Lecture #4.

Multi-stage
Transistor Amplifiers
Mai Linh, PhD
Faculty of Electronics and Telecommunications,
VNU-University of Engineering and Technology
Email: [email protected] ; [email protected]
Outline
1. Single transistor amplification review
2. Introduction multistage amplifier
3. RC-coupled multi-stage amplifier
4. DC-coupled multi-stage amplifier
5. Compound configurations
6. Differential amplifier
7. RF selective amplifier
8. Wideband amplifier
9. Power amplifiers

Mai Linh, PhD 2

CLASSIFICATION OF AMPLIFIERS
❑ Amplifiers are classified in many ways based on different criteria as given below

I. In terms of frequency range: IV. In terms of parameter:

1. DC amplifiers. (0 Hz to 20 Hz) 1. Voltage amplifiers.
2. Audio amplifiers (20 Hz to 20 KHz) 2. Current amplifiers.
3. Radio frequency amplifiers (Few KHz to hundreds of KHz) 3. Power amplifiers.
4. Microwave amplifiers (In the range of GHz)
5. Video amplifiers (Hundreds of GHz) V. In terms of biasing condition:
1. Class A amplifier
II. In terms of signal strength: 2. Class B amplifier
1. Small signal amplifiers. 3. Class AB amplifier
2. Large signal amplifiers. 4. Class C amplifier.

III. In terms of coupling: VI. In terms of tuning:

1. Direct coupling. 1. Single tuned amplifier
2. Resistance – capacitance (RC) coupling. 2. Double tuned amplifier
3. Transformer coupling. 3. Stagger tuned amplifier.

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4.1 Transistor Amplifier Configurations (review)
➢ Common Emitter and Common Source

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4.1 Transistor Amplifier Configurations (review)
➢ Common Emitter and Common Source

Amplifier input and output resistance (these are small signal parameter).
Sometimes, we neglected ro because ro >> Rc

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4.1 Transistor Amplifier Configurations (review)
❖ Summary of Common Emitter and Common Source Characteristics

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4.1 Transistor Amplifier Configurations (review)
➢ Common Collector and Common Drain

➢ Collector (or Drain) is neither an input or output

➢ Input is Base (or Gate)
➢ Output is Emitter ( or Source)
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4.1 Transistor Amplifier Configurations (review)
❖ Summary of Common Collector and Common Drain Characteristic

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4.1 Transistor Amplifier Configurations (review)
➢ Common Base and Common Gate

➢ Base (or Gate) is neither an input or output

➢ Input is Emitter (or Source)
➢ Output is Collector ( or Drain)
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4.1 Transistor Amplifier Configurations (review)
❖ Summary of Common Base and Common Gate Characteristics

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4.1 Transistor Amplifier Configurations (review)
❖ Terminal Resistance of Generally Loaded Transistors

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 4.1 Transistor Amplifier Configurations (review)
❖ Single-Stage Amplifiers “Terminal Gain and I/O Resistances of BJT Amplifiers”
Rsig vin vo Rsig vin Rsig vin vo
+
vs RL vs + vs RC
RB RB Ri RE RL
RE RC RL vo _
_ Ri Ro
Ri Ro
Ro Ro
(a) CE (b) CC (c) CB
−  RC − g m RC RL RL
Avo = Av = = Av = g m RL
r + (  + 1) R E 1 + g m RE 1 re + RL
+ RL
 RC  gm  1
(1 +  ) RE  + ro  Rin = re = ;
Ri = r +  (1 +  )  r + (  + 1) R E
Ri = r + (  + 1) RL gm gm
ro + RC + RE r + Rth 1 Rth
Ro =  + Ro = RC
Ro = RC || Ro = RC || 1 + g m ( r || RE )  ro + ( r || RE ) 1+  gm 
AIo =  + 1
AI 1
Ro 1 + g m RE  ro
AIo = 

Without degeneration RE:

Simply set RE = 0
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4.1 Transistor Amplifier Configurations (review)
❖ Single-Stage Amplifiers “Terminal Gain and I/O Resistances of BJT Amplifiers”

(C-C) (C-B)
(C-E)

13
 4.1 Transistor Amplifier Configurations (review)
❖ Single-Stage Amplifiers “Terminal Gain and I/O Resistances of FET Amplifiers”

C-S C-G
C-D
g m RL g m RL AV ,t = g m RL
Av ,t = − AV ,t =
1 + g m RS 1 + g m RL Ri 1
gm
Ri =  Ri = 
Ro =  ro (1 + g m RS ) 
Ro =  ro (1 + g m RE )  Ro = 1
gm AI ,t 1
AI ,t = 
RI ,t = 
Without degeneration RS:
simply set RS = 0

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4.1 Transistor Amplifier Configurations (review)
❖ Inverting Amplifiers: C-E and C-S Amplifier Review

15
 4.1 Transistor Amplifier Configurations (review)
❖ Follower Circuits -
CC & CD amplifiers
Summary
(C-C) (C-D)

16
 4.1 Transistor Amplifier Configurations (review)
❖ C-B and C-G
Amplifiers
Summary

(C-B) (C-G)

17
4.2 Introduction Multistage Amplifiers
Need for Multistage Amplifiers

❖ Typical spec. for a general purpose operational amplifier Cascading

– Input resistance ~ 1MΩ multiple stages
– Output resistance ~ 100Ω
– Voltage gain ~ 100,000 of amplifiers to
❖ No single transistor amplifier can satisfy the spec. meet the spec.

❑ Usually
– An input stage to provide required input resistance
– A middle stage(s) to provide gain
– An output stage to provide required output resistance
❑ It is important to note that the input resistance of the follow on stage
becomes the load of the previous stage

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 4.2 Introduction Multistage Amplifiers
❑ Cascade & Cascode Amplifiers
✓ A multistage amplifier in a cascade: the first stage's output is connected
to the second stage's input, and the second stage's output is connected to
the third stage's input, and so on. A cascade amplifier is a two-port
network with amplifiers connected in series, with each amplifier
transmitting its output to the second amplifier's input.
Fig. 1: example of cascade amplifier,
Fig. 2: example of cascode amplifier: a which consists of 2 CE amplifiers
CE stage followed by a CB stage
✓ This cascode is a two-stage amplifier that consists of a CE stage feeding into a
CB stage.
✓ In modern circuits, the cascode is often constructed from two transistors (BJTs or
FETs), with one operating as a CE or CS and the other as a CB or CG. The
cascode improves input–output isolation (reduces reverse transmission), as there
is no direct coupling from the output to input. This eliminates the Miller effect
and thus contributes to a much higher bandwidth.
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4.2 Introduction Multistage Amplifiers
❖ Figure shows a three-stage amplifier connected in cascade.

The basic functions of coupling blocks:

1.To move AC voltage from one stage output to the next stage input.
2.To block DC voltage and pass AC voltage from one stage to another.

Input & output

resistances 20
Mai Linh, PhD
4.2 Introduction Multistage Amplifiers
❖ Practical amplifiers usually consist of a number of stages connected in
cascade.
❖ The first (input) stage is usually required to provide
– a high input resistance
– a high common-mode rejection for a differential amplifier
❖ Middle stages are to provide
– majority of voltage gain
– conversion of the signal from differential mode to single-end mode
– shifting of the dc level of the signal
❖ The last (output) stage is to provide
– a low output resistance in order to
✓ deliver the output signal to the load without loss of gain and
✓ provide the current required by the load (power amplifiers)

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 4.2 Introduction Multistage Amplifiers
Example 1: A Four-Stage Bipolar Op-Amp
❑ 1st stage or input stage (Q1, Q2) is
differential-in and differential-out
3rd gain stage CS – biased by current source Q3
1st
with degeneration ❑ 2nd stage (Q4, Q5) is a differential-in
differential and single-ended-out stage
pair
– biased by current source Q6
4st stage: Emitter
2nd differential follower output
❑ 3rd stage (Q7) is CE amplifier,
pair with stage provides
single-ended
output
– additional gain
– shifting the dc level of the signal
❑ 4th stage - output stage (Q8) is an
Current emitter follower
mirrors

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 4.2 Introduction Multistage Amplifiers
❖ Open Circuit Overall Voltage Gain
Fig.: Three-stage amplifier cascade
In the cascade amplifier,
the overall voltage gain
is the product of the
open-circuit voltage
gains of the individual
stages.

