Dark Patterns in the Design of Games

José P. Zagal1 Staffan Björk2,3 Chris Lewis4

1DePaulUniversity 2Gothenburg University 3The Interactive Institute 4Universityof California,
243 S. Wabash Avenue Dept. of Applied IT Lindholmsplatsen 1 Santa Cruz
Chicago, IL 60604, USA 412 96 Gothenburg, SE 417 56 Gothenburg, SE 1156 High St.
+1 (312) 362-7115 +46 (0) 31-7721039 +46 (0) 702-889759 Santa Cruz, CA, USA
[email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected]

ABSTRACT examine those elements of a game’s design whose purpose can be

argued as questionable, against a player’s best interests, and
Game designers are typically regarded as advocates for players. perhaps even unethical. Rather than focus on particular games, we
However, a game creator’s interests may not align with the identify common design elements and implementations we have
players’. We examine some of the ways in which those opposed identified across several games. Our focus is on gameplay,
interests can manifest in a game’s design. In particular, we meaning that we look at systemic properties of games – and how
examine those elements of a game’s design whose purpose can be players interact with them – rather than thematic or
argued as questionable and perhaps even unethical. Building upon representational issues (e.g. racist depictions of non-player
earlier work in design patterns, we call these abstracted elements characters). Building upon earlier work in design patterns, we call
Dark Game Design Patterns. In this paper, we develop the concept these abstracted elements Dark Game Design Patterns.
of dark design patterns in games, present examples of such
In addition to defining what a Dark Game Design Pattern is, we
patterns, explore some of the subtleties involved in identifying
will discuss some of the challenges in identifying these patterns as
them, and provide questions that can be asked to help guide in the
well as the related notion of Anti-Patterns. Our analysis includes
specification and identification of future Dark Patterns. Our goal
examples from contemporary games and questions that can be
is not to criticize creators but rather to contribute to an ongoing
asked to help articulate and identify future Dark Patterns. Our
discussion regarding the values in games and the role that
goal is not to criticize game designers or developers but rather to
designers and creators have in this process.
contribute to an ongoing discussion regarding the values in games
Categories and Subject Descriptors and the role that designers and creators have in this process.
K.8.0 [Computing Millieux]: Personal Computing – games. 1.1 Game Design Patterns
General Terms It has been almost twenty years since the first voices were raised
regarding the lack of a critical language for analyzing and talking
Design, Human Factors
about game design [17]. Scholars and practitioners have since
Keywords answered that call by proposing ways of understanding games,
Design patterns, video games, ethics, game design, dark patterns classifying them, deconstructing them, and more. For instance,
Church argued for a set of “formal abstract design tools” [15],
Hunicke and colleagues presented a framework for understanding
1. INTRODUCTION games and bridging the gap “between game design and
When writing about game design, authors often stress the focal development, game criticism, and technical game research” [23],
role of the player using terms like ‘player-centered’ or ‘play- and Zagal et al. created an ontology “for describing, analyzing and
centric’ (e.g. [4; 20; 45]). Player-centric design is defined such studying games, by defining a hierarchy of concepts abstracted
that “a game’s primary function is to entertain the player, and it is from an analysis of many specific games” [49]. In 2002, inspired
the designer’s obligation to create a game that does so” [4]. by earlier work in architecture [6], Kreimeier proposed using
Others note that “[t]he role of the game designer is, first and game design patterns as a way to formalize and codify knowledge
foremost, to be an advocate for the player” [20, p. 2]. The about game design [29]. This idea was broadened by Björk and
implication is that most of the work done by the designer is for the Holopainen, who developed a collection of nearly 300 gameplay
benefit of the player or as a dialogue between designer and player patterns [10]. These patterns differ from the original structure in
(e.g. responding to player demands for features, increased architecture by replacing problem-solution pairs with cause and
challenge, etc.). However, the game developers and player’s consequences categories that describe possibilities for the
interests are sometimes at odds. instantiation of a pattern and the potential consequences that
In this article, we examine some of the ways in which opposed pattern may have in a game’s design. The reasons for this change
interests are manifested in a game’s design. More specifically, we were: to support the design and analysis of games, and to allow
designers to use the presence or absence of gameplay design
patterns as design goals. The design pattern idea has since been
applied in other areas of gameplay design including non-player
characters [30], 'Ville games [31], and level design [22; 36].
