History of extension education

The roots of extension education, however, can be traced back to 1840 when the term University
Extension was first used in Britain to take the knowledge to doorsteps of common people. The
first practical steps were taken in 1867-68, when James Stuart, fellow of Trinity College,
Cambridge, England gave lectures to women‘s associations and working men‘s club. James
Stuart is called as the father of University Extension. He approached the authorities of University
of Cambridge to organize extension lectures. The system was accepted by the Cambridge as well
as Oxford University in 1873. Dr. J. P. Leagans of USA is known as the father of extension,
whereas Dr. K. N. Singh is known as father of Extension in the Indian context.

Growth of Agricultural Extension Education as a Discipline in India

The teaching of extension education at undergraduate level started in the year 1950 at the
College of Agriculture, Calcutta University. The first post-graduate teaching was launched in
1955, at Bihar Agricultural College, Sabour. Next was the post-graduate programme initiated at
the College of Nagpur in 1958. Further, creation of a separate Division of Agricultural Extension
at Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI), New Delhi with assistance from Ford
Foundation under the expert advice of legendary Dr. J. Paul Leagans was a landmark event in the
history of extension education. The Ph.D. programme in the discipline of extension was first
introduced at IARI in 1961. Subsequently, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, followed
with Masters and Ph.D. Programmes in Agricultural Extension in 1961.

Conceptual Background

The National Commission on Agriculture (1976) appointed by the Government of India stated
the scope and jurisdiction of extension in the following terms:

 Extension and Extension education relate to the process of conveying the technologies of
scientific agriculture to the farmer in order to enable him to utilize the knowledge for
better agriculture and better economy. This consists of provision for non-formal
 educational facilities through organised extension services, introduction of agricultural
education in schools and education through non-degree institutional programme to impart
vocational skills to the farmers for improving their productive activities.

Origin of Extension

The word ‗Extension‘ is derived from the Latin words in which ‗tensio‘ meaning ‗stretching and
‗ex‘ meaning ‗out‘. Thus the term ‗Extension Education‘ means that type of education which is
‗stretched out‘ into the villages and fields beyond the limits of the schools and colleges to which
the formal type of education is normally confined.

The term Extension Education was first coined in the year 1873 by Cambridge University in
England. The present form of Agricultural extension was primarily stated in USA in 1908, where
Rusewelt, then the President of America appointed a Country Life Commission to find out the
reasons for migration of people from rural areas to urban area so the their migration can be
stopped by engaging them in agriculture and rural development activities. In India extension
primarily started with Gurgaon project which was organized by F.L. Brayne in 1920.

The system of extension has come into existence when a wide gap between research work and
farmer‘s knowledge and practice was observed which ultimately resulted in low productivity and
production. In this context an agency to bridge the gap between the research work, and farmers
and people at large, to play the dual role of carrying out the results of research to people and
problems of people to research station is felt essential.

Such an institution, which mediates between farmers and scientists was established and is called
―Extension system‖. The people working in this institution are called ―Extension personnel‖.

Extension

 According to Rolling (1986), Extension refers to the actual work done by professional
extension agents at various levels of management; while Extension Education refers to
the body of knowledge concerning that work or practice.
  Extension involves the conscious use of communication of information to help people
form sound opinions and make good decisions (Van den Ban & Hawkins, 1998).
 Extension is everything that people who think of themselves as extensionists do as part
of their professional practice (Leeuwis, 2004).

Extension Education

 Extension education is an applied science consisting of content derived from research,

accumulated field experiences and relevant principles drawn from the behavioural
science synthesized with useful technology into a body of philosophy, principles, content
and methods focused on the problems of out of school education for adults and youth.–
J.P. Leagans (1961)
 Extension education is the process of teaching rural people how to live better by learning
ways that improve their farm, home and community institutions – J.P. Leagans (1961)
 Extension Education is defined as an educational process to provide knowledge to the
rural people about the improved practices in a convincing manner and help them to take
decision within their specific local conditions. – O. P. Dahama (1973)
 Extension is an education to change the attitudes and practices of the people with whom
the work is done (Ensminger, D.)

From the above definitions, it can be concluded that ―Extension education is an education and is
bringing a desirable change in behaviour (knowledge, skills and attitudes) of rural people to
improve their social, economic and psychological status‖.

The behaviour refers to anything the individual does. According to Leagans (1961), behaviour
refers to what an individual knows (knowledge), what he can do (skills-mental and physical),
what he thinks (attitudes) and what he actually does (action).

Behaviour is, therefore, a function of the person in interaction with the situation. The factors
motivating behaviour either in the person or situation are:
 1) An environmental determinant
2) The internal urge, wish, feeling, emotion, drive, instinct, need, want, desire, demand,
purpose, interest, aspiration or motive which gives rise to the action and
3) The incentive or goal, which attracts or repels an organism.

These are provided through Extension Education.

Concepts of Extension

Webster dictionary explained Extension as a branch of university for the students who cannot
attend the university. Another popularly used meaning is out-of-school system of education.
Based on this the following concepts in detail explain extension as education, process and
salesmanship.

List of concepts

1) The basic concept of Extension as education: Education is the production of desirable

changes in human behaviour. The desired change is in terms of knowledge-things known,
attitudes-things felt and skill-things done either in all the three or one or two. Education is
a process in which human behaviour is modified so as to be in closer agreement with
some model or ideal determined by the values of society.
2) The concept of Extension as educational process:

As an educational process it has five phases-

i) Analysis of situation
ii) Deciding upon objectives
iii) Teaching plan of work
iv) Evaluation and
v) Reconsideration
3) The concept of Salesmanship: Extension teaching is sometimes compared with
commercial salesmanship, as extension agent is primarily involved in selling the ideas.
By selling the idea the profit in this context is knowledge, skill and attitudinal change.
OBJECTIVES, FUNCTIONS AND PHILOSOPHY OF EXTENSION EDUCATION

Objectives

1) Fundamental objective

Fundamental objective of extension education is the overall development of the rural people. The
ultimate objective of dairy extension education is development of dairy stakeholders by
improving their living standards.

Agricultural extension in our country is primarily concerned with the following main objectives:

 Dissemination of useful & practical information relating to agriculture, including

improved seeds, fertilizers, implements, pesticides, improved cultural practices, dairying,
poultry, fisheries, veterinary & animal husbandry, and food & nutrition.
 Practical application of useful knowledge to farm & home.
 Improvement in all aspects of the life of the rural people within the framework of the
national, economic & social policies involving the population as a whole.

2) General objectives of extension

 To assist people to discover and analyze their problems and identify their needs.
 To develop leadership among people and help them in organizing groups to solve their
problems.
 To disseminate research information of economic and practical importance in a way
people would be able to understand and use.
 To assist people in mobilizing and utilizing the resources which they have or need
from outside.
 To collect and transmit feedback information for solving management problems.
Functions of Extension

1) Change in knowledge

Change in knowledge means change in what people know. For example, a farmer who does not
know about paneer making technology, may know it through participation in extension
programme. Similarly, Extension Agent (EA) who does not know about Information Technology
(IT) comes to know of it after attending a training programme.

2) Change in attitude

Change in attitude involves change in the feeling towards any object, person, and thing. For
instance, the afore-said farmer developed a favourable attitude towards the paneer making.
Similarly, the EA developed a favourable attitude in the use of IT.

3) Change in skill

Change in skill is change in the technique of doing things. Quoting the afore-said example, the
farmer learnt the technique of paneer making which he did not know earlier. Similarly, the EA
learnt the skill of using IT.

4) Change in understanding

Change in understanding means change in comprehension. For example, the afore-said farmer
realized the importance of the milk processing (paneer making) and the extent to which it was
economically profitable and desirable, in comparison to the selling of raw milk. Similarly, the
EA understood the use of IT and the extent to which these would make extension work more
effective.

5) Change in goal

Change in goal is the distance in any given direction one is expected to go during a given period
of time. For example, the extent to which the farmer exposed to paneer making technology raised
the goal in dairy farming, in terms of increasing milk yield of dairy animals. Similarly, the EA
set his goal of getting an improved practice adopted by the clients within a certain period of time
by using IT.
6) Change in action

Change in action means change in the way of doing things. The farmer who did not know paneer
making earlier, now has started making it. Similarly, the EA who earlier did not use IT in
extension programmes started using them.

7) Change in confidence

Change in confidence involves change in self-reliance and ability. The afore-said farmer felt sure
that he has the ability of making paneer at his own level. Similarly, the EA developed faith on his
ability to do better extension work. The development of confidence or self-reliance is the solid
foundation for making progress.

To bring desirable change in behaviour is the crucial function of extension. The farmers though
their own initiative, shall continuously seek means of improving their farm and farm families.
The task is difficult because millions of farm families with little education, scattered in large
areas with their own beliefs, values, attitudes, resources and constraints are pursuing diverse
enterprises. For this purpose, the extension personnel shall continuously seek new information to
make extension work more effective.

Philosophy of Extension Education

 Philosophy literally means love for wisdom. Philosophy refers to the investigations about
life and its various components. It is, in fact, an integrated view on the right conduct or
'what ought to be'. Thus, a man's view of 'What is right to do' indicates the kind of person
he is. Such views serve as motivation for action.
 They reflect foundations of man‘s activities and the laws that govern them. Why is it
essential to know philosophy of extension since, philosophy is a system of values and
beliefs, knowledge of philosophy may guide one's work. It can become a tool for
improving practice and consistent work-behaviour. There would not be confusion or
 conflict about the ultimate aim and approach of work. In any profession, one's conduct is
sum of personal values, experiences and life style.
 Thus, philosophy is a practical tool to provide rationale for decisions. The principles on
the other hand are thumb rules for action. There are various approaches of extension
work. The manner, in which extension work has been executed around the world, has
attracted criticism from scholars and onlookers. There is a need to devise participatory
approaches of extension work keeping the pious goals in view.