Inverting amplifier using an operational amplifier Closed-loop feedback amplifier two-port model 23
4.2 Introduction Multistage Amplifiers
❖ Open Circuit Overall Voltage Gain

Fig.: Two-port representation for three-stage cascaded amplifier

 RinB   RinC 
vo = AvAvi   AvB   AvC Output resistances are small (zero in the ideal case)
 RoutA + RinB   RoutB + RinC 
𝑣0
The open circuit overall gain expression: 𝐴𝑣 = = 𝐴𝑣𝐴 ⋅ 𝐴𝑣𝐵 ⋅ 𝐴𝑣𝐶
𝑣𝑖 24
 4.2 Introduction Multistage Amplifiers
❖ Closed Circuit Overall Voltage Gain
vo
Atotal = = A1  A2  ...  An
vin

Rin
Overall voltage gain: Gv = Atotal (in dB) = 20log10|Gv|
Rs + Rin
Pout
Power gain in decibels = 10 log10 Ap = 10 log10
Pin

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The bel (B) & decibel (dB) scale
❑ Bel scale
In the early 1920's in order to quantify the degree of signal loss occurring in 1
mile of standard telephone cables, Bell Lab came up with the bel B) scale,
named after A. G. Bell - this scale was simply a logarithmic comparison of 2
signal powers (one at the start of a cable and one at the end). Alexander Graham Bell, Scottish-
American scientist and inventor,
 P1  1847–1922
A = log10   [B]
 P2 
➢ A denotes the relative difference between the two powers P1 and P2 on a logarithmic scale.
 P1  1
or A =10 log 10    bel
 P2  10
 P1 
➢ If we write 1/10 bel as decibel (dB), then A = 10 log10   [dB]
 P2 
Where A, again denotes the relative difference between the two powers P1 and P2 on a logarithmic
scale
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 The bel (B) & decibel (dB) scale
❑ Thus: the decibel (or dB) represents the ratio between two levels of power, or power gain.
❑ As defined, the dB is a dimensionless parameter (given that it is the ratio of two quantities
having the same unit of measure).
✓ 0 dB corresponds to a ratio of 1:1
✓ 10 dB corresponds to a ratio of 10:1
✓ -10 dB corresponds to a ratio of 1:10
❑ dB are used to measure
➢ Electric power, filter magnitude

➜ If P2 = P1 ⇒ AdB = 0 dB
➜ If P2 =2P1 ⇒ AdB = 3 dB
➜ If P2 = (1/2)P1 ⇒ AdB = −3 dB
➜ If P2 = 1,000,000P1 ⇒ AdB = 60 dB

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Logarithmic Measure for Power
• To express a power in terms of decibels, one starts by choosing
a reference power, Preference, and writing
Power P in decibels = 10log10(P/Preference)
• Example 2:
Express a power of 50 mW in decibels relative to 1 watt.
50 × 10−3
𝑃 𝑑𝐵 = 10𝑙𝑜𝑔10 = −13 (𝑑𝐵)
1

dBm to express absolute values of power relative to a milliwatt.

dBm = 10log10(power in milliwatts / 1 milliwatt).

Ex.: 100 mW = 10log10(100/1) = 20 dBm

10 mW = 10log10(10/1) = 10 dBm

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4.3 RC-coupled transistor amplifier
Coupling network
✓ 2-stage amplifier circuit, in CE,
common VCC.
✓ R1, R2 and RE form the biasing &
stabilization network.
✓ CE (bypass capacitor) which passes
only ac while restricting DC.
✓ RC : load impedance
✓ Cin couples ac signal to the base of
the transistor.
✓ CC (coupling capacitor) connects 2
stages and prevents DC
interference between the stages
and the shifting of operating point.

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 4.3 RC-coupled transistor amplifier
➢ Operation of RC Coupled Amplifier
❑ ac input signal @ B terminal of Q1
gets amplified and appears at RC,
then passes CC to the 2nd stage.
Then amplified ac signal again
appears across RC of Q2.
❑ 2-stage amplifier: the output phase
is same as input. Because the
phase reversal is done two times
by the two stage CE.
❑ The total gain is less than the
product of the gains of individual
stages.

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 Xc=1/2πfc
4.3 RC-coupled transistor amplifier
Frequency response
The voltage gain drops off at low (< 50
Hz) and high (> 20 kHz) frequencies
whereas it is uniform over mid-frequency
range (50 Hz to 20 kHz)

Less than 50 Hz: the reactance of

coupling capacitor CC is quite high →
very small part of signal will pass from
one stage to the next stage. Fig.: frequency response of a typical RC coupled amplifier
Higher than 20 kHz: the reactance of CC is very small and it behaves as a short circuit. This increases the
loading effect of next stage and serves to reduce the voltage gain. And capacitive reactance of base-emitter
junction is low which increases the base current. This reduces the current amplification factor β.
@ 50 Hz to 20 kHz: the voltage gain of the amplifier is constant.

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4.3 RC-coupled transistor amplifier

☺Advantages:
(i) Excellent frequency response. The gain is constant over the audio frequency range (for speech,
music etc.)
(ii) It has lower cost since it employs resistors and capacitors which are cheap.
(iii)The circuit is very compact as the modern resistors and capacitors are small and extremely light.

☹ Disadvantages:
(i) The RC coupled amplifiers have low voltage and power gain because the low resistance
presented by the input of each stage to the preceding stage decreases the effective load
resistance (RAC) and hence the gain.
(ii) Tendency to become noisy with age, particularly in moist climates.
(iii)Impedance matching is poor. It is because the output impedance of RC coupled amplifier is
several hundred ohms whereas the input impedance of a speaker is only a few ohms. Hence,
little power will be transferred to the speaker.

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• Example 3: RC-Coupled Transistor Amplifier with 3 stages

Chapter 14

33
 • Example 3: RC-Coupled Transistor Amplifier with 3 stages

❖ Input and output of overall amplifier is ac-coupled through capacitors C1 and C6.
❖ Bypass capacitors C2 and C4 are used to get maximum voltage gain from the two inverting amplifiers.
❖ Interstage coupling capacitors C3 and C5 transfer ac signals between amplifiers but provide isolation at dc
and prevent Q-points of the transistors from being affected.
❖ In the ac equivalent circuit, bias resistors are replaced by RB2 = R1||R2 and RB3 = R3||R4
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• Example 3: RC-Coupled Transistor Amplifier with three stages

➢ The transistor M1 Kn = 10 mA/V2, VTN = -2 V,  = 0.02 V-1

parameters are given: Q2 F = 150, VA = 80 V, VBE = 0.7 V
Q3 F = 80, VA = 60 V, VBE = 0.7 V
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Example 3: RC-Coupled Transistor Amplifier with three stages
(The capacitors have all been removed) At DC, the capacitors isolate each
individual transistor stage from the
others. So to find the bias point of
each transistor, Let use the single
transistor analysis methods already
mention.