Citation info: While this indicates that design patterns can be used to talk about
Zagal, J. P., Bjork, S., Lewis, C. (2013) “Dark Patterns in the Design of Games”,
Foundations of Digital Games Conference, FDG 2013, May 14-17, Chania, Greece specific gameplay features of a game’s design, it does not
http://www.fdg2013.org/program/papers/paper06_zagal_etal.pdf necessarily make them useful for identifying problematic or
unethical design choices made by designers. Gameplay design possibilities which make previously valid solutions seem
pattern identification strives to provide value-neutral tools for outdated. Consider the use of “saved games” as a way to allow
designers. The reasoning for this is that successful use of patterns progress in a game over multiple play sessions without having to
is dependent on many other factors beyond gameplay, e.g. target start from scratch at the beginning of each session. This was
audience, thematic aspects, business models, etc. For this reason, impossible given the hardware used in the first generations of
it assumed that the designer should make an informed decision on arcade and console games. Nowadays it is almost unthinkable to
what patterns to use, when to use them, and why. Arguably, it is consider a game with a playing time of more than fifteen minutes
not possible to exclude all subjective opinions from a pattern’s without such functionality.
description; however, for the scope of this paper we note that the We could say that using an anti-pattern results in “harm” to the
intention is usually for patterns to be value-neutral. What would it player. Perhaps a game is more frustrating than it could be, or
mean for a pattern not to be value-neutral? To answer this we maybe it causes the player to waste time. However, while using an
need to examine how values can be inscribed into the gameplay anti-pattern may be a bad idea, it would be a stretch for us to
and what constitutes a negative feature regarding designer suggest that it is unethical to use them. Bad design is often the
intentions. result of ignorance, bad trade-offs, or lack of time and resources.
The use of anti-patterns can be the result of such circumstances
1.2 Values in Games and may lead to less-than-preferable outcomes, but it is hard to
Bogost argues that games describe systems and invite players to
make fair judgments of the designers or developers because of
participate in those systems even as they form judgments about
their use. In order to narrow down what an unethical game design
them [11]. While players may not apprehend the values or ideas in
pattern might be, we propose two assumptions. Unethical game
a game, they may nevertheless be influenced by them. Flanagan et
design patterns result in the following:
al. argue that “[t]hrough the design process, values and beliefs
become embedded in games” [19]. If games can communicate (1) A negative experience for the player
values and ideas in these ways, then it stands to reason that game (2) The intention, on the part of the creators of the game, to
design patterns – as abstractions of common design elements in cause that negative experience.
games - can also convey and represent values. For example,
Björk [9] identified patterns likely to encourage players to become Our argument is that Dark Patterns do not happen by mistake;
good or bad players (from an ethical perspective) and Bergström they must be purposefully utilized to evoke the given behavior.
et al. [8] describe design patterns to promote camaraderie while Common design patterns that create unintended behavior or
implicitly advocating that this is a good thing to do. unexpected negative experiences do not quite capture the subtle
difference between “Bad Design” and “Designing for Bad”. The
However, is there perhaps a pattern that a designer should not use challenge lies in determining whether a design is an honest
simply because it was wrong? In other words, is there such a thing mistake with unintended results, or if its outcomes were intended.
as a design pattern that would be unethical to use. If these kinds of
patterns existed, how would we identify and define them? We 3. DARK GAME DESIGN PATTERNS
note that making these assumptions represents a fundamental shift Our notion of dark game design patterns is inspired by
in how game design patterns have been created and used. It darkpatterns.org, a site that collects examples of “user interfaces
represents a shift from something that is descriptive (this is what that are intended to trick people” [13]. While many of the patterns
we have observed) to something prescriptive (this is what we have described on the site could easily be applied to games, we felt that
observed, and arguably should not be done). this kind of analysis could be applied more broadly. For the scope
of this paper, we look at gameplay. A first observation related to
2. ANTI-PATTERNS this is that previously identified game design patterns may be dark
Our first thought was to consider examples of what we might call and that newly identified dark game design patterns are also game
“bad design”. With some exceptions (e.g. work in game usability design patterns.