Genesis of philosophy

Philosophy owes its origin to the Greek words 'phileo' meaning love and 'sophia' meaning
wisdom. Thus, it literally means love for wisdom. In the early phases of its growth, philosophy
embraced all branches of knowledge. Later with growth of sciences, range of subject matter dealt
by it narrowed. However, philosophy concerns itself with the fundamental questions about
human existence and its place in the world. The purpose of human life, its guiding values, forces
of transformation, the way of knowing reality and deciding what is right, etc. are the concerns of
philosophy. It is a special system of knowledge dealing with complex problems and question of
life. The methods of inquiry in this case are indepth, logical, rigorous and holistic. Thus,
philosophy is a system of knowledge with its own methods of inquiry to delve deep into the
questions of human existence and laws in an integrated fashion.

Often people perceive philosophy as something abstract or vague. It is commonly held that
philosophy is the preserve of learned people or philosophers. This is not true. If philosophy is an
integrated view of life, every person needs values to decide what is right. Philosophy is
interwoven in daily life. Those who believe in eat-drink-and-be-merry follow a materialistic
view of life. Their activities are guided by it. There is a system of belief in every person's life.
Thus, one's perception of the purpose of life, ways to achieve goals, relationship between various
components of life, etc. becomes source-spring of all actions. The life styles and activities of
people are good indicators of philosophy of life, even though people holding them may not
consciously recognize so. So, everyone needs sets of values, perception of self and the world to
make sense of life's purpose. Such perceptions can become motive for committed action. Thus,
there is some link between philosophy and practice. There is, of course, need to consciously
recognise the value systems to resolve contradictory situations, Philosophy, then, can become a
working tool for improving practice.

The practical implication is that the philosophy of a particular discipline would furnish the
principles or guidelines with which to shape or mould the programmes or activities relating to
that discipline.

PRINCIPLES OF EXTENSION EDUCATION

1) Principle of peoples need and interest

Extension work must be based on the needs & interests of the people. These needs & interests
differ from individual to individual, from village to village, from block to block, from state to
state; therefore, there cannot be one programme for all people.

2) Principle of grass root level organisation

A group of rural people in local community should sponsor extension work. The programme
should fit in with the local conditions. The aim of organising the local group is to demonstrate
the value of the new practices or programmes so that more & more people would participate.

3) Principle of cultural difference

Extension work is based on the cultural background of the people with whom the work is done.
Improvement can only begin from the level of the people where they are. This means that the
Extension professionals has to know the level of the knowledge, & the skills of the people,
methods & tools used by them, their customs, traditions, beliefs, values, etc. before starting the
extension programme.

4) Principle of cultural change: Extension education starts with what the learner knows, has
and thinks. With this in mind and with an attitude of respect towards clients, the extension
professionals must seek to discover and understand the limitations, taboo and the cultural values
related to each phase of programme so that an acceptable approach could be selected in the
locality

5) Principle of cooperation and people‟s participation

6) Principle of applied science and democratic approach

Extension education is based upon democratic principles. It is based on discussions and

suggestions. Discussions are held with the people on actual field conditions, so that they
participate in work. Extension professionals provide practical look to the scientific inventions so
that farmers can easily adopt them on their farm.

7) Principle of learning by doing

According to this principle, farmers are encouraged to learn by doing the work themselves and
by participating in it. When a person does a work, he gains practical knowledge and experiences
the difficulties. Extension professionals are able to understand the problems and provide proper
guidance to the farmers and thus, they are able to receive proper information/feedback.

8) Principle of trained specialists

It is very difficult that extension personnel should be knowledgeable about all problems.
Therefore, it is necessary that specialists should impart training to the farmers from time to time.

9) Principle of adaptability in use of extension teaching methods

People differ from each other, one group differs from another group and conditions also differ
from place to place. An extension programme should be flexible, so that necessary changes can
be made whenever needed, to meet the varying conditions. Extension professionals should have
knowledge of extension methods so that they can select proper method according to the
condition. Teaching methods should be flexible so that they can be properly applied on people
according to their age groups, educational background, economic standard and gender. In
extension education, two or more methods should be applied according to the principle of
adaptability.
10) Principle of leadership

Extension work is based on the full utilisation of local leadership. The selection & training of
local leaders to enable them to help in carrying out extension work is essential to the success of
the programme. People have more faith in local leaders & they should be used to put across a
new idea so that it is accepted with the least resistance.

11) Principle of whole family

Extension work will have a better chance of success if the extension professionals have a whole-
family approach instead of piecemeal approach or separate & uninterested approach. Extension
work is, therefore, for the whole family, i.e. for male, female and children.

12) Principle of evaluation

Extension is based upon the methods of science, and it needs constant evaluation. The
effectiveness of the work is measured in terms of the changes brought about in the knowledge,
skill, attitude, and adoption behaviour of the people, not merely in terms of achievement of
physical targets.

13) Principle of satisfaction

The end-product of the effort of extension teaching is the satisfaction that comes to the farmer
and his family members as the result of solving a problem, meeting a need, acquiring a new skill
or some other changes in behaviour. Satisfaction is the key to success in extension work. A
satisfied stakeholder is the best advertisement.

14) Relative sequence of Extension principles

15) Grass-Root principle of organizations

Extension Programme

The word extension programme is made up of two words. When used separately they have
different meanings.

 Programme: is the total educational job being done in a particular setting. It is a prospect
or a statement issued to promote understanding and interest in an enterprise.
 Extension refers to stretching out or extending knowledge to the rural people. When the
word ‗extension‘ is preceded by the word programme it takes on several added
implications which needs to be studied together. In this sense, it is not merely a list of
activities or a calendar of work to be performed. Hence, this can be better understood by
studying some of the definitions of extension programme, given by prominent extension
educators.

Definitions

 ―An extension programme is a statement of situation, objectives, problems and solutions‖

(Kelsey and Hearne, 1949).
 ―An extension programme is a set of clearly defined, consciously conceived objectives or
ends, derived from an adequate analysis of the situation, which are to be achieved
through extension teaching activity (Leagans, 1961).
 ―An extension programme is arrived at co-operatively by the local people and the
extension staff and includes a statement of:
 The situation in which the people are located.
 The problems that are a part of the local situation.
 The objectives and goals of the local people in relation to these problems
 The recommendations or solutions to reach these objectives on a long-time basis (may be
several years) or on a short time basis (may be one year or less)
 ―An extension programme is the sum total of all the activities and undertakings of a
county extension services‖ (Lawrence, 1962). It includes:
 Programme planning process
 Written programme statement
  Plan of work
 Programme execution
 Results
 Evaluation

Features of an Extension Programme

 is a written statement
 is the end product of extension programme planning.
 includes a statement of situation, objectives, problems and solutions.
 is relatively permanent but requires constant revision.
 may include long-term as well as short-term programme objectives.
 forms the basis of extension teaching plans
 has been drawn up in advance.
 is built on the basis of content.

Extension programme is a written statement of situations, objectives, problems and

solutions which has been prepared on the basis of an adequate and systematic planning
effort.

Need of an Extension Programme

 It helps to know what is to be done and the reasons behind it

 Serves as a guide for any new proposal to be considered for inclusion in the programme.
 To present in written form a statement for the information of all who are involved in the
work. It gives a clear picture of the whole programme.
 To establish objectives with which progress can be measured and evaluated.
 To develop a common understanding of the means and ends between various
organizations.

Extension Workers Listing the Needs of Rural Women and Girls

  It helps to ensure continuity of the programme even after changes of staff have taken
place. Extension is a continuous process and the continuity of the programme must not be
broken because of staff changes.
 To help in the development of leadership – The local leaders get trained to analyze local
problems and deal with them methodically. It enables to carry on the work in the absence
of extension workers and helps to develop their hidden abilities.

Farmers Working in the Presence of Village Leader

 It helps to avoid waste of resources like time and money and promote general efficiency.
It reduces the risk of failures caused by mistakes and misunderstandings.
 To coordinate the efforts of different people working for rural development.
 It justifies the expenditure of public money, if the objectives are clearly and correctly
stated.

Characteristics of a good Extension Programme

 The written programme should be suitable for use by the staff, planning groups and other
individuals or groups concerned with the programme.
 It should state the primary facts that clearly reveal the situation on major subjects or
problem areas.
 It should clearly state the important problems or needs identified by the staff and people
in the programming process.
 It should state both long term and short term objectives for the problems that is to be
focused on in programme execution over a period of time.
 Objectives of the programme be stated in a form that
 It clearly reveals the kind of new condition or situation.
 Is meaningful to the staff and the people.
 Serve as a useful guide to programme execution.
 It should include the summary of the long-term programme prepared in a form suitable
for public distribution.
  It should be used as a basis for developing an annual plan for work.
 It should specify the subject-matter related to each objective that is highly significant to
the people, socially or economically or both.
 It should be circulated by appropriate means so that the general public can understand its
nature and objectives.

Extension Programme Planning

 Planning is a process which involves studying of past and present in order to forecast the
future. It provides guidelines and minimizes cost.
 Planning is important and necessary for everyone. Planning plays an important role as an
individual, family or business or organization.

