to strong family influence
and upbringing.
(E) For example, these families often prioritize religious celebrations, food choices, and dress
codes that encourage children to feel connected to their ethnic heritage, leading them to
internalize these cultural values as part of their identity.
(L) This suggests families actively shape and reinforce ethnic identity through the continuation
of cultural traditions across generations.

Point 2: Family Values and the Internalization of Ethnic Beliefs

(P) Another reason the family significantly shapes ethnic identity is because it transmits core
ethnic values and beliefs directly to children.
(E) Song (1999) found that ethnic minority families, such as Chinese families in the UK,
emphasize specific values like hard work, cooperation, and familial loyalty, often describing the
“family as a workplace.”
(E) For instance, Chinese children frequently participate in family-run businesses, such as
restaurants or shops, which reinforces their ethnic values of hard work, family loyalty, and
collective responsibility.
(L)This suggests family life directly shapes ethnic identity by embedding core ethnic beliefs and
values within children's daily experiences.

Point 3: Family as a Source of Ethnic Pride and Belonging

(P) Another reason families can be seen as the most important agent shaping ethnic identity is
that they instill a sense of pride and belonging related to ethnicity.
(E) Sociologist Anwar (1998) found that ethnic minority families often encourage children
during the process of primary socialization to take pride in their cultural heritage as a way of
protecting them against discrimination or prejudice.
(E) For example, families might actively teach their children about their ethnic history, language,
traditional foods, and cultural achievements, strengthening children’s pride in their ethnic
identity and providing resilience against negative outside influences.
(L)This suggests families profoundly shape ethnic identity by instilling pride and confidence in
children regarding their ethnic heritage from a young age, creating a strong sense of belonging.

7
 Family Age

Point 1: Family Defines Age-appropriate Behaviors through Socialization

(P) One reason the family can be seen as the most important agent shaping age identity is
because it clearly defines age-appropriate behaviors through early socialization.
(E) Sociologist Jane Pilcher (1995) highlights that family members explicitly teach children what
behaviors and activities are acceptable for their age group, reinforcing clear distinctions between
childhood, adolescence, and adulthood.
(E) For example, parents often set clear rules such as bedtimes, suitable toys, or responsibilities
for chores, which establish norms about how children of specific ages should behave.
This suggests the family significantly shapes age identity by teaching individuals what is
socially acceptable for their age from an early stage.

Point 2: Family Control and Age-related Responsibilities

(P) The family can also significantly shape age identity by exerting control and setting
boundaries based on age, which helps children internalize their age-based identities.
(E) Sociologists Hockey and James (1993) emphasize that the concept of childhood is a social
construction that came into existence with industrialization. Within the family, parents now
actively impose restrictions and grant freedoms based on their children's age, shaping their sense
of maturity and responsibility.
(E) For instance, younger children are given less freedom and more protection, whereas
teenagers gradually gain more independence, such as later curfews or permission to socialize
independently, reinforcing clear ideas about age identity.
(L)This suggests families fundamentally shape individuals' age identities through the gradual
granting or withholding of freedoms and responsibilities based on age-related expectations.

Point 3: Family Members as Role Models

(P) Another reason the family can be considered the most influential agent shaping age identity
is because family members act as role models, demonstrating age-specific responsibilities and
behaviors.
(E) Sociologist Ann Oakley (1972) emphasizes that children learn social roles largely by
observing and imitating their parents and other adult family members. Although Oakley
primarily focuses on gender, this observation process also applies to age-based roles.
(E) For instance, children observe parents performing tasks like managing finances, household
chores, or taking care of younger siblings, leading them to internalize ideas about adult
responsibilities and expectations associated with specific ages.
(L) This suggests that family strongly shapes age identity by providing role models whose
behaviors illustrate age-related responsibilities and expectations.

8
 Family Social Class

Point 1: Family Shapes Class Identity through Transmission of Cultural and Social Capital
(P) One reason the family is the most important agent shaping social class identity is because it
transmits class-specific cultural and social capital to children from an early age.
(E) Pierre Bourdieu (1984) argued that social class determines an individual's access to different
forms of capital, such as cultural capital (knowledge, skills, behaviors) and social capital (useful
connections and networks). Middle-class children inherit higher levels of both cultural capital
(like language skills and cultured behaviors) and social capital (connections with professionals),
which helps them navigate key social institutions successfully, particularly education.
(E) For instance, middle-class families typically use complex language codes (elaborated
speech), helping their children succeed in school. Additionally, middle-class parents often have
social networks involving professionals (doctors, lawyers, professors) who can offer guidance,
mentoring, or opportunities, giving their children a clear advantage over working-class children
who lack these connections.
(L) This suggests families significantly shape social class identity by providing children with
cultural and social resources that determine their ability to succeed and maintain their class
status.