[18; 24]), this notion has not been explored much in academia. There are challenges with this approach including defining what is
There are some examples by games industry practitioners. Ernest a negative experience and determining intentionality. Rather than
Adams has, via a series of “No Twinkie” columns, articulated present a definition of dark game design patterns upfront, we
what he considers “egregious design error[s]" [5]. For example, in illustrate how we have adapted and developed this concept. By
Time-Wasting Random Encounters, Adams argues against the use starting from an initial definition and the iteratively refining it, we
of random combat encounters in games when the enemies are hope to illustrate our reasoning and rationale, as well as how prior
severely underpowered. Adams points out that it’s bad design to research has informed this work. So, based on the two
“waste the player’s time with pointless combat” [3]. Adams’ goal assumptions described earlier, our initial definition is:
with these columns is to draw attention to what he feels are
common design mistakes. A design mistake, in this context, refers Proto-definition 1: A dark game design pattern is a pattern
to doing something in a certain way when there is already used intentionally by a game creator to cause negative
knowledge of how to better accomplish it. “Better” could mean experiences for players.
more efficiently, more entertaining for the player, easier to A negative experience may encompass not only the game
implement, and so on. We can consider these patterns as anti- experience; it can include something one experiences after the
patterns – they represent a less-than-ideal solution to a particular game due to its design. Even so, this definition quickly runs into
problem and as such should generally be avoided. problems: it ignores the will and desires of the player. Wilson and
Anti-patterns can also be products of their time. As knowledge of Sicart describe the notion of abusive game design as exemplified
game design has grown and evolved, older once-common in games such as Painstation, that physically punishes players
practices have fallen out of favor as players expectations have with electric shocks, burns, and lashing; the audio-only
changed. Similarly, technical developments have allowed for new collaborative sex rhythm game Dark Room Sex Game designed to
embarrass its players; or games that “that are devilishly hard, to believing she is playing a fair match. Something similar occurs in
the point of absurdity” [48]. Similarly, Montola describes an racing games that employ a technique known as “rubber band AI”
extreme form of role-playing in which the players subject [38]. If the player has too much of a lead, the other vehicles may
themselves to intense emotional experiences [39]. The players do receive a speed boost allowing them to catch up. Again, the
not play these games for “fun” or “enjoyment”, but rather for the deception is intended to provide a more intense emotional
intense negative emotions they will experience (which may or experience for the player.
may not lead to learning or insight). These games can be Given that it is sometimes acceptable to “trick” or “deceive” the
described as the result of an “abusive design” that confronts and player, our proto-definition needs additional clarification. In the
challenges players [48] and invites them to knowingly explore examples above, we argued that the subterfuges were all in the
extreme forms of gameplay. Generalizing, regardless of how player’s best interest: the design goal seems to be one of creating
physically or emotionally painful a game may be, or how an enjoyable and/or memorable experience for the player.
embarrassing it may be to play, or how unrelentingly difficult –
there is or should be a willful and informed participation from the Proto-definition 3: A dark game design pattern is a pattern
part of the player in the experience. How can it be a dark pattern if used intentionally by a game creator to cause negative
the player understands and accepts the negative experience? experiences for players that are against their best interests
and happen without their consent.
The players’ expectations and understanding of the experience are
perhaps more important than if the experience was positive or We note that the denotation dark here carries two meanings. It
negative. If we consider the interaction with a system as a refers to the fact that designers are willingly doing something
contract, where a system offers one thing, but then provides unethical and that the players are likely to be unaware that they
another that the user was not aware of, such a contract would be are being manipulated against their best interests. As we will
problematic (i.e. there was no “meeting of minds”), and would be discuss in the next section, this can be a fine line to navigate, and
considered by society as unethical or illegal, even if the intentions identical gameplay patterns may veer between light and dark
and outcomes were well-meaning (e.g. a dark pattern used to depending on their implementation and intended audience.
increase donations to charity, or a game that tricks players into
exercising more for their own good). Returning to our proto- 4. DARK PATTERNS REVEALED
definition, we should account for those situations when a player is We will now describe a number of dark patterns we have
aware of and agrees to whatever is going on. identified. These patterns were developed from our analysis of
descriptions of design strategies by professional designers (e.g.