 According to Myerson and Benfield (1935), ―Planning is designing a course of action to

achieve ends.‖
 According to Boyle(1965), ―the most effective planning effort would be which achieves
the greatest degree of performance of the actions, motions or operations implied by a set
of planning concepts which depict the ideal process.‖

Extension programme planning

Programme planning is a procedure of working with the people in an effort to recognize

unsatisfactory situations, needs or problems, and to determine possible solutions. This is a
conscious effort to meet the needs, interests and wants of the people for whom the programme is
intended. People‘s needs are a central concern of planners for rural development.

 Boyle(1965) ―Programme planning is reviewed as a process through which

representatives of the people are intensively involved with extension personnel and other
professional people in four activities:
1) Studying facts and trends.
 2) Identifying problems and opportunities based on these facts and trends.
3) Making decisions about problems and opportunities that should be given priority and
4) Establishing objectives for future economic and social development of a community
through educational programmes.
 Lawrence(1965) This is the process whereby people in the country, through their leaders
plan their extension programme. Country and state professional extension staff members
assist in this process and the end result of this process is a written programme statement.
 Musgraw (1962) Extension programme planning is the process of determining,
developing and executing programmes. It is a continuous process, whereby farm people,
with the guidance and leadership of extension personnel attempt to determine, analyze
and solve local problems. In this, there are three characteristics:
1) What needs to be done
2) When it should be done
3) How it should be done

Concept of Extension Programme Planning

 Extension Programme Planning is a process

 Extension programme planning is a decision-making process
 Extension programme planning requires advance thinking
 Extension programme planning requires skill and ability of planners
 Extension programme planning is built around content
 Extension programme planning requires some purpose and is built around available
improved technology, the people, their resources, problems, needs and interests.
 Extension programme planning is a social action process
 Extension programme planning is a collaborative effort
 Extension programme planning is a system
 The end product of extension programme planning is an extension programme
 Programme planning is an educational process
 Programme planning is a unifying and integrating process
  Programme planning is an evaluating process

Principles of Extension Programme Planning

A principle may be defined as a statement of policy to guide decisions and actions in a consistent
manner. Principles are required in order to develop a plan for programme planning that truly
reveals the future needs of the public. The principles given by Sandhu which have been kept the
same as given by Kelsey and Hearne are being discussed here.

The principles of extension programme planning

1) Extension Programme
 Based on an analysis of the facts in a situation
 Selects problems based on needs and interests of people
 Determines definite objectives and solutions which offer satisfaction
 Permanence with flexibility
 Balance with emphasis
2) Planning Process
 Definite plan of work
 Educational process
 Continuous process
 Coordinating process
 Involves local people and their institutions
 Provides for evaluation of results

Steps in Programme Planning

 Collection, analysis and evaluation of all available and pertinent facts bearing on the
welfare of the rural community.
 Determination of objectives based on the needs of the community.
 Identification of problems/obstacles faced in achieving the objectives or meeting the
needs of the community.
  Finding solutions to problems
 Selecting problems to be tackled with due consideration to priorities
 Developing a plan of work towards solution of selected problems.
 Executing the plan step by step in a coordinated manner.
 Continuous checking and evaluation of results.
 Review of progress towards achievement of objectives & projecting of plans for an
additional period.

1) Collection, analysis and evaluation of facts

Collection of facts is the starting point of a programme planning process. Good planning depends
on the availability of adequate and reliable data, its scientific analysis and proper interpretation.
Facts are the foundation stones upon which the village leaders and the planning committee
members plan and implement their programmes.

The local situation i.e. as it is situation is the time when the people enter the community for
collection of facts. It is the bench mark survey from where people should start the process of
programme planning. It is important that facts about local situation be regularly recorded in the
project file by the extension workers, gram sevak/ sevika etc. Collection of facts requires
knowledge on following two aspects:

 Source of information
 What information to collect

Source of Information

The information on facts can be collected through:

 Survey of the area through discussions, interaction etc.

 Systematic observations
 Revenue Records
 Panchayat Samiti records
 Questionnaire/Interview
 Local newspapers/magazines
 Personal visits
 Records of demonstrations
 Reports from key leaders, BDO, Gram Pradhan and Anganwadis
 Cooperatives & other organizations and institutions in the area
 Conferences and meetings and focus group discussions.

2) Determination of objectives based on the needs of the community

3) Identification of problems in achieving the objectives
4) Finding Solutions to Problems
5) Selecting problems to be tackled with due consideration to priorities
6) Developing plan of work and calendar of operations
7) Executing the Plan step by step
8) Checking and Evaluation of Results

―Evaluation‖ is the process of determining the extent to which we have been able to attain
our objectives. An effective plan of work requires keeping of adequate records of each
activity as a base for evaluation. Evaluation of the activities should be undertaken jointly by
the extension staff, village institutions and block development committee.

 Each future programme should be based on the evaluation results of the previous one.
 Successful evaluation gives a correct direction to a programme. Evaluation of the
programme during and after its execution is essential to judge whether the programme
is moving in the right direction or not.
 Men and women farmers are encouraged individually and collectively to observe
programme operations and provide feedback for the extension staff.
 In any planned programme there are things which may go wrong or activities found to
be based upon inaccurate information. Programme adjustments then become
necessary and positive efforts be made to improve the programme constantly.
  Both the villagers and the extension personnel should understand the need for
monitoring and evaluation of programmes and provision of information should have a
functional value.

Programme evaluation involves 3 essential steps:

1) Setting up of some standards

2) Collection of information
3) Making judgment and drawing conclusion

Advantages of Evaluation

 Evaluation is essential to measure the extent of achievements of the fixed objectives:

 Determine how far an activity has progressed and how much it should be carried out
to accomplish the objectives.
 Indicates the progress, effectiveness, strong and weak points if any.
 Helps to improve the skill of the extension workers in working with people.
9) Reconsideration and Review of progress

Extension methods and materials:

The communication methods or extension teaching methods are categorized as Individual

methods, Group methods and Mass methods. Each of the methods has both advantages and
limitations. The extension agent has to choose a particular method or combination of methods
according to the needs of the situation.

1) Individual method

In this method, the extension agent communicates with the people individually, maintaining
separate identity of each person.

This method is followed when the numbers of people to be contacted are few, conveniently
located close to the communicator and sufficient time is available for communication.

Examples: Farm and home visit, farmer‘s call etc.

Advantages:

 Help the extension agent in building rapport

 Facilitates gaining firsthand knowledge of farm and home
 Helps in selecting demonstrators and local leaders
 Helps in changing attitude of the people
 Helps in teaching complex practices
 Facilitates transfer of technology
 Enhances effectiveness of group and mass methods
 Facilitates getting feedback information

Limitations

 This method is time consuming and relatively expensive

 Has low coverage of audience
 Extension agent may develop favoritism or bias towards some persons

2) Group method

A group may be defined as an aggregate of small number of people in reciprocal communication

and interaction around some common interest.

In this method, the extension agent communicates with the people in groups and not as
individual persons.

This method is adopted when it is necessary to communicate with a number of people

simultaneously, who are located not far off from the communicator.

Examples: Method demonstration, group meeting, small group training. Field day or farmer‘s
day and study tour.

Advantages:

 Enables the extension agent to have face- to-face contact with a number of people at a
time
  Can reach a select part of the target group
 Facilitates sharing of knowledge and experience and thereby strengthen learning of the
group members
 Reach fewer people, but offer more opportunities for interaction and feedback
 Satisfies the basic urge of people for social contacts
 Motivate people to accept change due to group influence
 More effective than mass method in stimulating action
 Less expensive than individual method due to more coverage

Limitations:

 Wide diversity in the interest of group members may create a difficult learning situation
 Holding the meeting may be regarded as an objective in itself
 Vested interests, caste groups and village factions may hinder free interaction and
decision making by the group members.

3) Mass method

In this method, the extension agent communicates with a vast and heterogeneous mass of people,
without taking into consideration of their individual or group identity.

This method is adopted where a large and widely dispersed audience is to be communicated
within a short time.

Examples: Campaign, Exhibition, Newspaper, Radio and Television

Advantages:

 Suitable for creating general awareness amongst the people

 Helps in transferring knowledge and forming and changing opinions
 Large number of people may be communicated within a short time
 Facilitates quick communication in times of emergency
  Reinforces previous learning
 Less expensive due to more coverage

Limitations:

 Less intensive method

 Little scope for personal contact with the audience
 Little opportunity for interaction with and amongst the audience
 Generalized recommendations hinder application by individuals
 Little control over the response of the audience
 Difficulty in getting feedback information and evaluation of results

Individual Contact Methods

1) Farm and Home Visit

Farm and Home Visit is a direct, face –to – face contact by the extension agent with the farmer
or homemaker at their farm or home for extension work

Objectives Farm and Home Visit

 To get acquainted with and gain confidence of farmers and homemakers

 To obtain and or give firsthand information on matters relating to farm and home
 To advise and assist in solving specific problems, and teach skills
 To sustain interest

Principles or Procedure to be followed:

 Decide upon the place of the farm and home visit in the teaching plan outlined to advance
a particular phase of the extension programme
 Consider alternative methods which might be employed
 Decide whether the visits are primarily for direct teaching or are needed to increase the
effectiveness of group methods and mass media
  Clarify the purpose of the visit – which are the purposes mentioned above are expected to
be achieved by the visit

Plan the visit:

 Review previous contacts with members of family

 Check subject matter information likely to be needed- leaflets or bulletins etc.
 Workout schedule of visits in the community to save time
 Remote and unfrequented homes should always be kept in view
 Consider best approach in view of individual family situation
 Be accurate in your statements
 Do not prolong arguments
 Leave clear impression as to object of visit
 If possible, hand over a folder or bulletin etc. pertaining to the topic discussed
 Leave the farm or home as a friend

Make the visit:

 Punctuality and consideration for the time of the farm women should always be borne in
mind.
 Contact the farm women preferable when she is on the job
 Be friendly, sympathetic and complimentary
 Gain and deserve interviewee‘s confidence
 Let the farm women do most of the talking
 Speak only when she is willing to hear
 Talk in term of her interest
 Use natural and easy language, speak slowly and cheerfully

Record the visit:

 Date, purpose of visit, what was accomplished and follow up commitments made
  Make sure through appropriate office device that follow-up at appropriate time is not
overlooked

Follow up the visit:

 Send applicable literature or other things by post or other-wise

 Extend invitation to attend a meeting, if any on the concerned topic
 Make subsequent visits if and when required

Advantages Farm and Home Visit:

 Provides extension worker with first-hand knowledge of farm and home conditions, and
the view points of farm people
 If made on request, the farmer or home –maker is likely to be ready to learn
 The ratio of ‗‘takes (acceptance) to ‗‘exposures‘‘ (efforts) is high
 Builds confidence between the extension worker and the farmer
 May increase greatly the effectiveness of group methods and mass media
 Contributes to selection of better local leaders, and mass media
 Contributes to selection of better local leaders, demonstrators and co-operators
 Develops good public relations
 Useful in contacting those who do not participate in extension activities and who are not
reached by mass media

Limitations Farm and Home Visit

 Only limited number of contacts may be made

 Time consuming and costly method
 Attention may be concentrated on a few big and progressive persons; neglecting the large
number of small, marginal, tribal farmers; landless labour and backward people which
may prejudice them

2) Farmer‟s call / Office call

Farmer‘s call is a call made by a farmer or homemaker at the working place of the extension
agent for obtaining information and assistance.

Objectives Farmer‟s call / Office call

 To get quick solution of problems relating to farm and home

 To enable the farmer and homemaker to bring specimens for proper identification of the
problem
 To ensure timely supply of inputs and services
 To act as a reminder to the extension agent

Principles to be followed:

 Office should be located conveniently so as to facilitate large volume of calls

 Space and furniture should be arranged to permit orderly routing of callers
 It should be possible for caller to confer privately with the extension worker
 Office room should be kept attractive with bulletin boards, leaflets etc.
 Office should be open during usual hours
 Extension worker should regularly attend office, while at headquarters
 Arrangements should be made to provide information to the callers in the absence of the
extension worker
 Cordial, sincere interest shown in visitor‘s problem
 Applicable reference material, including record of previous contacts readily accessible
 Caller made to feel welcome to call again

Follow –up:

 See that unfinished business connected with the call is completed as promised

Advantages: Farmer‟s call / Office call

 Visitor likely to be highly receptive to learning

 Economical use of extension worker‘s time
 Good indication of farmer‘s confidence in extension

Limitations: Farmer‟s call / Office call

  Being away from the situation, it may be difficult for the extension agent to understand
the problem in its proper perspective
 Extension agent may not be available all the time
 Callers in his absence may not be satisfied with the information or guidance obtained
 Visitors likely to be limited to those participating in other extension activities

3) Personal letter

Personal letter is written by the extension agent to particular farmer or homemaker in connection
with extension work. This should not be regarded as a substitute for personal contact.

Objectives

 To answer to queries relating to problems of farm and home

 To send information or seek cooperation on important extension activities

Principles to be followed:

 Promptness: A letter asking information should be answered promptly, because the

person writing the letter has more than passing interest in the matter and will be likely to
use information which provides a satisfactory solution to his problem. Remember that
information delayed in information denied.
 Put yourself in the other fellow‘s shoes- Have a genuine concern for the other fellow‘s
interest, view point, limitations and desires
 The letter should be:
 Complete – Give all necessary information to accomplish its purpose
 Concise – Say what you have to say in the fewest words consistent with clearness,
completeness and courtesy
 Clear – So that it not only can be understood but cannot be misunderstood
 Correct – Containing no miss-statement of facts, or grammatical mistakes etc
 Courteous – Tone appropriate for the desired response. How something is said as
important as what is said
 Neat – Free from over-writings, striking etc.
  Readable – Short sentences, short words and human interest make for easy reading
4) Adaptive or Minikit Trail

Adaptive or minikit trail is a method of determining the suitability or otherwise of a new practice
in farmer‘s situation

Objectives:

 To test a new and promising practice under the resources, constraints and abilities of the
farmer
 To find out the benefits of the new practice in comparison to the existing one
 To build up confidence of the extension agents, research workers and farmers
 To act as a precaution against insignificant, faulty or hasty recommendations

Principles or Procedure to be followed:

 Determine the need for arranging the observation plot i.e. whether there is a need for
undertaking the trial, taking local conditions into consideration
 Be clear about the specific purpose of the trial
 Select about six representative centers in your jurisdiction for conducting the trial
 In these centers, select the co-operators in consultation with the local farmers
 It is desirable to select as co-operators for this purpose, such as farmers who have
confidence in extension and who also can afford to take the risk of possible failures
 Select in the co-operator‘s holding an average field, representative of the tract and also
easily accessible
 Make it clear to the co-operator and to the other farmers that is a trial or a rough and
ready experiment only and not a demonstration plot
 It is important that all operations are done under the personal supervision of the extension
worker
 Restrict the size of the ‗control‘ and ‗treated‘ strips to the minimum possible, so as to
have a large number of replications
 Visit the plot as frequently as possible and record on the spot, your observations
regarding the relative performance of ‗control‘ and ‗treatment‘.
  Accurate records should be maintained, showing the dates of important operations and
other relevant observations.
 The average performance if the new practice should be observed for at least three seasons
consecutively, before you think of recommending it for large scale adoption

Advantages:

 Avoids the pitfalls of hasty recommendation or adoption of new practices

 Constitute the first step towards the spread of a new practice after through testing
 Obviates the technicalities, difficulties and delays involved in laying out regular trial
plots, and analyzing the results statistically
 Builds confidence of the extension and research workers on the one hand and of the
farmers on the other, in the utility and feasibility of a new practice.

Limitations

 Being scattered, the trails may suffer from lack of adequate supervision of the extension
agent
 Satisfactory results depend on the clarity of objective and careful selection of the practice
and the farmers
 Difficult to serve suitable co-operators sometimes
 Risk of failure of a new practice resulting in financial loss to the co-operating farmer
 Conclusions may not always be unassailable because of the lack of statistical analysis of
the data.

5) Demonstration

Among the communicational and educational techniques, ‗demonstrations‘ are the oldest, best,
and simplest tools for transmitting sophisticated technology in a simple and understandable form.

Objectives

 It provides the advantages of improved practices.

 It brings the research to the doors of users.
  It shows the worth, value and potentialities of techniques.
 It dramatizes by arousing interest, creating desire motivating one to action, and finally to
satisfaction.
 It fires the imagination and provides convincing results.
 It builds confidence in; i) scientific facts ii) extension workers and iii) cooperating
farmers
 It persuades neighbourers to adopt recommended practices by demonstrating proofs.
 It is used as a vital media for communication, dissemination and diffusion of information.
 It upholds the principles of ‗seeing is believing‘ and ‗learning by doing‘.
 It develops local leadership.
 It provides scientists with a ‗field laboratory‘ and problem solving platform.
 It accelerates and provides subject matter for training in the forms and use of extension
methods.
 In summary the demonstration is said to be successful if it changes the knowledge, skill,
understanding and attitude of the clientele and can bring desirable changes in their total
behaviour pertaining to the use of new practices or adoption of technology.

Demonstration may be;

(A) i) method demonstration ii) result demonstration

(B) i) Simple and ii) composite demonstration

Result demonstration

Result demonstration is a method of motivating the people for adoption of a new practice by
showing its distinctly superior result.

Or

A result demonstration is a method of teaching designed to show by example the practical

application of an established fact, or group of related facts.
It is a way of showing people the value or worth of an improved practice whose success has
already been established on the research station, followed by district trails or observation plots.

In this method the new practice is compared with the old one so that the villagers may see and
judge the results for themselves. Such demonstration requires a substantial period of time and
records need to be maintained.