Point 2: Family and Educational Aspirations through Class-based Parenting Styles

(P) Another reason the family significantly shapes social class identity is through parenting
styles that influence children’s educational aspirations and future opportunities.
(E) Annette Lareau (2011) found that middle-class parents engage in the practice of "concerted
cultivation," deliberately socializing their children to develop cultured behavior, sophisticated
language skills, and educational ambitions. Similarly, Vincent and Ball describe middle-class
parents as raising "renaissance children" who participate in costly enrichment activities like
music, art, and sports.
(E) For example, middle-class children might take piano lessons, attend art classes, or join
competitive sports clubs, building skills and confidence for future success. In contrast, working-
class parents typically do not have the resources for such enrichment activities, influencing their
children's lower aspirations and limiting opportunities later in life.
(L)This suggests family significantly shapes social class identity by fostering different
aspirations, skills, and opportunities based on class position.

9
Point 3: Family Expectations and Class-based Roles
(P) Another reason the family can be considered the most influential agent shaping social class
identity is because it defines childhood roles and responsibilities differently based on class.
(E) Hecht’s (1998) ethnographic study differentiates between two distinct experiences of
childhood based on social class: the "nurtured child" of affluent families and the "nurturing
child" of poorer families. According to Hecht, working-class or poorer families often expect
children to take on caregiving roles from an early age, whereas wealthy families typically focus
on nurturing and protecting their children.
(E) For example, children from poorer families frequently spend much of their childhood helping
parents by looking after younger siblings, doing housework, or taking on responsibilities
typically associated with adults. In contrast, children from affluent families are often enrolled in
structured activities like private tutoring, sports teams, or dance lessons, emphasizing their status
as receivers of care rather than caregivers.
(L)This suggests families significantly shape social class identities by assigning distinct roles to
children, influencing their experiences and perceptions of what it means to belong to their
particular social class.

10
 Education Gender

Point 1: Gendered Subjects and Teacher Influence in Schools

(P) The education system reinforces traditional gender identities through the way subjects are
structured and the gender distribution of teachers.
(E) Subjects are often associated with specific genders through the depiction of gender in
textbooks and the predominance of male or female teachers in certain fields.
(E) Colley (1998) found that school textbooks create a clear divide between masculine and
feminine domains, portraying arts and literature as feminine while presenting math and science
as masculine. Additionally, male teachers are more likely to teach subjects such as mathematics
and P.E., whereas female teachers dominate fields like humanities and languages. Government
statistics further support this pattern, showing that 80% of A-level computer science students
are male, while 90% of performing arts students are female.
(L) This suggests that the education system plays a crucial role in shaping gender identity by
reinforcing subject-based gender norms, influencing how boys and girls perceive their
academic strengths and future career paths.

Point 2: Teacher Expectations and the Pygmalion Effect

(P) Another way the education system reinforces gender identity is through differential
treatment of boys and girls by teachers, which shapes students' perceptions of their own gender
roles.
(E) Teachers often hold different expectations for boys and girls, influencing how they interact
with students and reinforcing traditional gender norms.
(E) Mitsos and Browne (1998) found that teachers have lower expectations of boys and are less
likely to discipline them for minor infractions, often excusing their behavior with the idea that
“boys will always be boys.” In contrast, John Abraham (1986) found that teachers tend to
describe girls as bright, well-behaved, and hardworking, associating them with quietness and
timidity.
(L) This suggests that the education system reinforces traditional gender roles, leading boys to
internalize traits associated with hegemonic masculinity, such as disruptiveness, while girls
may internalize traits associated with emphasized femininity, such as passivity and diligence.
This also contributes to the perception that girls are naturally higher achievers in school
compared to boys

Point 3: The Hidden Curriculum and Reinforcement of Gender Norms

(P) The education system reinforces gender identity through the hidden curriculum, which
subtly teaches students societal expectations of masculinity and femininity.
(E) The hidden curriculum consists of unwritten norms, values, and expectations
communicated through school culture, routines, and interactions. Sociologists argue that
schools indirectly promote gender norms through rules, traditions, and expectations of student
behavior.
(E) For example, school dress codes often impose stricter regulations on girls’ attire,
reinforcing the idea that their appearance is of greater importance. Additionally, leadership
roles such as head boy and head girl often reflect traditional gender expectations, with boys
encouraged toward assertive and authoritative positions while girls are expected to be
organized and nurturing.

11
 (L) This suggests that the education system plays a crucial role in shaping gender identity by
reinforcing gender norms through both formal rules and informal expectations, influencing how
students perceive and perform their gender roles in society.