Detailed DC calculations are

left for you to do @ home!

Fig.: DC equivalent Q-POINT VALUES SMALL-SIGNAL PARAMETERS

circuit for the three-stage M1 (5.00 mA, 10.9 V) gm1 = 10.0 mS, ro1  12.2 k
Q2 (1.5 mA, 5.53 V) gm2 = 62.0 mS, r2 = 2.5 k, ro2  53.3 k
Q3 (1.96 mA, 8.45 V) gm3 = 78.4 mS, r3  1.0 k, ro3  34.9 k
36 Mai Linh, PhD
Example 3: RC-Coupled Transistor Amplifier with three stages
➢AC Analysis The ac solution reduces to three circuits, each of which has a
load dependent on the input resistance of the next stage!

Fig.: ac equivalent circuit for ac analysis of the three-stage

All capacitors have been replaced by short circuits. For Q2 & Q3, the base bias resistors
have been replaced by 𝑅𝐵2 = 𝑅1 ∥ 𝑅2 & 𝑅𝐵3 = 𝑅3 ∥ 𝑅4

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➢AC Analysis
❖ Simplified ac circuit of the three-stage
amplifier with 3 sets of parallel resistors:
RI1 = 620 Ω || 17.2 kΩ  598 Ω
RI2 = 4.7 kΩ || 51.8 Ω  4.31 kΩ
RL3 = 3.3 kΩ || 250 Ω  232 Ω , and
RL1 = RI1 || Rin2 = 598Ω || rπ2 =598Ω || 2500Ω  482Ω
Rin = RG = 1 MΩ

RL1
Fig.: Small-signal equivalent (hybrid- equivalent) circuit for the three-stage amplifier.
To simplify calculations, let skip all ro1, ro2, and ro3 38
Mai Linh, PhD
 ▪ Overall Voltage gain calculation:

𝑣2
The gain of the 1st stage: 𝐴𝑣1 = = −𝑔𝑚1 𝑅𝐿1
𝑣1
𝑅𝐿1 = 482 Ω , 𝑔𝑚1 = 0.01 S
→ 𝐴𝑣1 = −0.01 𝑆 × 482 Ω = −4.82
𝑣3
The terminal gain of the 2nd stage (common-emitter amplifier): 𝐴𝑣2 = = −𝑔𝑚2 𝑅𝐿2
𝑣2
RL2: total load resistance connected to the collector of Q2 → 𝑅𝐿2 = 𝑅𝐼2 ∥ 𝑅𝑖𝑛3 , 𝑅𝑖𝑛3 = 𝑟𝜋3 + (𝛽03 + 1)𝑅𝐿3

𝑅𝐿2 = 4310 ∥ 1000 + 81 × 232  3.54 (𝑘), 𝑔𝑚2 = 62.0 mS → 𝐴𝑣2 = −62.0𝑚𝑠 × 3.54𝑘Ω = −219.48

The terminal gain of the emitter follower stage:

𝑣𝑜 𝑔𝑚3 𝑅𝐿3 78.4 mS (232 Ω)
Av3 = = 𝐴𝑣3 =  0.95
𝑣3 1+𝑔𝑚3 𝑅𝐿3 1 + 78.4 mS (232 Ω)
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Example 3: RC-Coupled Transistor Amplifier with three stages
Voltage gain for the overall amplifier (signal source voltage gain) - Overall Voltage gain:
𝑣𝑜 𝑣 𝑣 𝑣 𝑣 Rin 𝑣 𝑅𝑖𝑛 𝑅𝐺 1𝑀Ω
𝐺𝑣 = = ( 𝑜 )( 3 )( 2 )( 1 ) = Av3.Av2.Av1. ( ) Where 1 = = =
𝑣𝑖 𝑣3 𝑣2 𝑣1 𝑣𝑖 RI+Rin 𝑣𝑖 𝑅𝑖𝑛 +𝑅𝐼 𝑅𝐺 +𝑅𝐼 10𝑘Ω+1𝑀Ω
1 𝑀Ω
Gv = 0.95(-219.48)(-4.82)  +995 (  Voltage gain of ~ 60 dB)
10𝑘Ω+1 𝑀Ω

▪ Calculations of Current gain and Power gain:

vi v
✓ The input current delivered to the amplifier from source vi: = 4 i 6 = 9.90  10 −7 vi
ii =
RI + Rin 10 + 10
v A v 995vi
✓ The current delivered to the load from the amplifier is io = o = v i = = 3.98vi
250 250 250
i 3.98vi
✓ The current gain: Ai = o = −7
4.02  10 6
( 132 dB)
ii 9.90 10 vi
P v i
✓ The power gain of the amplifier: AP = o = o o = Av Ai = 995  4.02  10 = 3.99 10
6 9
( 96 dB)
Ps vi ii

Mai Linh, PhD 40

Example 3: RC-Coupled Transistor Amplifier with three stages
v3
▪ Calculations of Input & Output Resistance: Q2
Q3

ie ix

4.31 k
✓ Input Resistance: Rin = RG = 1 M

53.3 k
RI2 ir
ro2
✓ To find the overall output resistance of the whole amplifier Rout, vx

3.3 k
RE3
use Test voltage vx by applying it to the C-C amplifier output.
vx vx
ix = ir + ie = + (1) RTh3
3300 RiE 3
Fig.: Output resistance of the 3-stage amplifier
vx r + RTh 1 RTh
RiE = = + (2) (RiE : The resistance looking into the emitter terminal)
ix o + 1 gm o
𝑅𝑇ℎ3 (Thevenin equiv. source Res. of 3rd stage) is equal to the parallel combination of inter stage Res. 𝑅I2
& the output Res. of Q2 (𝑟02 ): RTh3 = RL2||ro2 = 4310 Ω||53300 Ω  3987.6 Ω
Case of Q3: put equ. (2) into (1)
vx 1 1
Rout = = = 61.4 ()
ix 1 1 1 1
+ +
3300 1 RTh 3 3300 1 3987.6
+ +
g m3 3 78.4 mS 80
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4.4 DC-coupled transistor amplifier
➢ The coupling capacitors in the multistage amplifier limit the low-frequency
response of the amplifier and prevent its application as a dc amplifier.
➢ For the amplifier to provide gain at DC or very low frequency, capacitors in series
with the signal path must be eliminated. Such as amplifier is called DC-coupled, or
direct-couple amplifier.

☹Disadvantage: small changes in

the dc bias voltages from temperature
effects or power-supply variation are
amplified by the succeeding stages →
a significant drift in the dc levels
throughout the circuit.

Mai Linh, PhD 42

4.4 DC-coupled transistor amplifier
Example 4: 𝑉𝐵𝐸 𝑜𝑛 = 0.7 𝑉 and 𝛽 = 100 for both transistors. Determine Q-point?
➢ DC analysis

Thevenin equivalent circuit

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Example 4: Cascade small signal amplifier circuit
Vo  Ri 
➢ ac analysis Av = = g m1 g m 2 ( RC1 || r 2 )( RC 2 || RL )  
Vs  i
R + Rs 

Ri = R1 || R2 || r 1
Rout = RC 2

All the remain works (DC & ac analysis) must be

solved in detail at home by your own!

Fig.: Small-signal equivalent circuit 44

4.4 DC-coupled transistor amplifier
❖ Drift effect in DC amplifier
The problem need be resolved in a dc coupling amplifier is suppressing of drift effects due to
temperature change. How is a temperature drift ?