The result demonstration may

 Deal with a single practice

 It may be concerned with a series of related practices
 In some instances it may include the entire farm

Common principles underlying result demonstration

 What a farmer himself does or sees, he will believe

 What is good for one person will have general application to others(under similar
conditions)

Objectives or Purpose:

 To show the advantages and applicability of a newly recommended practice in farmer‘s

own situation
 To motivate groups of people in a community to adopt a new practice by showing its
result
 To build up confidence of the farmers and extension agents
 To develop innovation leadership

Procedure or technique:

i) Analyze situation and determine need:

 Is it necessary to establish further confidence in local application of research findings
and results of observation plots?
 What has been the experience of the extension worker in guiding the carrying out of
the practice under similar conditions?
  Is it possible to locate good illustration of the practice locally, obviating the necessity
of expensive result demonstrations?
 Is the need for result demonstration felt by the farmers?
ii) Decide upon specific purpose:
 Which particular audience should have the learning experience?
 What specifically do you want them to learn?
 Is it to give confidence to the extension worker and provide him with teaching material?
 Is it to develop confidence in extension on the part of a community or of a minority group
with whom extension worker is not known well and favorably?

iii) Plan the Result Demonstration:

 Consult subject matter specialist
 Make as simple and clear – cut possible
 Decide upon evidence needed and how local proof will be established
 Determine number of demonstrations needed to accomplish purpose
 Locate sources of material
 Reduce plans to writing
iv) Select demonstrators:
 Consult with local leaders and select a demonstrator who commands the confidence and
respect of his neighbours, and who is interests in improving his practices
 Visit the prospective demonstrator to make that all conditions for success of
demonstration are favourable
 The demonstrator should be conscious of his responsibility for the successful completion
of the demonstration and its effect upon the community
 The demonstrator should be willing for the demonstrator and leave written instructions
preferable.
v) Select the plot:
 The plot should be representative
  The plot should be located preferably in a roadside field for easy accessibility and
publicity
vi) Start the demonstration:
 Give wide publicity before starting the demonstration
 Get all the materials ready
 Start the demonstration in the presence of the villagers
 Assist in getting the demonstration under way to make certain that the omission of some
key point will not make later work fruitless
 Arrange for a method demonstration meeting where a skill may be involved in the
beginning stage of demonstration or later
 Mark the demonstration plots with large signs, so that all can see
vii) Supervise the demonstration:
 Visit the demonstration plot with sufficient frequency to maintain demonstrators interest,
check on progress and see that succeeding steps are performed as outlined
 Maintain records and assist he demonstrator also in keeping proper records
 Give publicity to the demonstration and the farmer at suitable stages
 Conduct tours to successful demonstrations at proper times
 Let the demonstrator himself explain to visitors, as far as possible Mention in news
stories, circular letters, radio talks etc. at critical stages
viii) Complete the demonstration:
 See that final steps to complete the demonstration are taken
 Take photographs
 Summarize records. Analyze and interpret data
ix) Follow-up:
 Give wide publicity to results of demonstration
 Encourage demonstrator to report at meetings
 Prepare visual aids based on the results of demonstration
 Get other farmers to agree to demonstrate during the next season

Advantages:
  Gives the extension worker extra assurance that recommendation is practical and
furnishes local proof of its advantages
 Increases confidence of farmers in extension worker and his recommendations
 Useful in introducing a new practice
 Contributes to discovery of local leaders
 Provides teaching material for further use by extension worker.

Limitations

 Need more time, energy and funds for extension work

 Unsuccessful demonstrations may cause some setback to extension work
 Difficult to find good demonstrators who will keep records
 Teaching value frequently destroyed by unfavorable weather and other factors
 Few people see the demonstration at the stage when it is most convincing
 Unsuccessful demonstrations may undermine the prestige of Extension and entails loss of
confidence

Group Methods

1) Method Demonstration

A method demonstration is given before a group of people to show how to carry out an entirely
new practice or an old practice in a better way.

It is essentially skill training, where the emphasis is on effectively carrying out a job, which shall
improve upon the result.

The method demonstration is the oldest form of teaching

Objectives:

 To teach skills and stimulate people to action

 To get rid of inefficient or ineffective movements
 To improve upon the result by doing a job in a better way
  To build up learner‘s confidence and satisfaction on the practice

Procedure or steps to be followed:

 Analyze the situation and determine the need:

 Plan the demonstrationl:
 Gather all the information about the practice. Familiarize yourself with the subject matter.
Check on research findings
 Rehearse the demonstration:
 Give the demonstration:
 Follow –up:

Advantages:

 Peculiarly suited in teaching skills to many people

 Seeing, hearing, discussing and participating in a group stimulates interest and action
 The costly trial and error procedure is eliminated
 Acquirement of skills is speeded
 Builds confidence of extension worker in himself, and also confidence of the people in
the extension teacher, if the demonstration is performed skillfully
 Simple demonstrations readily lend themselves to repeated use by local leaders
 Introduces changes of practice at a low cost
 Provides publicity material

Limitations

 Suitable mainly for practices involving skills

 Needs good deal of preparation, equipment‘s and skill of the extension agent
 May require considerable equipment to be transported to the work place
 Requires a certain amount of showmanship not possessed by some extension workers
 Result and Method demonstration comparison and contrast

S. No. Particulars Result demonstration Method Demonstration

1 purpose To show locally the worth or value To teach how to do a job involving
of a recommended practice skill

2 Conducted by Farmer under close supervision of Extension worker or local leader

extension worker specially trained for the purpose

3 For the benefit of The demonstrator as well as other Persons present at

farmers the demonstration

4 comparison Essential Not essential

5 Maintenance of necessary Not necessary

records

6 Time required Substantial period Relatively very little

7 cost costly Relatively cheap

8 Inter-relationship Usually follows observation plots, Often paves the way for result
may involve one or more method demonstration
demonstrations.
Basis for Demonstration

 Most people retain 10-15% of what they READ, if the subject is explained in clear and
simple language or in particular technical terms
 The majority remember about 20-25% of what they HEAR, if their concentration is not
limited through listening‘ with one ear‖ to a speaker who perhaps fatigues them with a
tedious lecture
 About 30-35% what they have SEEN is kept in mind by the majority; even more if what
is offered is well arranged and selected
 The majority remember 50% and more of what they have SEEN and HEARD at the same
time, provided both presentations complement one another
 Up to 90% what is taught is kept in mind by majority of people, if they participate
actively, and if ALL THE SENSES are involved

„‟Only the demonstration can make teaching perfect‟‟.

2) General meetings

The term General meetings includes all kinds of meetings held by extension workers

Essential elements:

i) Determine the place of the meeting in the teaching plan

ii) Determine the specified purpose of the meeting and the segment of the extension
clientele to be reached
iii) Plan in advance for meeting
iv) Conduct the meeting
v) Follow up the meeting

Group meeting is a method of democratically arriving at certain, decisions by a group of people,

by taking into consideration the member‘s points of view.

Objectives
  To prepare a favorable climate for discussion and help in better understanding of the
problem by pooling the knowledge and experience of a number of persons
 To facilitate in – depth discussion by involving a small number of participants
 To generate new ideas and methods, and select the rational ones through group
interaction. To help formation of opinion about a specific issue
 To develop a favorable attitude and commitment for action through group involvement
 To act as a safety valve for reducing tension

Advantages:

 Reaches a large number of people

 Adopted to practically all lines of subject matter
 Recognizes basic urge of individuals for social contacts
 Promote personal acquaintance between extension worker and village people
 Supplements many other extension methods
 Has great news possibilities and public value
 Influences changes in practice at low cost

Limitations

 Requires understanding of group dynamics and skill of the extension agent

 Village factions may hinder successful use of this method
 Group members must have some self-discipline
 A slow process and may not be suitable in crises and emergency situation

Stages in a meeting

i) Planning:
 selection of topic
 timing
 selection of place
 selection of speaker and chairman
 advertisement and publicity and
  physical arrangements
ii) Conducting the meeting:
 programme procedure
 audience participation
iii) Follow-up of meeting:
 summaries
 press reports
 displays
 other methods
 evaluation

3) Discussion meetings

Main types:

 lecture forum or discussion forum.

 panel discussion.
 Symposium.
 Group interview.
 Form dialogue or public conversation.
 Debate discussion.
 Workshops.

 Lecture method
 Panel discussion

Panel is an informal conversation put on for the benefits of the audience, by a small group of
people i.e., 2- 8 in number.

Panel is used to present almost any topic of interest. It is a spontaneous conversation about a
subject, which is of more interest to the audience. It should be followed by a forum.
i) Types:
 Question answer panel: In this a series of questions by the leader/ chairman and answers
by the experts of the panel members.
 Set speech: In this each one making prepared speech.
 Conversational: In this members hold a conversation among themselves on the topic,
with questions and comments going for one member to another.
ii) Procedure:
 Two to eight members sit in a semicircle facing the audience.
 Carry on discussion on given topic among them.
 Leader introduces speakers and encourages less talkative speakers.
 Audience speaks when their turn comes.
 Panel members are selected from better informed persons.

 Symposium
 Short series of lectures usually by two to five speakers each with different viewpoints.
 Each one speaks for a definite amount of time and presents a different phase or sub-
division of the general topic.
 The topic should be large enough or general enough to permit two or more sub-
divisions by speakers.
 The subject may or may not be controversial
 Speeches may be followed by a forum to facilitate mastery of information.
 Two or more experts present different phases of the topic.

 Group interview
 Leader interviews persons on a platform.
 Leader-dominated panel discussion.
 Excellent for getting information from experts.
  Forum

It is a question period in which members of the audience may ask questions or make brief
statements. It is usually a discussion period that is followed after seminar, panel, debate,
symposium.

 Usually two volunteers selected from audience.

 Discuss a question on which they may or may not have opposite views.
 Followed by discussion.

 Debate discussion

Two teams one representing the affirmative and the other the negative side of the question
represented by two speakers for each side.

 Each speaker is allowed a definite amount of time, to present his main speech and
rebuttal after the main speech have been completed.
 Two-way communication between the debaters.
 One way communication for the audience.
 The range of subjects is limited to controversial topics.
 Advantage of more than one side of a question is presented.

 Workshop

It is essentially a long meeting some one day to several weeks involving all the delegates in
which the problems being discussed are considered by delegates in small private groups.
There must be a planning session where all are involved in the beginning.

 A special type of working conference of a week or of more duration.