Education Ethnicity

Point 1: Teacher-Pupil Relationships and Labeling (Pygmalion Effect)

(P) One way that education can shape ethnic identity is through teacher-pupil relationships,
where teachers, as authority figures, influence how students perceive their own ethnic identities.
(E) Teachers often label students based on race and cultural background, reinforcing stereotypes
that shape students’ academic self-concept and ethnic identity.
(E) David Gillborn (1990), in his study on inner-city schools in the UK, found that teachers often
viewed African-Caribbean students as threatening, even when no threat was intended. As a result,
these students were more likely to be subject to disciplinary measures such as detentions and
exclusions. Similarly, Tony Sewell (1996) found that some Black students faced excessive
discipline because teachers perceived their masculinity, sexuality, and physical presence as
intimidating due to ingrained racist attitudes.
(L) This suggests that the education system reinforces racial stereotypes, leading Black students
to associate their ethnic identity with trouble and academic underachievement, which in turn can
influence their self-perception and life outcomes.

Point 2: The Ethnocentric Curriculum and Marginalization of Minority Cultures

(P) Another way education shapes ethnic identity is through the formal curriculum, which often
prioritizes the history and perspectives of the dominant ethnic group, marginalizing minority
cultures.
(E) The curriculum in many countries is ethnocentric, meaning it reflects the experiences, values,
and narratives of the majority ethnicity while neglecting or distorting the histories of minority
ethnic groups.
(E) The Swann Report (1985) criticized the British curriculum for presenting history from a
Eurocentric perspective, often downplaying the negative impacts of colonialism. Additionally,
languages like French and German are widely taught in schools, while Asian and African
languages are overlooked. Textbooks tend to underrepresent Black and Asian individuals,
contributing to their symbolic annihilation (the erasure or underrepresentation of certain groups
in the media and education). Even school assemblies reinforce Christian traditions such as
Christmas and Easter, marginalizing non-Christian and minority ethnic students.
(L) These examples suggest that the education system reinforces the dominance of the majority
ethnicity while marginalizing minority groups, shaping how students from these backgrounds
perceive their cultural identity and their place in wider society.

12
Point 3: Ethnic Identity and Peer Segregation in Schools

(P) A third way that education shapes ethnic identity is through peer group segregation within
schools, which influences how students experience and understand their ethnic identity.
(E) Sociologists have observed that students often form friendship groups based on shared ethnic
backgrounds, which reinforces a sense of cultural identity and belonging. However, this can also
be shaped by school structures, teacher expectations, and wider societal divisions.
(E) For example, sociologist Cecile Wright (1992) found that teachers in multi-ethnic schools
often held lower expectations for Asian students, assuming they would struggle with English and
steering them toward passive learning roles. As a result, some Asian students withdrew into peer
groups made up of individuals from their own ethnic background, reinforcing a distinct ethnic
identity. Similarly, students from minority backgrounds may feel excluded from mainstream
school culture due to racism or cultural misunderstandings, leading them to develop strong in-
group identities within their own ethnic communities.
(L) This suggests that the education system indirectly shapes ethnic identity by fostering
environments where ethnic peer segregation occurs, reinforcing a sense of "otherness" and
influencing how minority students perceive their place within the school and broader society.

13
 Education Age

Point 1: Age-based Grouping in Schools and the Reinforcement of Age Identity

(P) One way that education influences age identity is by separating students into distinct age
groups, reinforcing beliefs about age-related capabilities and expectations.
(E) Schools categorize students by age, placing them into specific year levels, which creates
clear distinctions between age groups and socializes students into norms about what behaviors
and abilities are appropriate at each stage of life. This process also reinforces wider societal
perceptions of different age groups.
(E) For example, primary school students are treated as more dependent, receiving greater
assistance and supervision from teachers, while high school students are expected to be more
independent, making their own academic choices such as selecting elective subjects.
(L) This suggests that the education system plays a key role in shaping age identity by
establishing structured divisions between different age groups, reinforcing the idea that younger
individuals require guidance while older individuals should exhibit greater autonomy.

Point 2: Reinforcing Age Identity through Positive and Negative Sanctions

(P) Another way that education shapes age identity is through the use of positive and negative
sanctions, reinforcing expectations for age-appropriate behavior.
(E) Schools and teachers regulate behavior by rewarding or punishing students based on whether
they conform to societal expectations of their age group. This process teaches students the norms
and values associated with different life stages.
(E) For instance, in Korea and many other Asian countries, respecting older individuals is a
deeply embedded cultural expectation. Teachers reinforce this by praising students who bow or
use formal language with elders while reprimanding those who fail to do so. A more extreme
example is the enforcement of age-related laws, such as schools strictly disciplining students
who engage in underage smoking or drinking through suspensions or expulsions.
(L) This suggests that schools play a major role in reinforcing cultural norms surrounding age,
shaping students’ understanding of what behaviors are appropriate at different life stages.