Proto-definition 2: A dark game design pattern is a pattern how to monetize social media games), observations made by game
used intentionally by a game creator to cause negative researchers (our own and by others), and critical and player
experiences for players without those players’ consent. reactions. Although we describe specific games, we typically do
How is player consent and knowledge established and are there so to describe a whole category of games that make use of a dark
occasions in which subterfuge is permissible? In their discussion pattern - our intention is not to criticize specific games, game
of the ethics of persuasive technology, Berdichevsky and industry professionals, or game companies.
Neuenschwander [7] describe what they call the Disclosure These patterns, indicated using SMALL CAPS, are divided into
Principle: three categories loosely based on what the player is being
“Knowledge of the presence of persuasive mechanisms deceived into spending or using, which in turn results in a
in a technology may sensitize users to them and decrease negative experience. These categories are time, money, and social
their efficacy. Therefore, in some cases, such knowledge capital.
might diminish the effectiveness of a generally positive
persuasion. This reasoning led us to our design principle: 4.1 Temporal Dark Patterns
The creators of a persuasive technology should disclose While playing games in general is by some referred to as a "waste
their motivations, methods, and intended outcomes, of time", the dark patterns related to time here take more or less
except when such disclosure would significantly time than players expected. In this case, the player is being
undermine an otherwise ethical goal. [emphasis “cheated” out of their time. A few guiding questions that can be
added]” [7] used to determine if there is a dark pattern concerning time are:
Berdichevsky and Neuenschwander’s caveat (highlighted above), • Can the player develop a sense of the time commitment
also applies to games. It is common for games to trick or mislead necessary to successfully play the game?
players. In Eternal Darkness: Sanity’s Requiem, the player- • Are the player’s expectations of the time commitment
controlled protagonist is slowly going insane. This descent into significantly at odds with the actual time required?
madness is sometimes mimicked via intrusive alterations of the • How likely are players to feel they “wasted their time”?
games’ interface such as (fake) messages indicating the game has
crashed or that a saved file has been deleted, and more. These 4.1.1 Grinding
elements were designed to trick and mislead players, but were GRINDING, or “performing repetitive and tedious tasks” [41] in
incorporated for the players’ benefit: in this case to surprise and order to make progress in a game is a familiar concept for players
scare. We find examples in other genres as well. In order to of massively multiplayer games (e.g. World of Warcraft) and
provide a challenging experience for the player, the AI opponent social media games (e.g. FarmVille). Grinding is referred to
in games is often allowed to cheat: it might have access to more pejoratively because it emphasizes time invested over skill; and in
resources than the player or have knowledge of the player’s the worst cases, could “be conducted unattended by the ‘player’”
actions and location. Here, the design goal is to provide a [12]. GRINDING, as a dark pattern, is a way of coercing the player
challenging experience and, in recognition of the weaknesses of into needlessly spending time in a game for the sole purpose of
AI opponents, it becomes necessary to trick the player into extending the game’s duration: “repeatedly kill the same enemies
over and over by utilizing the same strategy just to gain an cases where the odds are distinctly against the player, the player
experience level and access to new capabilities” [2]. Grinding can has presumably made an informed decision to participate.
arguably be called a dark pattern since many players – especially A few guiding questions that can be used when considering if
young or new ones – may have difficulties judging exactly how there is a dark pattern concerning money are:
much time the game will actually demand.
