Q 1.

3-2-1 Principle
Ans. Define: The 3-2-1 method is a work-holding principle where three pins are located on the
1st principle plane, i.e., either XY, YZ, ZX. And two pins are located on the 2nd plane
perpendicular to the 1st plane, and at last, one pin on the plane is mutually perpendicular to the
1st and 2nd planes. The aim is to constrain the movement of the workpiece along all three axes.

What is it in brief; A fundamental concern in metalworking is locating the part to be machined,

punched, bent, or stamped relative to the work platform (fixture). For example, a CNC machine
tool starts its process at a specific point relative to the fixture and proceeds from there. Hence,
the accuracy with which a part is machined is quite dependent on the accuracy with which it is
positioned in the fixture.
Accurate locating of not just one part, but each and every part that is loaded into the fixture is
crucial. Any variation in part location on the fixture adds to the dimensional tolerance that must
be assigned to the finished parts.
Additionally, the method of supporting and securing the part in the fixture affects not only
dimensional tolerances, but surface finishes as well. This is true because improper supporting or
clamping can temporarily or permanently deform the part. Hence, techniques for supporting and
clamping must be considered together with the method of locating in order to assure
repeatability from part-to-part.

Locating of a part to be machined is a three-step process:

1. Supporting
2. Locating (positioning)
3. Holding (clamping)

The Locating Process: Degrees of Freedom In order to completely specify the position in space
of a three-dimensional

Object (such as the cube that’s shown), we refer to six coordinates:

1. Translational position along the X-axis

2. Translational position along the Y-axis
3. Translational position along the Z-axis
4. Rotational position about the X-axis
5. Rotational position about the Y-axis
6. Rotational position about the Z-axis

These six coordinates are known as the six degrees of freedom of a three-dimensional object. As the
double-headed arrows indicate, the translational and rotational positions can vary in either direction
with respect to each of the three axes. To completely prevent movement, all six degrees of freedom
must be restricted.
The Locating Process: 3-2-1 Method

We have two objectives when mounting a part in a fixture for machining:

1. Accurately position the part at the desired coordinates.
2. Restrict all six degrees of freedom so that the part cannot move.
A widely used method of accomplishing these two objectives uses the 3-2-1 principle, so-called
because it entails three steps that employ three, then two, then one fixed points of known location.
Since that adds up to six fixed points, it’s also known as the six point method.
In the three steps of the 3-2-1 method, three mutually perpendicular planes, called datum planes,
are introduced, one at each step. These three planes define the workpiece position, and together
with opposing clamping forces fully constrain the part. Let’s take a look at the details of the 3-2-1
method.

First Plane: Geometry tells us that three points are required to define a plane. This is the "3" in 3-2-
1. So, three specific points are used to define the first plane. Fewer than three points cannot define a
plane, and in the real world dimensional tolerances mean that four or more points will not be
coplanar. A real-world, less than ideally perfect part placed on four or more reference points will, in
fact, rest on only three of the points due to its less than perfect surface. Different parts may rest on
different combinations of three points, resulting in variation between finished parts. A stool can be
used to illustrate this concept. A two-legged stool would certainly be unstable. A three-legged stool
sits rock-solid. A four-legged stool is often found to rock. In the illustration, a three dimensional part,
represented by a cube, is placed on a datum plane defined by three support points. The part’s six
degrees of freedom have now been reduced to three. It can still move along the X or Y axes, and it
can still be rotated about the Z axis. (The part cannot move along the Z axis because it is held against
the plane by clamping force.

Second Plane: A second plane, if it is perpendicular to the first, can be defined by

two points, the "2" in 3-2-1. The part is now constrained to one degree of
freedom: movement along the Y axis. (The part cannot move along the X or Z
axes because it is held against the planes by clamping force.)

Third Plane; A third plane, if it is perpendicular to both of the first two

planes, can be defined by one point, the "1" in 3-2-1. The part is now entirely
constrained. It cannot move along or rotate about the X, Y, or Z axes.
(Remember that the part is held against each of the three planes by clamping
force.)
Locating of a part to be machined is a three-step process:
1. Supporting
2. Locating (positioning)
3. Holding (clamping

Supporting

 The part is supported from "below" with reference to the Z axis. (Introduction of the first
reference plane.)
 Gravity positions the part against the support locator.
 Provide adjustable auxiliary support points as needed to prevent deflection.
 Vertical location with respect to the fixture is now established
 The part is positioned horizontally, in the X-Y plane. (Introduction of the second and third
reference planes.)