• Give initial conditions:

𝐼𝑐 = 2.5 𝑚𝐴, 𝑉𝐸1 = 1 𝑉; 𝑉𝐵𝐸2 = 0.7 𝑉; 𝑉𝑐𝑐 = 9 𝑉.
=> 𝑉𝑐 = 4 𝑉; 𝑉𝐸2 = 3.3 𝑉; 𝐼𝐸2 = 3.3 𝑚𝐴.

• If the temperature changes by ∆𝑻 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝑪, situation?

✓ 𝑉𝐵𝐸1 changes by 2 mV/𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒
✓ 𝐼𝑐 = 2.5 𝑚𝐴 → 𝑔𝑚1 = 100 𝑚𝐴/𝑉
✓ ∆𝐼𝑐 = 2 𝑚𝐴 → ∆𝑉𝑐 = 4 𝑉 and 𝑉𝑐 = 0 𝑉.
=> Q1 is in saturation and Q2 is cut-off

Mai Linh, PhD 45

4.5 Compound configuration
• Darlington pair
If the input impedance of the amplifier circuit is to be only 500 KΩ or less,
then CC Configuration can be used. But if still higher input impedance is
required, a special circuit has to be used. This circuit is known as the
Darlington configuration or Darlington Pair configuration.

❖ DC analysis:
𝑉𝐶𝐶
Voltage across R2 and RE: 𝑉2 = × 𝑅2 & VE = V2 − 2VBE
𝑅1 + 𝑅2
𝑉2 − 2𝑉𝐵𝐸
Current through RE, 𝐼𝐸2 = and IE1 = IB2
𝑅𝐸
𝐼𝐸2 𝐼𝐸2
𝐼𝐵2 = 𝐼𝐸1 = IE2 = IE1β2
𝛽2 𝛽2
We have: IE1 = β1IB1 since IE1 ≅ IC1 → IE2 = IE1β2 = β1β2IB1
𝐼𝐸2 𝛽1 𝛽2 𝐼𝐵1
Therefore, Current Gain can be given as: 𝛽 = = = 𝛽1 𝛽2
𝐼𝐵1 𝐼𝐵1

Mai Linh, PhD 46

4.5 Compound configuration Sidney Darlington
(July 18, 1906 – October 31, 1997)

• Darlington pair EE American & inventor of a

transistor configuration in 1953,
the Darlington pair. He advanced
the state of network theory,
developing the insertion-loss
synthesis approach, and invented
chirp radar, bombsights, and gun
and rocket guidance.

Characteristics
The following are the important characteristics of
Darlington amplifier.
3-terminals device can be called ✓ Extremely high input impedance (MΩ).
as Darlington transistor ✓ Extremely high current gain (several
thousands).
✓ Extremely low output impedance (a few Ω).

Mai Linh, PhD 47

4.5 Compound configuration
• Darlington pair ❖ ac analysis: small signal
Vπ1 = Iirπ1 → gm1Vπ1 = gm1rπ1Ii = β1Ii and Vπ2 = (Ii + β1Ii)rπ2
The output current: Io = gm1Vπ1 + gm2Vπ2 = β1Ii + β2(1 + β1)Ii where gm2rπ2 = β2.
The overall current gain is then
𝐼
𝐴𝑖 = 𝐼𝑜 = 𝛽1 + 𝛽2 (1 + 𝛽1 ) ≅ 𝛽1 𝛽2 , note: 𝛽1 𝛽2 >> 𝛽1 + 𝛽2
𝑖
Input resistance is Ri = Vi/Ii . Vi = Vπ1 + Vπ2 = Iirπ1 + Ii(1 + β1)rπ2  Ii[rπ1 + (1 + β1)rπ2]
so that Ri = rπ1 + (1 + β1)rπ2
𝛽1 𝑉𝑇 𝐼𝐶𝑄2 𝛽2 𝑉𝑇
𝑟𝜋1 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼𝐶𝑄1 ≅ → 𝑟𝜋1 = 𝛽1 = 𝛽1 𝑟𝜋2
𝐼𝐶𝑄1 𝛽2 𝐼𝐶𝑄2
Thus, input resistance Ri  2β1rπ2 = 2rπ1
(𝛽1 +1)𝑟𝜋2 𝑣𝑖
𝑣𝐸1 = 𝑣𝑖 𝑟 ≅ and 𝑔𝑚2 ≅ 𝛽2 𝑔𝑚1
𝜋1 +(𝛽1 +1)𝑟𝜋2 2
𝑣𝑖 𝑣𝑖 𝑔𝑚1 𝑔𝑚2 𝑔𝑚2 𝑔𝑚2 𝑔𝑚2
𝑔𝑚 𝑣𝑖 = 𝑔𝑚1 + 𝑔𝑚2 → 𝑔𝑚 = + = + ≅
2 2 2 2 2𝛽2 2 2

𝑅𝑜1 ≅ 𝛽𝑜1 𝑅𝑜2

Output resistance Ro 𝑅𝑜 = 𝑅𝑜2 ∥ 𝑅01
# 48 =>𝑅𝑜 ≅ 𝑅𝑜2 Mai Linh, PhD Fig.: small-signal equivalent circuit
4.6 Differential Amplifier
❑ A differential amplifier is an amplifier that produces outputs that are a function
of the difference between two input voltages. The differential amplifier has two
basic modes of operation: differential (in which the two inputs are different) and
common mode (in which the two inputs are the same).
❑ The differential amplifier has two inputs and two outputs.
❑ The differential-pair or differential-amplifier configuration is the most widely
used building block in analog IC design.

Vo = Ad(V1 – V2)

Mai Linh, PhD 49

4.6 Differential Amplifier
Advantages
➢ There are 2 reasons for using differential in preference to
single-ended amplifiers.
(1) Differential circuits are much less sensitive to noise and
interference than single-ended circuits.
(2) It enables us to bias the amplifier and to couple amplifier stage
without the need of bypass and coupling capacitors which are
impossible to fabricate economically by IC technology.

Mai Linh, PhD 50

 4.6 Differential Amplifier
• Basic Characteristics
– Two matched transistors with emitters
shorted together and connected to a current
source
– Devices must always be in active mode
– Amplifies the difference between the two
The basic BJT differential-pair configuration
input voltages, but there is also a common
mode amplification in the non-ideal case

Mai Linh, PhD 51

4.6 Differential Amplifier

Differential-mode input signal: 𝑣𝑖𝑑 = 𝑣2 − 𝑣1

𝑣 +𝑣
Common-mode input signal: 𝑣𝑖𝑐𝑚 = 1 2
2
Differential-mode gain: 𝐴𝑑
Common-mode gain: 𝐴𝑐𝑚

Output voltage:

Representing the input signals to a differential

Common-mode rejection ration (CMRR): amplifier in terms of their differential and
common-mode components

Mai Linh, PhD 52

 4.6 Differential Amplifier

BJT differential amplifiers MOS differential amplifiers

Ideal, the differential amplifier is symmetric. The differential amplifier behaves as either an inverting or
noninverting amplifier for differential input signals but tends to reject signals common to both inputs.

Mai Linh, PhD 53

4.6 Differential Amplifier
The BJT Differential Pair: Basic Operation-1: Common-mode input
• Assume the inputs are shorted together to a common voltage, vCM,
called the common mode voltage
– equal currents flow through Q1 and Q2
– emitter voltages equal and at vCM - 0.7 in order for the devices to
be in active mode
– collector currents are equal and so collector voltages are also
equal for equal load resistors
– difference between collector voltages = 0
• What happens when we vary vCM?
– As long as devices in active mode, equal currents flow through Q1
and Q2
– Note: current through Q1 and Q2 always add up to I, current
through the current source
– So, collector voltages do not change and difference is still zero….
– Differential pair circuits thus reject common mode signals
Mai Linh, PhD
4.6 Differential Amplifier
The BJT Differential Pair : Basic Operation-2

➢The differential pair with a large differential input

signal.