• How likely is the player to regret having spent money to
Grinding also tends to take advantage of player’s competitive
play the game?
nature. World of Warcraft Player vs. Player combat is the most
• How likely is the player to “lose track” of how much
obvious instance (a level 85 character will have no problem
money he spends while playing the game?
defeating level 15 characters, forcing low-level players to grind in
• Is the player aware of what she is getting in return for
order to protect their enjoyment of the game), but such grinding is
their money when she spends it?
now also common in first-person shooters. In Call of Duty 4:
Modern Warfare, as players ‘level up’ through multiplayer games, • How likely is it that the player will inadvertently spend
they unlock better weapons and abilities (perks) that balance the money in the game?
game in their favor. What was once purely based on skill is now • Is the player aware of how much money he will have to
tipped towards players who have spent more time playing. This spend in order to achieve his goals in the game?
not only forces some players to grind in order to be competitive 4.2.1 Pay to Skip
(increase in expected play time), but also spoils the enjoyment of
Having to pay to continue playing has been a regular part of
those who refuse to engage in the level grind.
videogames since the early arcade days. Traditionally, a player
4.1.2 Playing by Appointment could pay to continue playing from where they lost (e.g. “insert
Games with this dark pattern require that players play at specific coin to continue”). Recently, however, games have begun to
times (and or dates) as defined by the game, rather than the monetize directly the solutions to the challenges in their games.
players. For example, FarmVille allows players to plant crops that Rather than encouraging a player to pay more to continue – they
can then be harvested for points and in-game resources. Each type allow players to pay to make progress in the game. For example,
of crop takes a certain amount of real-time before it is ready. This Angry Birds allows players to purchase a “Mighty Eagle” than can
is not a bad thing per se, as seen in the descriptions of the patterns be used to pass automatically a level they might be stuck on. This
HARVESTING [31] and ENCOURAGED RETURN VISITS1. However, it requires making the players want to progress in the game but not
becomes problematic with the addition of a “withering” [31] making it possible for them to do so. Further, players must
mechanism. If a crop is not harvested within a certain time period perceive that the gameplay beyond that challenge can be easier so
after it is ready, it withers and loses its value. This results in an that they will not at once have to pay again. Angry Birds does this
obligation on the player to play according to the schedules the by having levels. A player may get stuck on one level, but if she
game offers (while a number of different schedules are available, pays to pass that level the next level might be easier. FarmVille
most crops will wither within 24 hours), rather than their personal requires help from other players for certain actions - if you do not
desires. In other words, players are forced to orient their real- want to wait for the possibility of help from others you can pay
world activities to meet the obligations of the game, rather than and get the benefit at once.
the other way around. A particularly aggressive version of this pattern occurs when the
The darkness of this pattern is nullified if completing player’s ability to play effectively is steadily reduced, until
appointments is not required for progression. For example, this payment is required to progress in any meaningful manner. This is
gameplay pattern can be seen in some Pokémon games. A player often seen in social games. In SimCity Social, the player must
may have to play at certain hours of the day so as to capture manually collect the resources generated by her factories and
specific Pokémon (e.g. nocturnal Pokémon that come out at houses through the expenditure of energy. The player’s city
night). While capturing Pokémon is a central part of these games, consistently outgrows the maximum energy increase that the game
it is possible to complete the game successfully without capturing provides per level. This means that as the player progresses
“odd-hours” Pokémon. Most games in which the passage of time through the game, the energy she has left for meaningful
in-game is mapped to that in the real-world do so to provide interactions decreases. This forces the player into a PAY TO SKIP
additional options that are perceived as rewards or bonuses. pattern that was not immediately obvious. She will have to choose
Animal Crossing does this often, such as the character Gracie, whether to pay for energy in order to have the same play
who appears on certain days with special clothing that can only be experience she had at the beginning, or wait longer and longer
purchased from her. periods of time to make progress.
This pattern often appears together with GRINDING: players pay for
4.2 Monetary Dark Patterns the privilege of skipping it. In the multi-player mode Battlefield 3
If one category of dark patterns is based on making players not most weapons are initially unavailable and are unlocked by
aware of how much time a game will require, it is a short step to players as they spend time playing the game (and leveling up).
conclude that money could be the basis for another category. Soon after release, an update provided the chance to purchase
These patterns are all examples of players being deceived into “shortcut items” that unlocked weapons and items. This
spending more money than they expected or anticipated. They opportunity was touted on the game’s official blog as “the perfect
also include examples of spending money at unexpected moments. way to gain some ground on the veterans online” [44], in other
We note that we do not consider gambling (or betting) as a dark words, pay to skip the grind.
pattern, because players are complicit in the interaction. Even in
4.2.2 Pre-Delivered Content
When someone purchases a “full” copy of a game they typically
1 http://gdp2.tii.se/index.php/Encouraged_Return_Visits have the expectation that they have paid for the whole game. PRE-
DELIVERED CONTENT is a pattern where certain game content or can provide an unfair advantage in a game that is expected will be
functionality is provided in the purchase of a game (i.e. the files decided based on the skill of the players.
are already on the disc or included in the downloaded executable),
but is unavailable until the player pays an additional fee.