Holding

 The part is clamped against fixed locators. Therefore, a known and unvarying position of the
part is maintained with respect to the X, Y, and Z axes.
 One strap clamp or clamp arm will restrict the workpiece in three dimensions due to friction
between the workpiece and clamp. However, friction alone may not be enough to prevent
the workpiece from moving during machining.
 Cutting forces will not move a properly supported and clamped part.

Locating

 The part is positioned horizontally, in the X-Y plane. (Introduction of the second and third
reference planes).
Q2. Sheet-Metal Manufacturing Processes

Ans: Apart from punching and blanking, several other useful operations are performed with
the help of mechanical presses:

Some of these are listed below:

(i) Bending,(ii) Deep drawing,(iii) Coining, and(iv) Embossing.

These operations are described briefly.

1. Bending

Bending means deforming a flat sheet along a straight line to form the required
angle. Various sections like angles, channels etc., are formed by bending, which may
then be used for fabrication of steel structures. Three common methods of bending
are illustrated in Fig.

2. Deep Drawing

• In deep drawing process, we start with a flat metal plate or sheet and convert it into
cup shape by pressing the sheet in the center with a circular punch fitting into a cup
shaped die.
• If the depth of cup is more than half its diameter, the process is termed as deep
drawing and with a lesser depth to diameter ratio, it is called shallow drawing. Parts
of various geometries and shape are made by drawing process. The deep drawing
process is illustrated in fig.
3. Coining and Embossing

• Both coining and embossing operations are done ‘cold’ and mechanical presses with
punch and die are used for these operations.
• In embossing, impressions are made on sheet metal in such a manner that the
thickness of the sheet remains uniform all over even after embossing has been done.
It means that if one side of the sheet is raised to form a design, there is a
corresponding depression on the other side of the sheet.
• The result of the coining operation is that the design engraved on the top and
bottom dies gets imprinted on the corresponding faces of the blank in relief (i.e.,
raised material) without the size of the blank-circumference changing. Coins used as
money in daily usage are manufactured in this manner. Here forces required are
much higher, enough to cause plastic-flow of material.
• Basically it is a pressing operation where not much force is needed.

4 . Notching

A shearing operation that removes a section from the outer edge of the metal strip or part
Stamping Operations
Stamping Process:
• Blanking
• Nesting/ Tailor welding of blanks
• Drawing
• Flanging
• Trimming
• Piercing
Q3. Welding Processes
Welding: "joining metals through heating them to a molten state and fusing them
together.
A localized coalescence of metals, wherein coalescence is obtained by heating to
suitable temperature, with or without the application of pressure and with or without
the use of filler material. This filler material has the melting point same as the base
material.”
Types:
1 Resistance Welding (RW)
2Resistance Spot Welding (RSW)
3 Resistance Seam Welding (RSEW)
4 Resistance Projection Welding (RPW)

1. Resistance Welding (RW)

A group of fusion welding processes that use a combination of heat and pressure to
accomplish coalescence.
• Heat generated by electrical resistance to current flow at junction to be welded
• Principal RW process is resistance spot welding (RSW).
Components in Resistance Spot Welding:
• Parts to be welded (usually sheet metal)
• Two opposing electrodes
• Means of applying pressure to squeeze parts between electrodes
• Power supply from which a controlled current can be applied for a specified time
duration
Advantages:
• No filler metal required.
• High production rates possible.
• Lends itself to mechanization and automation, Lower operator skill level than for arc
welding.
• Good repeatability and reliability.
Disadvantages:
 High initial equipment cost.
Limited to lap joints for most RW processes.

Resistance Welding (RW)

2. Resistance Spot Welding (RSW)

Resistance welding process in which fusion of faying surfaces of a lap joint is achieved at one
location by opposing electrodes.
• Used to join sheet metal parts.
• Widely used in mass production of automobiles, metal furniture, appliances, and
other sheet metal products-Typical car body has ~ 10,000 spot welds

3. Resistance Seam Welding (RSEW)

Uses rotating wheel electrodes to produce a series of overlapping spot welds along lap joint.
It can produce air-tight joints.
Applications:
Gasoline tanks, Automobile mufflers, various sheet metal containers.
4. Resistance Projection Welding (RPW)
Uses rotating wheel electrodes to produce a series of overlapping spot welds along lap joint.
• It can produce air-tight joints.
Applications: Gasoline tanks.
A resistance welding process in which coalescence occurs at one or more small contact
points on the parts
Contact points determined by design of parts to be joined
May consist of projections, embossments, or localized intersections of parts.

(1) Start of operation, contact between parts is at projections, (2) when current is applied, weld
nuggets similar to spot welding are formed at the projections