• Q2 base grounded and Q1 base at +1 V

√ All current flows through Q1
√ No current flows through Q2
√ Emitter voltage at 0.3V and Q2’s EBJ not forward biased
√ vC1 = VCC – aIRC
√ vC2 = VCC

Mai Linh, PhD

4.6 Differential Amplifier
The BJT Differential Pair: Basic Operation-3

➢The differential pair with a large differential input

signal of polarity opposite to that in basic operation-2
(previous slide).
• Q2 base grounded and Q1 base is –1 V
√ All current flows through Q2
√ No current flows through Q1
√ Emitter voltage at – 0.7V and Q1’s EBJ not forward biased
√ vC2 = VCC – aIRC
√ vC1 = VCC

Mai Linh, PhD

4.6 Differential Amplifier
The BJT Differential Pair: Basic Operation-4:Difference-mode or Difference signals

➢Assuming the bias current source I to be ideal and thus I

remains constant.

• Apply a small signal vi

– Causes a small positive I to flow in Q1
– Requires small negative I in Q2
• since IE1+IE2 = I
– Can be used as a linear amplifier for small signals (I is a
function of vi)
• Differential pair responds to differences in the input voltage
– Can entirely steer current from one side of the diff pair to the
other with a relatively small voltage

Mai Linh, PhD

4.6 Differential Amplifier The BJT Differential Pair

Example 5
Find vE, vC1, and vC2 in the circuit of Fig.
Assume that |vBE| of a conducting transistor
is approximately 0.7 V and that α  1.

Mai Linh, PhD 58

4.6 Differential Amplifier The BJT Differential Pair

Example 5 – Sol.
5-0.7
= 4.3mA
1

= +0.7V

= -5 V
= -0.7 V

= -5 + 4.3x1

= 4.3 mA

Mai Linh, PhD 59

4.6 Differential Amplifier The BJT Differential Pair

DC analysis
To find the Q-points, setting both input signal voltages to zero.
VBE1 = VBE2 = VBE
Assume Q1 & Q2 are matched, then
IC1 = IC2 = IC, IE1 = IE2 = IE , and IB1 = IB2 = IB,
Due to symmetry of the circuit: VC1 = VC2 = VC
The loop equation starting at the base of Q1
𝑉𝐸𝐸 − 𝑉𝐵𝐸 loop 2IE
VBE + 2IEREE − VEE = 0 and 𝐼𝐶 = 𝛼𝐹 𝐼𝐸 = 𝛼𝐹
2𝑅𝐸𝐸

with IB = IC/βF , and VC1 = VC2 = VCC − ICRC

Also VCE1 = VCE2 = VCC + VBE − ICRC.
Thus, for the symmetrical amplifier: VOD = VC1 − VC2 = 0 V The dc output voltage is zero 60
4.6 Differential Amplifier The BJT Differential Pair
ac analysis
With the Q-point data, we can proceed to use small-signal
analysis to characterize the voltage gain, input and output
resistances of the differential amplifier.
The ac analysis of the differential amplifier can be
simplified by breaking input sources v1 & v2 into their
equivalent differential-mode input (vid) and common-
mode input (vic) signal components

𝑣1 + 𝑣2
vid = v1 − v2 and 𝑣𝑖𝑐 =
2

Total input voltages: v1 = vic + vid /2 and v2 = vic − vid /2

Circuit analysis is performed using superposition of the differential-mode and common-mode input
signal components.

Mai Linh, PhD 61

4.6 Differential Amplifier The BJT Differential Pair
AC analysis
The differential-mode & common-mode output voltages, vod & voc,
𝑣 +𝑣
vod = vc1 − vc2 and 𝑣𝑜𝑐 = 𝑐1 𝑐2
2
For the general amplifier case, voltages vod & voc are functions of both vid & vic and can be written as

𝑣𝑜𝑑 𝐴𝑑𝑑 𝐴𝑐𝑑 𝑣𝑖𝑑

𝑣𝑜𝑐 =
𝐴𝑑𝑐 𝐴𝑐𝑐 𝑣𝑖𝑐
Where 4 gains are defined:
Add = differential-mode gain
Acd = common-mode (to differential-mode) conversion gain
Acc = common-mode gain
Adc = differential-mode (to common-mode) conversion gain
For ideal symmetrical amplifier with match transistors, Acd & Adc are zero, thus
vod = Addvid  Advid and voc = Accvic  Acvic
Here, Ad & Ac are the differential mode gain & the common mode gain, respectively.

Mai Linh, PhD 62

 4.6 Differential Amplifier The BJT Differential Pair
Differential-mode gain & I/O-put resistances finding

Fig.: Differential amplifier with a differential Fig.: Small-signal model for differential-mode inputs. The output
mode input signal. resistances are neglected in the calculations

Mai Linh, PhD 63

 4.6 Differential Amplifier The BJT Differential Pair
Differential-mode gain & I/O-put
resistances finding

• Summing currents at the emitter node:

Resistances r & REE have their equivalent conductance

g & GEE. The base-emitter voltages are:
vid vid
v3 = − ve & v4 = − − ve → v3 + v4 = −2ve
2 2

Hence 𝑣𝑒 (𝐺𝐸𝐸 + 2𝑔𝜋 + 2𝑔𝑚 )=0 which requires 𝑣𝑒 = 0 → v3 = vid /2 & v4 = – vid /2

• For a purely DM input voltage, the voltage at the emitter node is identically zero ➔ emitter node (ve)
represents a virtual ground for DM input signal. So this node causes the differential amplifier to
behave as a common-emitter (or common-source) amplifier.
Mai Linh, PhD 64
4.6 Differential Amplifier The BJT Differential Pair
Differential-mode gain & I/O-put resistances finding
vid vid
The output signal voltages are vc1 = − g m RC vc 2 = + g m RC vod = − g m RC vid
2 2
vod
The differential-mode gain Ad for a balanced output, vod = vc1 − vc2, is Ad = = − g m RC
vid vic = 0

If vc1 or vc2 is used as the output, referred to as a single-ended (or ground-referenced) output, then
vc1 g m RC Ad vc 2 g m RC A
Ad1 = =− = or Ad2 = =+ =− d
vid vic = 0
2 2 vid vic = 0
2 2

The virtual ground @ the emitter node causes the amplifier to behave as a single-stage C-E
amplifier. (The same as for C-S amplifier in case of CMOS).

common-mode output voltages voc = 0 since vc2 = −vc1, and therefore Adc is indeed zero.

Mai Linh, PhD 65

4.6 Differential Amplifier The BJT Differential Pair
Differential-mode gain & I/O-put resistances finding
Differential-Mode Input Resistance
The differential-mode input resistance Rid represents the small-signal resistance
presented to the full differential-mode input voltage appearing between the two
bases of the transistors.
vid
Rid = = 2r
ib1
If vid is set to zero, then gmv3 and gmv4 are zero, and the differential-mode
output resistance Rod is
Rod = 2(RC||ro)  2RC
Thus, single-ended outputs Rout  RC

Mai Linh, PhD 66

 The BJT Differential Pair
4.6 Differential Amplifier
Common-mode gain & Input
resistances finding
To find the CM characteristics and discover that it
tends to reject CM input signals, a very useful
property!

Purely CM input signals are applied to the

differential amplifier. For this case, both
sides of the amplifier are completely
symmetrical.
Thus, the two base currents, the emitter
currents, the collector currents, and the two
collector voltages must be equal.