4.3 Social Capital-Based Dark Patterns
Playing games is undoubtedly a social activity. The following
It is common for games to gate access to content. For example, dark patterns are examples where the players’ social capital,
some characters may not be available to play with immediately in loosely defined as the value of their social standing and relations,
many fighting games. However, access to such content is granted is being risked. A few guiding questions that can be used when
when in-game requirements are met: as a Rock Band player makes considering if there is a dark pattern are:
progress in the career mode, new songs become available for play
in single-song mode. In games that use this pattern players must • Could the player’s social standing (friends, respect, etc.)
purchase (rather than play) their way through these locks. be diminished as a result of playing the game?
• How likely is the player to feel that she must play
While there is certainly something to be said regarding the primarily because of a sense of social obligation?
ownership of content already present on a game disc that has been
purchased, the heart of this dark pattern has more to do with the 4.3.1 Social Pyramid Schemes
perception of value from the part of the player. PRE-DELIVERED A pyramid scheme is a (illegal) business model that typically
CONTENT gives the impression that the player is being sold an works by offering “investors” high returns that are paid from the
incomplete game and then being duped into paying for the rest funds received from future “investors” [26]. Since these schemes
(e.g. being ‘nickel-and-dimed’). “If content is finished in time for typically do not involve the production or selling of assets, they
certification and ships with the master gold print for are insolvent and thus require new “investors” in order to have
manufacturing, there's no reason why it couldn't be included with funds to pay the earlier ones. These schemes are similar to
the game from the start. It's obvious it's a cash grab”. [46] multilevel marketing where companies recruit sellers that “are
Consider the case of Street Fighter X Tekken. In the US, the compensated not just for the sales they personally generate but for
game’s original retail price was $30 and for an additional $20 the sales generated by the people they recruit” [40]. Although not
players could unlock twelve characters whose data was already all multilevel marketing operations are illegal or unethical [40],
included on the disc [42]. the notion of associating one’s success in a venture to the
recruitment of more participants can raise eyebrows, and (in the
4.2.3 Monetized Rivalries case of games) argue for the existence of a dark design pattern.
MONETIZED RIVALRIES is a pattern that exploits player
competitiveness; encouraging them to spend money they would Many games encourage players to invite their friends to
not otherwise in order to achieve in-game status such as a high participate. Not all of them, however, provide tangible in-game
placement on a leaderboard. This pattern is colloquially known as benefits for doing so, nor do they implicitly require players to
“Pay to Win”. Järvinen notes that a “virtual arms race between make use of their social connections in order to make adequate
individual or alliance rivals” is an effective pattern and that it can progress in a game. The combination of rewards and need for
be combined with grinding when stating “[d]esign for pay to win progression result in what we call SOCIAL PYRAMID SCHEMES.
(but balance for grind to compete)” [25]. Robot Unicorn Attack Games that implement these effectively encourage their players to
Evolution features a shareable high score list. However, the game entrap others who will continue to play only to meet out-of-game
also includes consumable power-ups (enhancements) that make it social obligations rather than any intrinsic pleasure from playing
easier to play the game (e.g. by slowing the pace). In order for the game itself. For example, Farmville requires having other
players to have a hope of reaching a high-score, they must use the players as “neighbors” to make noticeable progress in some areas.