 It includes lectures, individual conferences, and emphasis on working groups.
 Work sessions arranged under the guidance of consultants.
  Participants can work on a special problem either individually or as members of
groups.
 Mostly used for professional improvement and in-service training.
 Success depends on having well-defined objectives and a homogeneous group vitally
concerned with objectives.
 Problems for discussion are brought in by participants.
 Managed through a steering committee.
 There must be summarizing and evaluation sessions at the close.
 The workshop at the end should produce – report/publication/visual or any other
material objects.

Elements of workshop:

 Lectures by staff members.

 Group meetings, with groups selected according to interest.
 Individual consultation and study.
 Informal discussion at odd times.
 Inspirational or social events.

6) Seminars

Seminars are short term training programmes arranged for a few days-a day or two maximum
three days. Seminars are convened to have in depth discussion on a subject from the view of
various viewpoints. In seminars these are presentation of papers by various authors related to
these followed by discussions, questions and answers. Participants are participating in
discussions and as a whole seminar help the trainees to broaden their knowledge and outlook. At
the end of the session the participants can come out with recommendations.

Advantages:

This method helps participants to obtain the views, opinions, research finding etc., of them
experts through the papers presented by them. Otherwise it might have taken considerable time
for trainees to gather such knowledge by reading books and discussing.
Some seminars are forceful and thought provoking. It facilitates participants to change their
attitudes and opinions.

In seminars, the trainees are given the opportunity of listening to the experts from different
fields, but related to the issues in discussion.

Disadvantages:

Generally the audience for the seminar is too big. The individual attention as in training situation
is not possible. Many seminars have just become rituals without giving much thought to the
issues. As a result no purpose is achieved by convening seminars. Interactions between
participants are very limited.

7) Conference
 Pooling of experiences and opinions among a group of people who have special
qualifications in an area.
 All the members in conference are expected to have more or less equal knowledge. It
varies between two to three days, maximum of five days.
 It is a methodology suited to executives and senior officers in dealing with complex
problem which requires the contributions from senior officers to solve the same. The
issues and subject matters of the conference have advance and they prepare the papers
and related materials for the conference. The delegates present and explain the various
aspects of the problem. The participants are requested to put forth their views during the
discussions hours. Recommendations are made based on the deliberations and
discussions.

 The main advantage of this method is that it suits bigger groups and participants are
benefited by listening to various senior speakers. They are included to think over the
problems, issues and solutions.
  The disadvantage of this method is that it is not participation oriented and the trainees are
inactive during the programmes. It is difficult to find out whether the trainees learn
anything or not.

8) Buzz sessions: (Phillip 66 format)

 With large group when there is limited time for discussion, the audience may be divided
into smaller units for a short period. This is called ‗buzz session‘ or ‗huddle system‘ or
‗Phillips 66‘.
 Groups of 6 to 8 persons get together after receiving instructions to discuss about a
specific issue assigned.
 The secretary of each small group will report the findings or questions to the entire
audience when they are reassembled.
 This is actually a device to get more people to participate in a forum than would be the
case otherwise.

9) Brain Storming

It is a type of small group interaction designed to encourage the free introduction of ideas on
an unrestricted basis and without any limitations to feasibility. It is a form of thinking in
which judicious reasoning gives way to creative initiative. Participants are encouraged to list
for a period of time all the ideas that come to their minds regarding some problems and are
asked not to judge the outcome.

10) Institute

Consists of a series of meetings and lectures. They are a source of new information and new
ideas.

11) Small group training

 Small group training is a technique of imparting specific skills to a group of people who need
them by creating an appropriate learning situation.

Objectives

 To impart the needed skills to a small group people

 To motivate people to adopt new practices through skill training

Limitations

 A small number of people may be trained at a time

 Follow-up requires more staff and time

12) Field Day or Farmer‟s Day

Field day or Farmer‘s day is a method of motivating the people to adopt a new practice by
showing what has actually been achieved by applying the practice under field conditions.

Objectives

 To convince the participants about the applicability of the practice in their own situations
 To motivate them to adopt the practice by showing its performance and profitability
under field conditions
 To remove doubts, superstitions and unfavorable attitude about the new practice
 To reinforce previous learning about the practice

Limitations

 Field days cannot be held frequently

 Does not facilitate in depth learning

13) Study Tour

 In study Tour, a group of interested persons accompanied and guided by one or more
extension agents out of their neighborhood to study and learn significant improvements in
farm and home elsewhere.

The main purpose is to motivate the visitors by showing what others have been able to achieve.

Objectives

 To expose the visitors to a new and different situation this shall help in changing their
outlook and extend their mental horizon.
 To understand the gap in technology adoption
 To explore the feasibility of adopting new practices in visitor‘s own situations
 To induce a spirit of competition amongst the participants by showing what others have
been able to achieve

Limitations

 Because of limitations of funds and time, study tours cannot be held frequently
 There may be some possibility of subordinating educational aspect to sigh seeing and
recreation
 Unpleasant experience may cause a setback

14) Field trip

Field trips are an excellent means of providing opportunities to participants to observe and
experience things/ objects/activities in natural settings. When the participants are exposed to real
world, they get firsthand experience and can relate their practical experience with theory. The
learners also experience sensory impressions which could never occur in class rooms but are
characteristic of the environment in which the new behaviour must occur. Field trips, tours or
excursions may or may not be participative learning experiences but the success depends on how
well the trips are organized and executed to meet the learning objectives. Field trip should be
pertinent to the need of the learner and as much appropriate as possible to real situations.
Objectives

 To expose the visitors to a new and different situation this shall help in changing their
outlook and extend their mental horizon.
 To understand the gap in technology adoption
 To explore the feasibility of adopting new practices in visitor‘s own situations
 To induce a spirit of competition amongst the participants by showing what others have
been able to achieve

The steps required for planning effective field trips are as follows

 Design experiences that meet specific objectives and needs of the participants
 Select most appropriate site for the expected learning to occur
 Plan logistics like lodging, boarding, transportation etc.
 Select individual to accompany participants during the field trips. It is extremely useful
for the trainer to accompany the participants during the field trip to enhance group
process of observing and studying the field situation
 Follow-up the field visit through reports and discussions
 The field trip as a training method has the advantage of giving an opportunity to the
participants to observe and get first hand information in natural settings; relate their
practical experience to theoretical knowledge covered in a course; discover and
supplement those realities that can‘t be brought to the classroom situation, and break the
monotony of learning. The natural setting facilities in developing interdependency when
participants work in small groups of individuals and there by develop team spirit .The
report writing after field trip is an essential component helps the participants to
systematically collect analyze and present information.

Disadvantages:

 It is a time consuming and cost effective process.

 Field trip requires high coordination ability on the part of the trainer.
 If field trips are not planned carefully then the effectiveness of this method may get lost.
  Sometimes when participants consider field trips as a pleasure trip and sources of
entertainment then the purpose of fieldtrip get diluted.
 If the follow up of field trip is not done then it becomes difficult to analyze the success of
the field trips.

15) Group discussions

This is an organized activity which involves free exchange of ideas to explore the causes and
possible solutions of a common problem of a number of people. Thus, the group makes a co-
operative effort to solve problems. It is imperative that the discussion must result in arriving at
consensus at the end. During the discussion process, learners are given the opportunity to express
their opinions, ideas and experiences freely and thereby, the participants learn to appreciate the
viewpoint of others. Some of the problems which may be thrashed out through group discussion
are environmental pollution, poverty, child labour etc.

Purposes:

 To solve a problem (decision-making)

 To exchange information
 To motivate
 To plan a programme of action
 To elect or select a person for a position
 To entertain
 To hear and discuss a report
 To form attitudes
 To release tensions
 To train individuals

Advantages:

 It is a democratic method, giving equal opportunity for every participant to have his say
 It appeals to the practical type of individuals
  The strength of group discussion lies in the fact that the discussants approach the problem
with an open mind and suspended judgment in a spirit of enquiry
 It is a co-operative effort and not combative or persuasive in nature
 Combined and co-operative thinking of several persons is likely to be superior to that of
isolated individuals
 Develops group morale
 Participants need to be good speakers or debaters‘
 It is a scientific method

Limitations:

 Factions in village may hinder the successful use of this method

 The ideal discussants with self-discipline are difficult to find
 It is not suitable for dealing with topics to which discussants are new
 In large groups especially, and even in small groups to some extent, it is difficult to
achieve group homogeneity or cohesion
 The size of the group has to be limited, because the success of the method is perhaps
inversely proportional to the size of group other factors being constant
 It is not a good method for problems of fact
 It is not suitable for taking decisions in times of crisis or emergency, as it is a slow
process
 Due to its informal conversational style, the scope for orderly or coherent arrangement of
ideas is limited

Mass Method:

 Exhibition

Exhibition is a systematic display of models, specimens, charts, photographs, pictures,

posters, information etc. in a sequence around a theme to create awareness and interest in
community. This method is suitable for reaching all types of people. Exhibitions may be held
at the village, block, sub-division, district, state, national and international level. Though an
exhibition is organized around a major theme, other related themes and some unrelated items
like entertainment may also be included. Farmer‘s fairs and krishi melas held by the
agricultural universities, institutes and various other organizations in which field visit,
training programmes are combined with exhibition are effective and popular. Exhibitions
may also be organized by taking advantage of local fairs and festivals. In fixing dates for
exhibition, the weather condition and the schedule of farm operations may be kept in view.

An exhibition covers three stages of extension education which are:

 Arousing interest.
 Creating desire to learn.
 Providing a chance to take a decision.