14
Point 3: Curriculum and Age-related Expectations(这个不是初中都学的吗?)

(P) Another way that education shapes age identity is through the curriculum, which reflects and
reinforces societal expectations regarding what individuals should know at different ages.
(E) Both the formal and hidden curriculum align with broader societal beliefs about what levels
of knowledge and skills are appropriate at different stages of life. The structure of education
reinforces the idea that certain abilities and competencies are expected at specific ages.
(E) For example, primary school curricula focus on basic literacy and numeracy skills, reflecting
the expectation that young children are developing fundamental cognitive abilities. In contrast,
high school subjects like Biology or Sociology introduce more complex knowledge, preparing
students for adulthood and future professional roles. This is reinforced socially, as individuals
who struggle with content that is considered standard for their age may face stigma, with remarks
like “Didn’t you already learn this in middle school?”.
(L) This suggests that education plays a crucial role in shaping students’ understanding of what
they are expected to achieve at certain ages, reinforcing societal expectations for intellectual and
personal development at each stage of life.

EducationSocial Class
Point 1: The Formal and Hidden Curriculum Reinforce Middle-class Values

(P) One way that education shapes social class identity is by transmitting class-based norms and
values, particularly those associated with the middle class.
(E) Both the formal and hidden curriculum reflect middle-class social identity, meaning that
students are socialized into characteristics that align with middle-class expectations.
(E) For example, the formal curriculum places significant emphasis on subjects such as
mathematics and science, which equip students with cultural capital—such as problem-solving
skills—necessary for professional occupations like medicine and law, which are highly valued in
middle-class culture. Meanwhile, the hidden curriculum reinforces punctuality, obedience, and
respect for authority through mechanisms like attendance policies and school discipline, which
are essential for success in middle-class professional environments.
(L) This suggests that the education system socializes students into middle-class values,
reinforcing social class identity. Working-class students, who may have different cultural values
and learning styles, may struggle to conform to these expectations, leading to challenges in
education and reinforcing social class distinctions.

15
Point 2: Teacher-Pupil Interactions and the Reinforcement of Social Class Identity
(Pygmalion Effect)

(P) Another way that education influences social class identity is through teacher-pupil
interactions, which reflect teachers’ biases and expectations shaped by their own class
background.
(E) Teachers often subconsciously favor middle-class students, providing them with more
encouragement, higher expectations, and better opportunities, while working-class students may
be subject to negative labeling.
(E) Howard Becker (1970) found that teachers often view the "ideal pupil" as one who speaks in
an elaborated speech code, is polite, and is well-dressed—characteristics typically associated
with middle-class students. As a result, middle-class students are more likely to receive positive
reinforcement, even if their intellectual ability is no greater than that of their working-class peers.
In contrast, working-class students, who may speak in a restricted speech code or dress less
formally, are often viewed as less capable. Liu and Xie (2017) further found that teachers labeled
poor, underperforming students as "deviant," which contributed to their continued low academic
performance.
(L) This suggests that teacher-pupil interactions reinforce class divisions, as middle-class
students receive greater encouragement and opportunities, while working-class students face
negative labeling, ultimately shaping their class identity and long-term academic success.

Point 3: Education, Social and Cultural Capital, and the Reproduction of the Elite

(P) A third way that education shapes social class identity is by facilitating the reproduction of
the elite, as access to prestigious education provides the social and cultural capital needed to
maintain upper-class status.
(E) Private schools and elite universities, such as Oxbridge, provide students with social
capital (exclusive networks and connections) and cultural capital (knowledge, values, and
confidence) that ease entry into high-status professions.
(E) The Social Mobility Commission (2019) reported that Britain’s most powerful positions—
particularly in law, finance, and politics—are disproportionately occupied by individuals who
attended private schools and elite universities like Oxford and Cambridge. This reflects how
access to prestigious education reinforces existing class hierarchies, as children from privileged
backgrounds are given the best opportunities to secure high-status careers.
(L) This suggests that the education system plays a crucial role in shaping social class identity by
reinforcing elite status through access to prestigious institutions, influencing individuals'
perceptions of their career aspirations and what is attainable based on their educational
background.

16
 Media Gender

Point 1: Reinforcing Traditional Gender Roles

(P) One reason the media significantly shapes gender identity is because it reinforces traditional
gender roles and expectations.
(E) Feminist sociologists, like Angela McRobbie (1994), argue that media often portrays men as
strong and independent, while women are shown as passive, emotional, and domestic.
(E) For instance, TV commercials frequently show women in domestic settings, such as cleaning
or caring for children, while men are portrayed in professional roles. These repeated portrayals
reinforce traditional views about gender, influencing how individuals see themselves and their
expected roles in society.
(L)This suggests media greatly shapes gender identities by consistently reinforcing stereotypical
roles for men and women.