power-ups that are purchasable using in-game currency, or with If players do not have friends already playing, the simple solution
real-world money. In order to remain competitive, it is necessary is to persuade them to join. As one reluctant player notes:
to pay constantly. Games that use this pattern, such as Candy “My mother began playing Farmville last fall, because
Crush Saga, encourage this kind of competitive activity by her friend asked her to join and become her in-game
explicitly pointing out how well a player completed a level neighbor. In Farmville, neighbors send you gifts, help
compared to his or her Facebook friends - something which of tend your farm, post bonuses to their Facebook pages,
course is dependent on how willing any of them were to pay for and allow you to earn larger plots of land. Without at
power-ups on that level. In Chinese browser-based games players least eight in-game neighbors, in fact, it is almost
receive huge bonuses and incentives for reaching the top ranks, impossible to advance in Farmville without spending real
and “many players will do (or spend) whatever it takes to secure money. This frustrating reality led my mother—who was
their ranking” [43]. now obligated to play because of her friend—to
This pattern is also seen when players are encouraged to spend convince my father, two of her sisters, my fiancée and
money purchasing enhancements in games that presumably have a (much to my dismay) myself to join Farmville." [33]
level playing field. In Words With Friends players draw letters The darkness of this pattern comes not because players can invite
and then attempt to create words on a board for points. It is also their friends, but rather from the entrapment that other players
possible to buy two enhancements: the Tile Pile and the Word-O- experience – they feel socially obliged to play, and must also start
Meter. The former lets a player know how many tiles of each to invite more people to join the game. Not only are they trapped
letter are left (to get a sense of what words an opponent may in the pyramid, they must continue to make it grow. Our dismayed
play). The latter provides feedback on how strong a word they are player, above, continues: "Soon, we were all scheduling our days
about to play is relative to other words they could play. Both around harvesting, sending each other gifts of trees and elephants,
enhancements, available for an additional fee, give players a and posting ribbons on our Facebook walls. And we were
competitive edge over their opponents. These instances are convincing our own friends to join Farmville, too.” [33]
sometimes referred to colloquially as “Pay to Cheat” since they
4.3.2 Impersonation dynamics –making it more difficult to pin down a precise dark
Many social network games allow players to see representations pattern.
of their friends (or other players) in their own games. Sometimes,
players may receive notifications of actions performed by their 5.2 Psychological Tricks
friends, for instance “Betty sent you a gift” (SimCity Social). The There is an increasing interest in applying insights and results
problem is when the game impersonates other players by from psychology and behavioral economics to games. How do we
communicating actions they never performed, thus misleading the draw the line between using this knowledge to provide more
player about the activities of their friends in the game. In this case, interesting, engaging, and satisfying gameplay experiences (good)
Betty – one of the authors' real world Facebook friends – did not and exploiting player’s cognitive biases and predictably irrational
send the gift, but her name was used by the game to show a behavior2 to make more money? Madigan’s analysis of SimCity
tutorial about the effects of receiving gifts. In another example, Social identifies seven “psychological shenanigans” [34] that
some games will assume the players’ identity to perform out-of- have been leveraged by the game’s creators to encourage people
game actions like sending email or posting messages on websites. to spend more time and money on the game. For example, SimCity
This behavior, also described as “Friend Spam” can occur when a Social creates artificial scarcity “by offering you a deeply
game “asks for your twitter or email credentials […] for an discounted new building every time you level up” together with
allegedly benign purpose (e.g. finding friends who are already noting that “the text stresses “One Time Offer! You will NEVER
using that service), but then goes on [to] publish content or send see this offer again! [emphasis in original]” [34]. The implication
out bulk messages using your account - i.e. from you” [14]. In is that the player is being manipulated towards spending money
Farmville and Candy Crush Saga, this can take the form of player they would not have otherwise. Should we consider this, and the
actions being broadcasted without them being aware of it, and the other “psychological tricks” Madigan identifies [34], as dark
description is as if the player formulated it. In the case of patterns? When does using knowledge of human psychology
IMPERSONATION, the negative experience to the player comes from change from “manipulating your players” to “good game design”?
the cost that the impersonation can have on their real-life social
relations, especially those that are not interested in the game.
5.3 Games for Other Purposes
Games are often developed for purposes beyond entertainment.