Objectives:

 To inform or introduce the people with better standards about the practices.
 To impress people to adopt better practices.
 To develop interest in a wide range of activities.
 To promote understanding and create goodwill towards extension service.

Technique

Planning and preparation

 Form a steering committee and suitable sub-committees with the specialists, local leaders
and administrators.
 Decide on the theme and procure funds.
 Decide on the venue, time and duration.
 Prepare a written programme and communicate to all concerned in time. Keep some
cultural and recreational programmes in the evening.
 Get the site ready for display of exhibits to be brought by the farmers.
 Arrange a well ventilated, spacious, covered or open area for holding meeting, training
and entertainment programmes.
 Display posters at important places. Publicize about the exhibition through mass media.
 Decorate the stalls simply and tastefully. Make adequate arrangements for lighting. Use
special –effect lights where necessary.
 Prepare good quality and colorful exhibits which shall convey the desired message to the
visitors. Use local materials as far as possible. Label the exhibits in local language with
bold letters.
 Display exhibits about 50 to 60 cm. above the floor of the stall, up to a height of about 2
meters. Maintain proper sequence. Avoid overcrowding of exhibits. Take precaution
against display of insignificant and unrelated exhibits.
 If possible, arrange action and live exhibits.
 Train up interpreters and allot specific duties. For a long duration exhibition, arrange
rotation and replacement of personnel.

Implementation:

 Organize formal opening of the exhibition by a local leader or a prominent person.

 Arrange smooth flow of visitors.
 Let the interpreters briefly explain the exhibits to the visitors so that the intended message
is clearly communicated. Distribute publications during visit.
 Organize a panel of experts to be present nearby, so that the visitors who would like to
know more or discuss some problems could get the desired information.
 Conduct meetings, training programmes etc. as per schedule during the day time. Use the
pandal at night for entertainment programmes.
 Arrange judging of exhibits brought by the farmers and give away prizes and certificates.
 Keep the exhibits and the premises clean. Replace exhibits as and when necessary.
 If desired, judge the stalls on the basis of their quality of display, ability to draw visitors
and effectiveness in communicating message and award certificates.
 Conclude the exhibition as scheduled by thanking the participants and those who have
helped.

Follow-up:
 Meet some visitors personally and maintain a visitor‘s book for comments during the
exhibition to get feedback information.
 Talk to the local leaders and assess success of the exhibition.
 Ensure availability of critical inputs and facilities emphasized during the exhibition.
 Look for changes in practice in the community in the coming years.

Advantages:

 For reaching illiterates, it is one of the best media.

 It can help to raise the standard of certain products, its type and quality.
 It helps the member to compare his work to others when used for that purpose.
 It promotes or develops creative abilities to some extent.
 At the occasions of festival, it can serve recreational requirements.
 Where the extension work is beginning, it has a great publicity value.
 It has an imaginative appeal.
 It advertises products which are available.
 It is a learning experience.

Limitations:

 Requires lots of funds and preparation.

 Cannot be held frequently.
 It cannot be used widely.
 It cannot be repeated at the same place without making substantial changes.
 It is unable to represent all the phases of work.

2) Campaign
 A campaign is a group effort to promote something or it is a well organized plan for
bringing about widespread adoption of a particular practice.
 It is an intense educational activity for motivating and mobilizing a community to action,
to solve a problem or satisfy a need urgently felt by it.
  The central idea is that a better practice is kept before the people constantly during that
time. People are shown repeatedly that this is a solution to a problem.
 Campaign methods can be used only after advocated practice is found acceptable to the
local people.

Duration: A campaign may be for a single day on a theme like Water for life, for a few weeks as
in Family planning, Breast feeding for a few months as in Vanamahotsava and for a few years as
in ‗International Decade for Women Empowerment ‘, International Decade for Girl Child, Aids
awareness and control programmes campaign.

Purpose:

 To encourage emotional participation of a large number of people and to foster a

favorable psychological climate for quick and large scale adoption of an improved
practice. (RHWEp photo with banner in streets )

Procedure:

 Decide exactly what changes you expect to make and who is to make the changes or you
should have a definite objective for a campaign.
 Plan regular times and specific method for a campaign.
 Write down a plan of events before you start the campaign.
 List all the people who are involved in the campaign and inform your campaign manager
to plan what their part will be in campaign.
 Open your campaign by doing something attractive such as drama that focuses the
attention on the problem.
 Ensure technical service and supplies or arrange for equipment or supplies.
 Work as per plan.
 Announces the dates of campaign well in advance and build up the enthusiasm of the
people.
 Give publicity to the successful campaign and the leader responsible.
  Arrange exhibits for drawing the attention of people to the campaign and its objectives of
well publicity in advance to the campaign and its objective for encouraging the people.

Objectives

 To create mass awareness about an important problem or felt need of the community and
encourage them to solve it.
 To promote widespread adoption of particular practice.
 To encourage to participate in new practice.
 To induce emotional participation of the community at the local level and create a
favorable psychological climate for adoption of new practices.

Advantages:

 A campaign teaches practices rather than principles

 Especially suited to stimulate mass scale adoption of an improved practice in the shortest
time possible
 Facilitates exploitation of group psychology for introducing new practices
 Successful campaigns create conducive atmosphere for popularizing other methods
 Quick results with lowest cost
 Builds up community confidence
 This method is of special advantage in case of certain practices which are effective only
when the entire community adopts them
 Offers or recommends a solution to the people for its acceptance

Limitations:

 Applicable only for topics of community interest

 Emphasizes one idea at a time
 Success depends on cooperation of the community and their leaders
 Less suitable for practices involving complicated technicalities
 Requires adequate preparation, concerted efforts and propaganda techniques, and
uninterrupted supply of critical inputs
 3) Mass Meeting

Mass meeting is held to communicate interesting and useful information to a large audience at a
time. The size of audience for mass meeting maybe a few hundreds, but at the time of fairs or
festivals it may be few thousands.

Objectives

 To focus attention of the people on some important topic.

 To create general awareness about a programme or project and to announce its progress.
 To enlist people‘s participation in community work.
 To appear personally before a large audience.

Limitations

 In –depth discussion of the topic not possible.

 Cannot be held frequently.
 Difficult to get feedback information.

4) Dramatization
 Dramatization is essential process of communication, in which both participant and
spectator are engaged.
 The dramatization is a substitute for the real experience.
 Contrived experience is also a substitute, but it differs from dramatized experience in one
basic respect.
 Contrived experience retains a good deal of the original reality
 Special values of dramatization
 The word comes from the Greek, ‗‘to act or to do‖.
 In a formal sense, a drama refers to one –act or full- length play performed on a stage or
red by students in a class

Five important implications of drama are:

  The subject matter of a dramatization is stirring and attention- compelling, as such it is
not easily forgotten
 Each participant in a well dramatized experience learns to understand intimately the
character he portrays
 Dramatized experiences may have marked therapeutic value
 Dramatizations teach not merely the performers but everyone else involved to work
cooperatively toward a common goal
 There are other, incidental values from drama participation in diction, voice control,
facial expressions, body carriage and poise

Drama is a theatrical performance around a theme by some people who have rehearsed for it.

Types of dramatized experiences:

 Play:
 Play can vividly portray important ideas related to social problems.
 Plays offer excellent opportunities in teaching hygiene, personal and community health,
safety.
 Pageant:
 Pageants as a type of community drama, usually based on local history, presented by
local actors and produced out of doors.
 Talking doll:

It is an innovation and may be used to create general awareness of a group of people about an
extension programme. Its use is, however, restricted to the availability of an expert ventriloquist,
who not only project can own voice, but is also able to manipulate the movement of the doll to
synchronize with the voice.

Drama, puppet show and talking doll provide dramatic experience to the audience and may be
used to communicate messages on broad social themes pertaining to rural life, rather than
transfer of technology programmes.
 5) Puppets

Types of puppets

 Shadow –puppets:

Flat black silhouettes cut from light weight cardboard and shown behind a lighted screen of
muslin, paper etc.

 Simple rod-puppets:

Flat cut –out figures tacked to a stick, with one or more movable parts, and operated from below
the stage level by wire rods or slender sticks.

 Hand-puppets or Glove:

These are simple to handle. The puppets head is operated on the forefinger of the puppeteer, the
little finger and the thumb being used to animate the puppet hands.

 Finger- puppets:

Small fingers made to fit onto the hand. The index and third fingers from the legs of the puppet.

 Hand and rod puppets:

These are a development of the hand –puppet, but have longer arms, articulated at the shoulder
and elbow and operated by rods. Completely articulated bodies can also be used.

 Rod –puppets:

There are many types of rod-puppets, some of them fully articulated and operated from below
the stage by a combination of rods and strings which make them excellent actors.

 Marionettes or string puppets:

Operated from above by means of strings. They may be quite simple, or very complex. In
general there are more difficult to make and operate than the other types
Print Material

Leaflets, Pamphlets, Folders, Bulletins, Banner, Calendars, Newsletter, and Circular letters are
the publications that are used in teaching and extension.

General Purpose:

Purpose in writing publications is to communicate information. Therefore the first consideration

is the audience. If writing for a scientific paper, one would use a vocabulary and style different
from what one would use when writing for the general public.

Principles to be followed:

How clearly you communicate information to average readers depends on how well you select,
sift and sort your facts.

i) Select facts:
 Suitable subject matter:

Does it meet a need?

Is it timely?

Is it of current interest?

Does it apply to your area?

Is information practical?

 Readers :

Who are the people you want to reach?