Point 2: Promoting Unrealistic Beauty Ideals

(P) Another way media shapes gender identity is by promoting unrealistic beauty standards that
influence individuals’ self-image and self-esteem.
(E) Feminist sociologist Naomi Wolf (1990) argues that media sets unrealistic beauty standards,
particularly for women, leading to pressure to conform to these ideals.
(E) For example, social media platforms like Instagram and TikTok frequently highlight beauty
standards that are often unattainable, such as extreme thinness or flawless skin. As a result,
individuals, especially young women, may internalize these standards, shaping their self-esteem
and gender identity based on appearance.
(L)This suggests media significantly influences gender identity by creating and promoting
narrow and unrealistic standards for how genders should appear and behave.

Point 3: Shaping Masculinity and Femininity through Media Culture

(P) Finally, media significantly influences gender identity through defining and shaping what
society considers ideal masculinity and femininity.
(E) Sociologist Raewyn Connell (1995) highlights the concept of ‘hegemonic masculinity,’
which media often promotes by showcasing men as powerful, dominant, and emotionally
reserved, whereas femininity is often associated with gentleness, beauty, and vulnerability.
(E) For instance, action movies commonly depict men as tough, aggressive, and emotionally
distant, while romantic films frequently portray women as emotional, dependent, and nurturing.
These portrayals strongly influence how individuals perceive and internalize ideas of what it
means to be masculine or feminine.
(L)This suggests media plays a critical role in shaping individuals’ gender identities by defining
societal expectations of masculinity and femininity.

17
 Media Ethnicity

Point 1: Media Representation Reinforces Ethnic Stereotypes

(P) The media significantly shapes ethnic identity by reinforcing stereotypes about different
ethnic groups.
(E) Stuart Hall (1997) argues that media often portrays ethnic minorities through stereotypical
characters, influencing how these groups are viewed by wider society and even by themselves.
(E) For example, Hollywood films frequently depict Middle Eastern characters as terrorists or
Latinos as criminals, contributing to negative stereotypes that individuals from these ethnic
groups may internalize, affecting their sense of identity.
(L) This suggests media powerfully influences ethnic identities by perpetuating stereotypes that
shape individuals' self-perception and societal expectations.

Point 2: Reinforcing Dominant Cultural Values

(P) Another reason media is central in shaping ethnic identities is because it reinforces dominant
cultural values and norms.
(E) Stuart Hall’s concept of the “white eye” suggests that mainstream media typically presents
stories and news through a white, Western perspective, marginalizing minority experiences.
(E) For instance, mainstream TV shows and news coverage often focus on Western values and
norms, implicitly teaching minorities that their ethnic and cultural identities are less valued or
should be adapted to fit dominant expectations.
(L) This suggests media significantly shapes ethnic identity by reinforcing dominant cultural
norms that minority groups may adopt, influencing their self-perception and identity.

Point 3: Providing Positive Role Models and Empowerment

(P) However, media also positively shapes ethnic identities by offering empowering
representations that challenge negative stereotypes.
(E) Paul Gilroy (1993) highlights how media can positively influence identity by showcasing
strong and successful minority role models, promoting pride and resistance against racism.
(E) Recent examples include films like Black Panther or celebrities like Beyoncé and athletes
such as Serena Williams, whose positive portrayals inspire minority individuals to embrace their
ethnic identity with pride and confidence.
(L)This suggests media plays an essential role not only in shaping ethnic identities through
stereotypes but also in empowering minority groups by providing affirming representations.

18
 MediaAge

Point 1: Blurring Boundaries Between Childhood and Adulthood

(P) One reason the media can be considered the most important agent shaping age identity is
because it blurs the boundaries between childhood and adulthood.
(E) Sociologist Neil Postman (1982) argues that childhood is disappearing as young people gain
early access to adult-focused content through media.
(E) For instance, many children today watch reality TV shows or follow influencers on platforms
like YouTube and Instagram, which often contain adult themes. This early exposure encourages
children to adopt adult-like behaviors and attitudes at younger ages, weakening traditional
distinctions between age groups.
(L) This suggests the media plays a major role in redefining what it means to be a child or an
adult in modern society.

Point 2: Reinforcing Age Stereotypes

(P) Another way media significantly influences age identity is through reinforcing age-based
stereotypes.
(E) Sociologists Featherstone and Hepworth (1991) highlight that older people are often
negatively portrayed in media—as dependent, frail, and less capable—while younger people are
shown as energetic, attractive, and successful.
(E) Examples include advertisements and movies that frequently depict aging negatively,
causing older adults to internalize these harmful stereotypes and shaping their self-identity and
behavior.
(L) This suggests that the media strongly shapes how individuals perceive their own and others'
ages through stereotype reinforcement.