Mai Linh, PhD 67

4.6 Differential Amplifier The BJT Differential Pair
Common-mode gain & Input resistances finding

For small signal model:

vic = ib r + ve = ib  r + 2 (  o + 1) REE 
vic
 ib =
r + 2 (  o + 1) REE

The output voltage at collectors:

−  o RC
vc1 = vc 2 = −  oib RC = vic
r + 2 (  o + 1) REE

2 (  o + 1) REE
The voltage at the emitter: ve = 2 (  o + 1) ib REE = vic  vic
r + 2 (  o + 1) REE

Mai Linh, PhD 68

 4.6 Differential Amplifier The BJT Differential Pair
Common-mode gain & Input resistances finding
voc  o RC R
The CM output voltage 𝑣𝑜𝑐 : Ac = =− − C (Because β𝑜 >> 1)
vic vid = 0
r + 2 (  o + 1) REE 2 REE
I C RC VCC / 2 VCC VCC
Ac = −    where it is assumed that F = 0
2 I C REE 2 I E REE 2 (VEE − VBE ) 2VEE and ICRC = VCC / 2.

The differential output voltage vod is identically zero because the

voltages are equal at two collectors: vod = vc1 – vc2 = 0.
So, the CM conversion gain for a differential output is also zero:
vod
Acd = =0
vic vid = 0

 1 1 
If ro is included Ac RC  − 

 oor 2 REE 

Mai Linh, PhD 69

4.6 Differential Amplifier The BJT Differential Pair
Common-mode gain & Input resistances finding
Common-mode input resistance
vic r + 2 (  o + 1) REE r
Ric = = = + (  o + 1) REE
2ib 2 2

Common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR), characterizes the ability of an amplifier to amplify

the desired differential-mode input signal and reject the undesired common mode input signal.

𝐴𝑑𝑚 𝐴𝑑 Τ 2 1 1
CMRR = = = 𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝐶 × = 𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝐸𝐸
𝐴𝑐𝑚 𝐴𝐶 2 𝑅𝐶 Τ2𝑅𝐸𝐸

By writing gm in terms of the collector current

CMRR = 40ICREE = 20(2IEREE) = 20(VEE − VBE)  20VEE

Mai Linh, PhD 70

 4.6 Differential Amplifier Differential Amplifier with MOSFET

MOSFETS provide very high-input resistance and are often used in differential
amplifiers implemented in CMOS technologies.

For DC analysis, using half-circuits,

the amplifier is redrawn in symmetrical
form

I SS K
IS = I D = n (VGS − VTN )
2
,
2 2
VD1 = VD 2 = VDD − I D RD , Vo = 0
VDS = VDD − I D RD + VGS

Mai Linh, PhD 71

4.6 Differential Amplifier Differential Amplifier with MOSFET

❑Read at home the following sections (book: Microelectronic Circuit

Design, 5th Ed., by C. JAEGER • TRAVIS N. BLALOCK):
In the chapter 15
➢ 15.1.12 DIFFERENTIAL-MODE INPUT SIGNALS
➢ 15.1.13 SMALL-SIGNAL TRANSFER CHARACTERISTIC FOR THE MOS DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIER
➢ 15.1.14 COMMON-MODE INPUT SIGNALS

Mai Linh, PhD 72

4.7 RF selective amplifier (further reading)
• In radio communication, waves have frequencies of the order of hundreds of kHz or higher. Amplifiers
operating in this frequency range is called high-frequency or RF ones (Radio Frequency Amplifier).
• Information in this waveband is usually set in a narrow frequency range around a certain frequency
called the carrier. In this case, the amplifier should only is required to amplify the received signals
about the carrier’s frequency or the neighboring, and then remove the other ones which are far from
that narrow range. Such amplifier is called the selective amplifier.
• The resonant frame LC has the selective character about the critical frequency w = 1 /LC is the
good selection using it as a resonant load for a transistor-based amplifiers.

Mai Linh, PhD 73

 RF selective amplifier

Scheme of an input stages of the RF receiver

Mai Linh, PhD 74

4.8 Wide-Band Amplifier (further reading)
• Such a video amplifier requires a wideband to 6.5 MHz. Meanwhile the frequency response of a
typical RC-coupled amplifier is limited at some tens of kHz. It is only uniform over mid-frequency
range (e.g.50 Hz to 20 kHz) but is dropped off at two ends of bandwidth:
✓ Lower the low-range, signal is attenuated due to the high-impedance of coupled capacitors.
✓ Over the high-range, signal is shunt-dropped due to parallel parasitic capacitors in circuit.

Mai Linh, PhD 75

 4.9 Power Amplifiers
What is a Power Amplifier?
A power amplifier is an electronic amplifier designed to increase the
magnitude of power of a given input signal. The power of the input
signal is increased to a level high enough to drive loads of output devices like speakers,
headphones, RF transmitters etc. Unlike voltage/current amplifiers, a power amplifier is
designed to drive loads directly and is used as a final block in an amplifier chain.

Fig.: Chain of an arbitrary audio amplifier

Types of Power Amplifiers
Depending on the type of output device that is connected, power amplifiers are divided into the
following three types:
➢ Audio Power Amplifiers (few milliwatts to thousands of watts)
➢ RF Power Amplifiers
➢ DC Power Amplifiers Mai Linh, PhD 76
Mai Linh, PhD 77
4.9 Power Amplifiers
➢ Power amplifiers are large-signal amplifiers.
➢ These amplifier classifications are based on the percentage of the input cycle for which the amplifier
operates in its linear region. Each class has a unique circuit configuration because of the way it must
be operated. The emphasis is on power amplification.
➢ Power amplifiers are normally used as the final stage of a communications receiver or transmitter to
provide signal power to speakers or to a transmitting antenna. BJTs are used to illustrate power
amplifier principles.

Power amplifiers designed to amplify analog signals come under A, B, AB or C category

• Class A power amplifiers
• Class B power amplifiers
• Class AB push-pull amplifiers
• Class C power amplifiers

(Textbook 2: Thomas L. Floyd, Electronic devices, 9th edition, Prentice Hall, Chap. 7)

Mai Linh, PhD 78

4.9 Power Amplifiers Classification of Output Stages
Class A
❖ Class A: the transistor conducts
Class B
for the entire cycle of the input
signal
❖ Class B: the transistor conducts
for only half the cycle
❖ Class AB: conduction cycle is
greater than 180º and less than
360º
Class AB Class C – Used for opamp output stage and
audio power amplifiers
❖ Class C: conduction cycle is less
than 180º
– Used for radio-frequency (RF) power
amplifications (mobile phones, radio
Collector or Drain current waveforms and TV)
of different output stages Mai Linh, PhD 79
 AC & DC Load lines in BJT transistor amplifiers
DC Load Line
When the transistor is given the bias and no ac
signal is applied at its input, the DC load line
drawn under such conditions, can be
understood as DC condition.
VCE = VCC − ICRC

Mai Linh, PhD 80

 AC & DC Load lines in BJT transistor amplifiers
ac Load Line
Whereas the ac load line gives the peak-to-peak voltage, or the
maximum possible output swing for a given amplifier.
VCE = (RC||RL)×IC , let rC = RC||RL RB
BJT work as an amplifier: The Q point is so chosen that the
maximum input signal excursion is symmetrical on both negative
and positive half cycles.
→Vmax = VCEQ and Vmin = -VEQ
VCEQ is the emitter-collector voltage @ Q point.
Current IC @ the saturation point (A): IC(sat) = ICQ + (VCEQ/rC)
Voltage VCE @ the cutoff point (B): VCE(off) = VCEQ+ ICQrC

Mai Linh, PhD 81

 AC and DC Load Line
When ac and DC Load lines are represented
in a graph, it can be understood that they are
not identical.
DC Load Line: For C-E transistors, it is
straight line. It is on output characteristic
curve (RC is the resistor in collector circuit)
ac Load Line: It is straight line through the
quiescent operating point having slope
corresponding to AC load resistance rC =
RC || RL.