Abt’s “serious games”, games whose primary purpose was
5. SHADES OF GREY educational rather than entertainment, are but one example [1].
We have described several game design patterns that, in different Surely, this is a good thing? However, consider von Ahn’s notion
ways, arguably cause negative experiences for players without of games with a purpose: “What if people playing computer
their consent or otherwise work against their best interests. These games could, without consciously doing so, simultaneously solve
patterns can vary in how strongly (or effectively) they cause large-scale problems?” [47] Are the players of von Ahn’s games
problems for players: some may not care while others may be being manipulated and taken advantage of? In the case of serious
outraged. Furthermore, a pattern’s effects are also dependent on games, would we consider them poorly if the players are not
the context in which they are used, their implementation, intended aware of their pedagogical goal and think of them purely as
audience, and other factors. Admittedly, classifying game design entertainment? It is one thing to invite someone to play a game
patterns as dark is not a clear cut task. Since there are no bright- and tell them that they may learn something in the process and
line tests or binary rules, we have offered examples and guiding another to try to trick them into learning something.
questions that can hopefully shed some light on some of the
considerations that should be taken. We now describe some To be fair, von Ahn’s site3 does inform players that by playing
borderline cases and potential areas for emergent dark patterns. they help train computers to solve problems that could broadly
benefit society. It is easy, however, to see how other creators
5.1 Encouraging Anti-Social Behavior could use this kind of design darkly by omitting this information.
Many games require that players engage in social activities We can also imagine other purposes that may run afoul of our
considered unethical outside of a game’s context. Perhaps the notion of doing things without a player’s consent and against their
most notorious is the board game Diplomacy. The game has no best interests. However, if the player has no knowledge, would
random elements and emphasizes negotiation. It is “a game that that not contradict our requirement for negative experience?
encourages lying, scheming, backstabbing, [and] betrayal”
[Costikyan in 16]. Diplomacy’s notoriety comes from the 6. HEART OF DARKNESS?
outcomes – players remain angry or hurt long past the game’s Perhaps the patterns we have identified, although aligned with the
ending. Costikyan has “seen fist-fights break out during a game” definition of dark pattern, do not seem all that vexing. As we have
[16] and angry and annoyed players frequently wonder “why noted, there is a certain degree of subjectivity involved that makes
would anyone want to play again” [21]? This seems like a clear dark patterns particularly difficult to characterize. What one
case of creating negative experiences for players. However, there person may find acceptable, another might find galling. In
are many other games in which the negative effects of such in- keeping with previous work in game design patterns, there is no
game behavior do not persist after the game is over. Consider the one-design-affects-all-pattern that is guaranteed to have the same
deception and lying that is (implicitly) required in Poker. effect on the all players. We can only make an informed
Similarly, board games such as Battlestar Galactica and Shadows estimation as to how a pattern might affect most.
Over Camelot implement a “traitor” mechanism in which “one or Even with a strong pattern, much of the darkness comes from its
more of the players are supposed to secretly work [to] ruin the use and context. Take the PLAYING BY APPOINTMENT pattern.
other players’ chances of victory” [32]. The existence of in-game
unethical behavior does not seem enough to encourage external
negative effects. Furthermore, the experience of playing games 2 Apologies to Ariely in re his book “Predictably Irrational”.
like Diplomacy comes from the combination of rules and game 3 www.gwap.com
World of Warcraft utilizes this with spawn timers for rare can possess. All that being said, we can now offer a final
enemies, such as Humar, the only black lion in the game that can definition:
be tamed by hunters. While this is a clear use of the PLAY BY Final Definition: A dark game design pattern is a pattern
APPOINTMENT pattern, the context modifies its darkness used intentionally by a game creator to cause negative
significantly. Capturing Humar is an optional goal that does not experiences for players which are against their best
impede progression. One useful perspective on judging where a interests and likely to happen without their consent.
pattern might exist along a spectrum of darkness is to use the
concept of support. Juul discusses how game designs “support” Besides being a tool for understanding a specific aspect of
different play styles [27], and patterns can become dark for a gameplay design, the dark patterns point to the interdependencies
given player when the pattern does not support her chosen play between the design of a game and a player's knowledge about
style. When most players must engage with a pattern that does not games in determining the gameplay that emerges through playing.
support them, that pattern’s use can be considered as dark. In the future we hope to continue developing these ideas and
exploring their broader implications.
An individual player’s context is also significant. When we argue
that dark patterns often manipulate or take advantage of a player,
we are also making assumptions on a player’s gullibility (or 8. REFERENCES
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