Point 3: Shaping Youth Culture and Peer Interaction

(P) Finally, the media can be seen as the main agent shaping age identity because it plays a
central role in forming youth culture and peer interactions.
(E) David Buckingham (2008) notes that social media platforms like TikTok, Instagram, and
Snapchat create shared norms, values, and styles unique to younger generations. By participating
in these online trends, challenges, and discussions, young people develop a collective identity
distinct from older generations, influencing their views on age-appropriate behavior and norms.
(E) This is clearly seen in youth-driven trends such as viral dances, fashion styles, and slang,
which unite young people through shared experiences online.
(L) This suggests media greatly influences how young people understand and express their age
identity by enabling peer connections and collective expressions of youth culture.

19
 Media Social Class

Point 1: Reinforcing Class-based Stereotypes

(P) One way the media significantly shapes social class identity is by reinforcing class-based
stereotypes.
(E) Sociologists like Glennon and Butsch (1984) argue that working-class people are commonly
portrayed in television sitcoms and films as unintelligent, lazy, or irresponsible, while middle-
class and upper-class characters are depicted as competent, cultured, and successful.
(E) For example, TV series such as The Simpsons or Shameless frequently portray working-class
families negatively, leading viewers to associate working-class identities with dysfunction and
disorder.
This suggests media is influential in shaping social class identities by reinforcing negative
perceptions of lower classes and positive perceptions of higher classes.

Point 2: Promoting Consumerism and Class Identity

(P) Another reason media can be viewed as the most important agent shaping social class
identity is its promotion of consumer culture and materialism as symbols of social status.
(E) Sociologist Zygmunt Bauman (2007) argues that the media encourages people to define their
class identity through consumption habits and lifestyle choices, shaping aspirations related to
social mobility.
(E) For instance, luxury brands frequently use media channels such as Instagram and TikTok
influencers to present their products as indicators of high social status, prompting audiences to
link personal worth and class identity directly to consumption and possessions.
This suggests media plays a crucial role in shaping individuals’ perceptions of their own class
position and the class identities they aspire to through consumerist messaging.

Point 3: Limiting Awareness of Class Inequalities

(P) Lastly, media shapes class identities by limiting awareness and discussion of class
inequalities, thereby normalizing class-based divisions.
(E) Marxist sociologists, including Ralph Miliband (1969), emphasize that media often
downplays or ignores systematic inequalities, presenting society as essentially fair and
meritocratic.
(E) For example, mainstream news often attributes poverty or unemployment to individual
failures rather than structural inequalities, shaping audiences’ beliefs that class position reflects
personal effort or merit, rather than broader societal factors.
This suggests media significantly shapes social class identities by influencing how people
understand class divisions and inequalities in society.

20
 Note: Religion is highly unlikely to appear, but prepare just in case
Religion Gender
Point 1: Religious Teachings Reinforce Traditional Gender Roles

(P) One way that religion shapes gender identity is through religious teachings that promote
traditional gender roles and expectations.
(E) Many religious doctrines outline distinct roles for men and women, often emphasizing male
authority and female submissiveness. These teachings are reinforced through religious texts,
sermons, and practices within religious communities.
(E) For example, in Christianity, certain interpretations of the Bible emphasize male leadership
in the household and female modesty, while in Islam, traditional readings of the Qur’an promote
gender-specific dress codes and behavioral expectations.
(L) This suggests that religion plays a significant role in shaping gender identity by promoting
and legitimizing traditional gender norms, which influence how men and women view
themselves and their roles in society.

Point 2: Religious Practices and the Regulation of Female Behavior

(P) Another way that religion shapes gender identity is through religious practices that impose
stricter expectations on women’s behavior, reinforcing ideas about femininity and masculinity.
(E) Many religious traditions place particular emphasis on controlling aspects of women’s lives,
such as dress, behavior, and social interactions, while often granting men more autonomy.
Feminist sociologists argue that such religious expectations contribute to the construction of
gender identity by defining what is considered "appropriate" for men and women.
(E) For example, sociologist Nawal El Saadawi (1980) highlights how religious teachings have
been used to justify practices such as veiling and female seclusion in some Islamic cultures,
reinforcing ideas of modesty and female subordination. Similarly, in Orthodox Judaism, women
have specific religious obligations, such as covering their hair after marriage, while men are
given more active leadership roles in religious ceremonies.
(L) This suggests that religion significantly shapes gender identity by imposing distinct
behavioral expectations on men and women, reinforcing traditional gender norms through
religious customs and practices.