Mai Linh, PhD 82

 4.9 Power Amplifiers Class A power amplifiers
• Operating in linear region.
• Q-Point is centered on the AC load line

Amplitude of Vce and Ic limited by cutoff

Transistor driven into cutoff by a further increase in input amplitude 83
Class A power amplifiers
2
𝑃𝐿 𝑉𝐿2 𝑉𝑖𝑛
• Power Gain: 𝐴𝑝 = where 𝑃𝐿 = and 𝑃𝑖𝑛 =
𝑃𝑖𝑛 𝑅𝐿 𝑅𝑖𝑛

𝑉𝐿2 𝑅𝑖𝑛 𝑅𝑖𝑛

𝑅𝑖𝑛 = 𝑅1 ∥ 𝑅2 ∥ 𝑟𝜋
𝐴𝑝 = 2 𝐴𝑝 = 𝐴2𝑣 Where
𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑅𝐿 𝑅𝐿

• Example 6: Common – Collector Amplifier has an input resistance 10k

and a load resistance of 100 ohm. Since a CC amplifier has a voltage
gain (Av) of approximately 1, what is the power gain?
𝑅𝑖𝑛 10𝑘
𝐴𝑝 = 𝐴2𝑣 =1 2 = 100
𝑅𝐿 100
Mai Linh, PhD 84
Class A power amplifiers
• DC Quiescent Power: Power dissipation of transistor with no signal input (by Q-Point)
𝑃𝐷𝑄 = 𝐼𝐶𝑄 𝑉𝐶𝐸𝑄
PDQ is the maximum power that a class A amplifier must handle.

• Output Power: C-E Amplifiers with a centered Q-Point

✓ maximum peak voltage swing 𝑉𝑐 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐼𝐶𝑄 𝑅𝑐 → rms value: 0.707 𝑉𝑐 𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑉𝐶𝐸𝑄
✓ maximum peak current swing 𝐼𝑐 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = → rms value: 0.707 𝐼𝑐 𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑅𝐶
✓ 𝑷𝒐𝒖𝒕 𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 0.707 𝑉𝑐 𝑚𝑎𝑥 ∗ 0.707 𝐼𝑐 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝟎. 𝟓 𝑰𝑪𝑸 𝑽𝑪𝑬𝑸
• DC power: 𝑃𝐷𝐶 = 𝐼𝐶𝐶 𝑉𝐶𝐶 = 2𝐼𝐶𝑄 𝑉𝐶𝐸𝑄 (Supply voltage is at least 2VCEQ)
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 0.5𝐼𝐶𝑄 𝑉𝐶𝐸𝑄 In practice, is
• Maximum efficiency: max = = = 0.25
𝑃𝐷𝐶 2𝐼𝐶𝑄 𝑉𝐶𝐸𝑄 less about 10%
Mai Linh, PhD 85
 Reference: Electronic Devices, 9th Ed.
Example 7 by Thomas Floyd. Chapter 7.

• Determine the voltage gain and the power gain of the class A power
amplifier in below figure. Assume 𝛽1 = 𝛽2 = 𝛽3 = 200.

Mai Linh, PhD 86

 Reference: Electronic Devices, 9th Ed.
Example 7- Sol.: by Thomas Floyd. Chapter 7.
1st stage (Q1) is a voltage-divider biased common-emitter with a resistor (RE1). The 2nd stage (Q2 & Q3)
is a Darlington voltage follower configuration. The speaker is the load.
1st stage: The ac collector resistance Rc1  RC || (R3 || R4) = 4.7 k || 5.6 k || 22 k = 2.29 k
 R2   10 
VB    CC    12 = 1.82 (V)
V =
 R1 + R2   66 
V − 0.7 1.82 − 0.7
IE = B = = 1.78 (mA)
RE1 + RE 2 628
25 mV 25 mV
re( Q1) = = = 14 
IE 1.78 mA
Rc1 2.29 103
Voltage gain of the first stage with the loading of the 2nd stage Av1 = − =− −27.93
RE1 + re(Q1) 68 + 14

Total input resistance of the 1st stage Rin (tot)1 = R1 || R2 ||  ac (Q1) ( RE1 + re(Q1) )
= 56 k  ||10 k  || 200(68  + 14 ) = 8.4 k 

Mai Linh, PhD 87

 Reference: Electronic Devices, 9th Ed.
Example 7- Sol.: by Thomas Floyd. Chapter 7.

2nd stage: The voltage gain of the Darlington emitter-follower: Av2  1

Overall amplifier: The overall voltage gain is the product of the first and second
stage voltage gains.
Av(tot) = Av1Av2 = (– 27.9)(1) = – 27.9

Power gain:
 Rin (tot)1  2  8.4 k  
Ap = A2
  = (−27.9)    817330
 8 
v (tot)
 RL 

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 Reference: Electronic Devices, 9th Ed.
by Thomas Floyd. Chapter 7.
Example 8
• Determine the efficiency of the power amplifier in Example 7.

Mai Linh, PhD 89

 Reference: Electronic Devices, 9th Ed.
Example 8 – Sol.: by Thomas Floyd. Chapter 7.
The efficiency is the ratio of the signal power in the load to the power supplied by
the dc source. The input voltage is 50 mV peak-to-peak which is 35.4 mV rms.
→ The input power: v 2 (35.4 mV )
Pin = in
= 149 nW
Rin 8.4 k 
The output power Pout = Pin Ap = (149 nW )  817330 = 122 mW

Most of the power from the dc source is supplied to the output stage. The current in the output stage
can be computed from the dc emitter voltage of Q3.
 22 k  
VE ( Q 3)     (12 V ) − 1.4 V = 8.2 V
 27.6 k  
VE ( Q 3) 8.2
I E ( Q 3) = = 0.25 ( A)
RE 33
Neglecting the other transistor and bias currents, which are very small, the total dc supply current is about
0.25 A. The power from the dc source PDC = ICCVCC = (0.25 A)(12 V) = 3 W
Pout 122 mW
➔ Efficiency of the amplifier = = 0.04 Only 4% !
PDC 3W
Mai Linh, PhD 90
Class B and Class AB Push-Pull Amplifiers
• Class B Amplifiers is in cutoff for 180𝑜 .
• Q-Point is at cutoff: amplifier is biased at the cutoff point:
𝐼𝐶𝑄 = 0; 𝑉𝐶𝐸𝑄 = 𝑉𝐶𝐸(𝑐𝑢𝑡𝑜𝑓𝑓) .
• Only conduct for positive half of cycle.

Emitter-Follower circuit
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 Class B and Class AB Push-Pull Amplifiers
• Class B push-full operation
✓ Transformer coupled push-pull amplifiers:

Q1 conduct during the

positive half-cycle; Q2
conducts during the negative
half-cycle. The two halves are
combined by the output
transformer.
The positive power supply
signal is connected to the
center tap of the output
transformer. Mai Linh, PhD 92
Class B and Class AB Push-Pull Amplifiers
• Class B push-full operation
✓ Complementary Symmetry Transistors (matching pair of npn/pnp BJTs):

Notice: this case, there is no

dc base bias voltage (VB = 0).