Point 3: Religious Leadership and Gender Identity Formation

(P) Another way that religion shapes gender identity is through the structure of religious
leadership, which reinforces gender hierarchies and expectations.
(E) Many religious institutions assign leadership roles primarily to men, while women are often
given subordinate or supporting roles, shaping perceptions of masculinity and femininity. This
division not only influences how individuals see their own gender identity but also reinforces
societal norms about authority and power.
(E) For example, in Catholicism, only men can become priests, reinforcing the idea that religious
and moral authority is inherently male. Similarly, in Orthodox Judaism and Islam, men lead
congregational prayers, while women often take on roles related to childcare and community
support.

21
(L) This suggests that religion shapes gender identity by institutionalizing gender roles,
influencing how individuals internalize expectations of masculinity, femininity, and authority
through religious leadership and participation.

Religion Ethnic Identity

Point 1: Religious Institutions Reinforce Ethnic Identity through Cultural Practices

(P) One way that religion shapes ethnic identity is by reinforcing cultural traditions and
practices, strengthening an individual’s sense of belonging to their ethnic group.
(E) Many ethnic minority groups use religious institutions as spaces where cultural heritage is
preserved and transmitted to younger generations. Religious teachings, festivals, and rituals often
overlap with ethnic traditions, reinforcing a collective identity.
(E) For example, Ghuman (2003) found that British Asian Muslim children often spent part of
their week at mosques or madrasahs learning the Qur’an, while also being socialized into cultural
traditions such as respect for elders and family honor. Similarly, Hindu temples and Sikh
gurdwaras in the UK play a crucial role in maintaining Indian cultural traditions among British-
born children.
(L) This suggests that religion is a key force in shaping ethnic identity by embedding cultural
values within religious teachings and institutions, ensuring that ethnic traditions are preserved
across generations.

Point 2: Religious Values Shape Family Roles within Ethnic Groups

(P) Another way that religion shapes ethnic identity is by influencing work ethic and family
responsibilities, which differ across ethnic groups.
(E) Religious teachings often shape beliefs about work, duty, and obligations to family,
reinforcing ethnic identity by defining what behaviors are expected within a given cultural group.
(E) For example, Song (1999) found that Chinese families in the UK often emphasize a work-
centered ethnic identity, which is reinforced by Confucian religious values. In many Chinese
immigrant families, children grow up seeing their parents working in family-run businesses, such
as restaurants or shops, where helping out is considered a moral and cultural responsibility.
These values shape not only how children perceive their ethnic identity but also how they
understand success and duty within their community.
(L) This suggests that religion helps shape ethnic identity by reinforcing values related to work,
family obligations, and responsibility, all of which are deeply embedded in religious and cultural
traditions.

Point 3: Religion Strengthens Ethnic Solidarity and Community Identity

(P) Another way that religion shapes ethnic identity is by fostering ethnic solidarity and a sense
of community, reinforcing collective belonging.
(E) Religious institutions often serve as central gathering places for ethnic minorities, providing
not only spiritual guidance but also social support and a space for cultural preservation. Through
these institutions, individuals form strong ethnic bonds, reinforcing their shared identity.
(E) For example, Modood et al. (1997) found that mosques in Britain play a key role in

22
strengthening Pakistani and Bangladeshi ethnic identity, as they provide a space where
community members gather, maintain their language (such as Urdu or Bengali), and reinforce
Islamic values that are closely tied to their ethnic heritage. Similarly, African-Caribbean
Christian churches in the UK have historically served as spaces of ethnic solidarity, offering a
sense of belonging and cultural pride to members who may face marginalization in wider
society.
(L) This suggests that religion plays a vital role in shaping ethnic identity by strengthening
ethnic communities, providing a space where cultural traditions, language, and values are
reinforced, and fostering a shared sense of belonging.

Religion Age

Point 1: Religious Rites of Passage Define Age Transitions

(P) One way that religion shapes age identity is by marking significant life transitions
through rites of passage, reinforcing societal expectations for different age groups.
(E) Many religious traditions have formal ceremonies or rituals that signal the transition from
one life stage to another, shaping how individuals perceive their role and responsibilities at
different ages. These ceremonies often come with new expectations for behavior, status, and
religious obligations.
(E) For example, in Judaism, a Bar/Bat Mitzvah marks the transition from childhood to
religious adulthood at age 12 or 13, signifying that the individual is now accountable for
following Jewish laws. Similarly, in Christianity, confirmation ceremonies reinforce the
expectation that teenagers take personal responsibility for their faith. In Hinduism,
the Upanayana (Sacred Thread Ceremony) traditionally marks a boy’s coming of age,
signifying entry into spiritual learning and maturity.
(L) This suggests that religion plays a crucial role in shaping age identity by defining key life
transitions through rituals, reinforcing societal expectations for behavior and responsibilities at
different ages.

Point 2: Religious Teachings Shape Expectations for Different Life Stages

(P) Another way that religion influences age identity is by shaping expectations for behavior,
roles, and responsibilities at different stages of life.
(E) Many religious traditions provide moral guidelines on how individuals should act at various
points in their lives, reinforcing societal norms about childhood, adulthood, and old age. These
teachings influence how people view their own age identity and how they perceive others in
different life stages.
(E) For example, in many Christian teachings, childhood is associated with innocence and
obedience, with religious texts encouraging children to respect and submit to parental authority
(e.g., "Honor your father and mother" – Exodus 20:12). Meanwhile, adulthood is linked to
responsibility, work, and marriage, while old age is associated with wisdom and spiritual
reflection. In Hinduism, the ashrama system divides life into four distinct stages: student
(learning and discipline), householder (family and work), forest dweller (detachment from
material concerns), and renunciant (spiritual enlightenment), reinforcing clear expectations for
behavior at different ages.

23
(L) This suggests that religion plays a key role in shaping age identity by prescribing behaviors,
roles, and responsibilities at different life stages, influencing how individuals perceive and
experience aging.

Point 3: Religion Shapes Attitudes Toward Aging and Elderly Status

(P) Another way that religion influences age identity is by shaping societal attitudes toward
aging and the status of elderly individuals.
(E) Many religious traditions emphasize respect for elders, portraying old age as a time of
wisdom, moral authority, and spiritual reflection. This influences how older individuals perceive
themselves and how they are treated within their communities.
(E) For example, Confucian-influenced societies, such as China and Korea, emphasize filial
piety, where younger generations are religiously and morally obligated to care for and respect
their elders. Similarly, in Christianity and Islam, old age is often seen as a period of increased
devotion to faith, with elders holding respected positions as community leaders or advisors. In
contrast, some secular societies may view aging primarily in terms of physical decline, whereas
religious perspectives often provide elderly individuals with a sense of purpose, dignity, and
spiritual importance.
(L) This suggests that religion plays a key role in shaping age identity by influencing how aging
is perceived, often reinforcing positive associations with old age and ensuring that elderly
individuals maintain a respected status within society.

Religion Social Class

Point 1: Religious Teachings Reinforce Social Class Divisions

(P) One way that religion influences social class identity is by reinforcing the idea that class
positions are natural or divinely determined.
(E) Many religious teachings encourage people to accept their social class as part of a religious
plan, which can lead individuals to see their position as unchangeable. This helps maintain class
divisions, as lower-class individuals may be less likely to challenge their economic situation.
(E) For example, Weber (1905) argued that Protestant beliefs—especially Calvinism—
encouraged hard work and discipline, leading to economic success for the middle and upper
classes. Similarly, in Hinduism, the caste system was historically tied to religion, with people
believing that their social position was determined by their past lives. In Christianity, teachings
such as “Blessed are the poor, for theirs is the kingdom of heaven” (Luke 6:20) suggest that
being poor is spiritually meaningful, reinforcing acceptance of social inequality.
(L) This suggests that religion plays a key role in shaping social class identity by encouraging
individuals to accept their class position, which helps maintain existing social structures.

24
Point 2: Religion Provides Social Mobility through Education and Charity

(P) Another way that religion influences social class identity is by providing opportunities for
social mobility through religious education and charitable support.
(E) Many religious institutions run schools, universities, and charity programs that help lower-
class individuals improve their social and economic status. This influences class identity by
offering a path to upward mobility while reinforcing the idea that success can be achieved
through faith and discipline.
(E) For example, Catholic and Protestant churches have historically established schools and
universities that provided education to lower-class children, giving them the opportunity to move
into higher-status jobs. In Islam, Zakat (charitable giving) is a key religious obligation, with
wealthy individuals donating a portion of their income to support the poor, helping them access
food, healthcare, and education.
(L) This suggests that religion can shape social class identity by providing lower-class
individuals with resources and opportunities to improve their economic position.

Point 3: Religious Communities Reinforce Class-based Lifestyles and Values

(P) Another way that religion shapes social class identity is by reinforcing class-based lifestyles,
behaviors, and social networks through religious communities.
(E) Religious institutions often attract followers from specific social classes, creating
communities where class-based values and norms are reinforced. This influences how
individuals view their own class identity and their expectations for success, work, and social
behavior.
(E) For example, sociologist Pierre Bourdieu (1984) argued that social class is shaped not just
by wealth but also by cultural capital—the values, behaviors, and habits people learn in their
social environment. Middle- and upper-class individuals often attend prestigious religious
institutions where they network with others from similar backgrounds, reinforcing their class
identity. In contrast, working-class religious communities may emphasize humility, collective
support, and perseverance, shaping a different class-based outlook on life.
(L) This suggests that religion influences social class identity by bringing together individuals
with shared social backgrounds, reinforcing the values, habits, and expectations associated with
their class position.

25