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Class B and Class AB Push-Pull Amplifiers
• Class B push-full operation
Crossover distortion: Q1 & Q2 are off
due to the input signal voltage < VBE.
➔ there is a time interval between the
positive and negative alternations of
the input when neither transistor is
conducting.
➔ Make distortion in the output
waveform is called crossover distortion
(méo xuyên tâm)

Mai Linh, PhD 94

Class B and Class AB Push-Pull Amplifiers
• Biasing Push-Pull Amplifier for Class AB Operation
To overcome crossover distortion, the biasing is adjusted to just overcome
the VBE of the transistors → leads to class AB.
D1 & D2 are closely matched to the characteristics of Q1 & Q2, → the current
in the diodes and the current in the transistors (ICQ) are the same; named as
current mirror.

Biasing the push-pull amplifier 0.7 V is applied to the input transformer’s secondary 95
 Class B and Class AB Push-Pull Amplifiers
• AC Operation
✓ Q-Point is slightly above cutoff
✓AC saturation current for two-supply operation with
push-pull amplifier:
𝑉𝐶𝐶
𝐼𝑐(𝑠𝑎𝑡) =
𝑅𝐿

Load lines (of Q1) for a complementary

symmetry push-pull amplifier. AC load line for Q1

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Example 9
• Determine the ideal maximum peak output voltage and current for
the circuit shown in below figure.

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 Example 9 – Sol.
The ideal maximum peak output voltage is
Vout ( peak )  VCEQ VCC = 20 V

The ideal maximum peak current is

VCC 20 V
I out ( peak ) I c ( sat ) = 133 mA
RL 150 

The actual maximum values of voltage and

current are slightly smaller!

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Class B and Class AB Push-Pull Amplifiers
• Single-Supply Push-Pull Amplifier
Push-pull amplifiers using complementary symmetry
transistors can be operated from a single voltage source

The bias is set to force the output emitter voltage to

be VCC / 2

Coupling capacitors for the input and output is

necessary to block the bias voltage from the
source and the load resistor.

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Example 10
• Determine the maximum ideal peak values for the output voltage and
current in below figure:

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Example 10 – Sol.
The maximum peak output voltage
VCC 20
Vout ( peak ) VCEQ = = = 10 (V )
2 2

The maximum peak output current

VCEQ 10
I out ( peak )  I c ( sat ) = = = 200 ( mA)
RL 50

Mai Linh, PhD 101

 Class B and Class AB push-pull Amplifiers
• Class B/AB Power
✓ Maximum Output Power maximum average output power:
Pout = Iout(rms)Vout(rms) = 0.707Ic(sat)×0.707VCEQ = 0.5Ic(sat)VCEQ
VCEQ = VCC/2 => Pout = 0.25Ic(sat)Vcc
✓ DC Input Power (comes from the VCC supply):
PDC = ICCVCC and ICC=Ic(sat)/𝜋 (because each transistor operates a half-cycle of signal)
𝐼𝑐(𝑠𝑎𝑡)𝑉𝐶𝐶
=> 𝑃𝐷𝐶 =
𝜋
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 0.25𝐼𝑐(𝑠𝑎𝑡) 𝑉𝐶𝐶 much higher efficiency
✓ Efficiency: 𝜂𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = = 0.25𝜋 ≈ 79% when compare to class A!
𝑃𝐷𝐶 𝐼𝑐(𝑠𝑎𝑡)𝑉𝐶𝐶 Τ𝜋

• Input Resistance
input resistance for the emitter-follower Rin =  ac ( re + RE ) || R1 || R2
Since RE = RL, Rin =  ac ( re + RL ) || R1 || R2
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 Example 11
• Find the maximum ac output power and
the dc input power of the amplifier in
figure.

Mai Linh, PhD 103

Example 11 – Sol.
The ideal maximum peak output voltage
VCC 20
Vout ( peak ) VCEQ = = = 10 (V )
2 2
The maximum peak output current
VCEQ 10
I out ( peak ) I c ( sat ) = = = 1.25 ( A)
RL 8
The ac output power and the dc input power
Pout = 0.25 I c ( sat )VCC = 0.25 1.25  20 = 6.25 (W )
I c ( sat )VCC 1.25  20
PDC = = 7.96 (W )
 

Mai Linh, PhD 104

Class C Amplifiers
• Be biased so that conduction
occurs for much less than 180o.
• More efficient than either class A
or push-pull class B and class AB.
• Not used for linear amplification,
but used in radio frequency (RF)
applications.

Class C is biased below cutoff with

the negative VBB supply → ac
source voltage has a peak value
slightly > |VBB| + VBE → short
interval, the transistor is turned on.

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 Class C Amplifiers
The power dissipation of the transistor in a
class C amplifier is low!

• Power dissipation during the on time

PD(on) = Ic(sat)Vce(sat)
• Power dissipation averaged over the
entire cycle (transistor is on for a short
time, ton, and off for the rest of the input
cycle):
 ton   ton 
PD ( avg ) =   PD ( on ) =   I c ( sat )Vce ( sat )
T  T 
106
Class C Amplifiers
• Tuned Operation
Because the Vout is not a replica of the input Vin, the
resistively loaded class C amplifier alone is of no value in
linear applications. It is therefore necessary to use a class
C amplifier with a parallel resonant circuit (tank),

Resonant frequency of the tank circuit

1
𝑓𝑟 =
2𝜋 𝐿𝐶
The short pulse of collector current on each
cycle of the input initiates and sustains the
oscillation of the tank circuit so that an output
sinusoidal voltage is produced

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Class C Amplifiers
• Maximum output power:
Vrms ( 0.707VCC )
2 2 2
0.5VCC
Pout = = 
RC RC RC
• Total power of the circuit: PT = Pout + PD(avg)
Pout
• Efficiency: =
Pout + PD ( avg )

When Pout >> PD(avg), the class C efficiency closely approaches 1 (100%)

Mai Linh, PhD 108

Example 12
• A class C amplifier is driven by a 200 kHz signal. The transistor is on
for 1us and the amplifier is operating over 100% of its load line. If
Ic(sat) = 100 mA and Vce(sat) = 0.2 V, what is the average power
dissipation of the transistor?

Mai Linh, PhD 109

Example 12 – Sol.
1
The period is T= = 5 s
200 kHz

Therefore,
 ton 
PD ( avg ) =  I c ( sat )Vce ( sat ) = 0.2  100 mA  0.2 V = 4 mW
T 

Mai Linh, PhD 110

Example 13
• Suppose the class C amplifier described in example 12 has a
VCC = 24 V and RC = 100 ohm. Determine the efficiency.

Mai Linh, PhD 111

Example 13 – Sol.:

From Example 12, PD(avg) = 4 mW.

2
0.5VCC 0.5  24
Pout = = = 2.88 (W )
RC 100

Therefore,
Pout 2.88
= = 0.999
Pout + PD ( avg ) 2.88 + 4  10 −3

or, as a percentage, 99.9%.

Mai Linh, PhD 112

Prob. #1: What are the voltage gain, input resistance, and output resistance of the
amplifier (in slide #35) if bypass capacitors C2 and C4 are removed from the circuit?

The transistor M1 Kn = 10 mA/V2, VTN = -2 V,  = 0.02 V-1

parameters are given: Q2 F = 150, VA = 80 V, VBE = 0.7 V
Q3 F = 80, VA = 60 V, VBE = 0.7 V 113
 Prob. #2: Find the gain and input signal range for this amplifier?

The transistor M1 Kn = 10 mA/V2, VTN = -2 V,  = 0.02 V-1

parameters are given: Q2 F = 150, VA = 80 V, VBE = 0.7 V
Q3 F = 80, VA = 60 V, VBE = 0.7 V
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