What are their problems, interests and educational levels?

Do you want to stimulate interest in programme or do you want to influence the people to do
something.
 ii) Sift facts:

Sift essential facts necessary to give information clearly?

Screen out difficult concepts which are beyond reader‘s experience or understanding eg: PH
value

Give layman an appreciation of subject rather than a detailed explanation

Express highlights

Don‘t try to impress the lay leaders with all you know

Don‘t document everything

iii) Sort facts:

Arrange facts in logical order

Set out important points in step by step order

Guide reader with attractive subheads and suitable illustrations

iv) Remember the A, B, C of journalism

A stands for Accuracy

B stands for Brevity

C stands for Clarity which are the fundamentals of all good writing

v) Adopt the following tips for readability:

Short sentences: Clear in meaning, simple in Construction, with few prepositional phrases and
Dependent clauses

Simple words- familiar, concrete words

Personal or human interest in words

1) Leaflet or flyer / Pamphlet

Leaflet is usually a single sheet of printed matter, sometimes folded. It gives accurate or
specific information on a particular topic. It is intended to

Provide precise and reliable information told in simple language about a single practice or
items of interest.

Serve immediate needs of the respondents.

Procedure:

 Decide on your message select topics related to the urgent needs of the community have
one simple practice of the idea at a time.
 Select the most important one from the essential points this forms the central theme.
 Jot down all appropriate points, declare the essential points, finally arrive at the desirable
points.
 List the remaining essential points in logical order and group the desirable points under
the appropriate essential points.
 Write your script, with all essential points in sequence.
 Make the most important points to catch the reader‘s interest.
 Write in simple short sentences. Use easy language which can be understood easily by
everybody.
 Use familiar words and be clear in your writings.
 Be accurate in your information.
 Use illustrations and pictures in the appropriate place.
 Give your letter ―sales appeal ―with a pleasing appearance.
 Tie your closing with an action note.
 Wide and even margin in a letter contribute to the ease of reading.

Advantages:
  Economical, relatively easy and quickly prepared and can be preserved and used by
the readers
 Supplement other information and media
 Can be used in schools and training programmes and as a basis for discussion in
meetings
 Commercial organizations and theaters commonly distribute leaf letters for publicity
 This can be used in field days, college days.
 Attractiveness of leaf letters can be increased by using different colours of papers or
inks or by illustrations or photographs.

Pamphlets

Pamphlets are an important way of getting information to the community.

 To mobilize people to support your cause

 To advertise a meeting or specific event
 To popularize your slogans and messages.

Pamphlets are very useful especially in areas where there is no easy access to newspapers and
radio. It is a direct way of communicating with your constituency, but it can also be very
expensive. Organizations can easily produce pamphlets but it is essential that you are clear about
the aim of the media, who you are targeting, and what you want to achieve by doing it before
spending lots of money.

Pamphlets should be used when you want to give people more information than you can put on a
poster, for example to:

 explain an issue to the community

 inform people of their rights
 win support for a campaign you are running
 win support for your organization‘s point of view

Pamphlets are much cheaper to produce than posters and you can usually produce small
pamphlets in A5 size (half the size of a normal A4 page) for less than 10 cents each. You can
produce pamphlets by photocopying them yourselves or printing them on a duplicator or by
taking them to a professional printer. It is important to produce pamphlets that attract attention
and make people want to read them. You can also waste a lot of money if you print pamphlets
and then do not distribute them properly.

2) Folder
 Folder is a single sheet of paper folded once or twice and open material is presented in
sequence and make sure this sequence appeared in finished folder.
 Folders are normally printed on paper heavier than flyer.
 Paper usually prepared on offset or heavier paper
 They may be made more attractive by using photographs, line drawings, various colors of
ink and line graphs.
 Folder size 4‘*8‘ is more attractive
 Width to length ration of 1:1.5 is more suitable and paper size permits without waste, but
there is not a set rule on size.

Advantages:

 Economical
 Used for more sophisticated audience
3) Bulletin

It conveys large amount of information. Its primary objective is to give information which the
reader can apply with own opportunity. It is a booklet running into more than 20 pages.

Types of bulletins

 Technical bulletin

Designed primarily to present scientific material to those working in specific fields

 Popular bulletin:
To present material to the people in the field of action. All the extension bulletins are popular
bulletins. Size of bulletin is 6*9 inches and 20 pages

Points to be considered for the preparation of effective popular bulletin

 Have good eye appeal

 Use direct style in writing
 Choose words as you word to your friends
 Select words and use them with proper relations
 Make sentences light meaning be clear, precise
 Have short paragraphs
 Plan and prepare yourself about the facts, their coordination, adaptation, interpretation
and application
 Have suitable and good features depicting action
 Write your own out lines (i.e. writing that explains photographs)
 Decide on the number of pages
 Cover should be colorful with symbols, illustrations and should be appropriate to the
subject matter.
 Title should be given much thought and it should be concise and provocating

4) Banners
 Banners are traditional mass media information visual used for advertising everything.
 Banners are rather costly and required considerable time and skill
 They must be attractive with a brief clearly presented message
 Height and length of the banner should be pleasing proportions approximately 1:4
 Firmly affixed pictures increasing attention within the banner and increase quality.

5) Circular letter
 Circular letter gives an intimate personal approach to the extension message. This is an
effective method to convey information of a common interest to a large number of literate
people at one time by the extension agent. Circular letters are more easily and quickly
prepared and also economical. These are very effective if it has a personal touch, drawing,
cartoon and pictures.

Types of circular letters:

i) Announcements: announces about an event such as meetings, demonstrations etc. to

take place. It invites people to take action.
ii) Subject matter: May be in the form of chatty and informal news story. It has facts
and presented in a personalized form. It is designed to bring out changes in practice.

How to write a circular letter:

 Have a definite reason for writing a circular letter

 Decide on the main idea, the length, the illustration before you begin writing
 Suit your salutation to your audience
 Pack your opening sentence with your main idea with in readable
 Keep your sentence short, fall of personal references and free from hard words
 Keep your paragraphs down to 80 words
 Choose your illustration carefully and execute it well

Suggested sizes and pages for information materials

SNo. Format Number of Appropriate Appropriate size

pages size in inches in cms

1. leaflet 1-2 5.5*8 14*20

2. Folder 4-6 4*8 or 10*22.5 or

6*9 15*22.5
Combination of Methods

As the number of methods of exposure to the extension information increases, the number of
farm families changing the behaviour increases.

 Seeing and doing- 6.67%

 Seeing, doing and hearing – 37.49%
 Seeing, doing, hearing, reinforced by reading – 49.29%
 Seeing, doing, hearing, reinforced by reading, personal contacts – 69.99%
 Seeing, doing, hearing, reinforced by reading, personal contacts, more hearing and seeing
– 78.69%
 Seeing, doing, hearing, reinforced by reading, personal contacts, more hearing and
seeing, indirect influence – 100%

Audio-Visual Aids

Audio- visual aids are instructional devices which are used to communicate messages more
effectively through sound and visuals.

Audio-visual aids help in stimulating the sensory organs like ears and eyes and facilitate quick
comprehension of the message by the audience. These may be used for literate as well as for
illiterate people.

Audio

Audio means what we hear. The five senses audio, visual, touch, smell and taste plays an
important role in communicating message. Hearing plays an important role in receiving and
sending a message effectively. The most basic form of communication is oral and face to face
contact. Hearing plays an important role in oral-face to face communication. In recent days due
to the invention of modern gadgets like radio, tape recorder, public address system telephones
and mobile phones the type of communication is more of an indirect type as the individuals do
not face each other. People in such situations communicate without coming into close proximity.

Audio aids

Audio Aids are the instructional devices through which the message can only be heard.

Or

An audio aid is an instructional device in which the message can be heard but not seen.

Visual

A visual is what can be seen.

Visual helps one to communicate more effectively. Out of the five physical senses through which
we learn, the eye is the most helpful in learning. Words are not enough for communicating an
idea. The same word may even mean different things to different people. We speak different
languages and so, many times communication becomes difficult.

Visual aids

Visual Aids are the instructional devices which help to visualize the message.

Or

A visual aid is an instructional or communicating device in which the message can be seen but
not heard.

Audio-visual

Audio-visual means the things which we hear as well see.

Audio-visual aids
Audio-visual aids or devices or technological media or learning devices are added devices that
help the teacher to clarify, establish, co-relate and co-ordinate accurate concepts, interpretations
and appreciations and enable the learner to make learning more concrete, effective, interesting,
inspirational, meaningful and vivid.

Or

Audio-visual aids are used to improve teaching, i.e. to increase the concreteness, clarity and
effectiveness of the ideas and skills being transferred. They enable the audience to LOOK,
LISTEN and LEARN (by doing); to learn faster, to learn more, to learn thoroughly and to
remember longer.

According to an old Chinese proverb the importance of audio-visual aids is indicated by the
saying that “if I hear I forget, if I see I remember, if I do I know.”

The audio-visual aids help in completing the triangular process of learning, motivation,
clarification-stimulation.

The aim of teaching with technological media is clearing the channel between the learner and the
things that are worth learning. The basic assumption underlying Audio-Visual Aids is that
learning and clear understanding-stems from sense of experience. The teacher must ‗show‘ as
well as ‗tell‘.

Audio –Visual aids provide significant gains in informational learning, retention, recall, thinking,
reasoning, activity, interest, imagination, better assimilation, personal growth and development.
The aids are the stimuli for learning „why‟, „how‟, „when‟ and „where‟. The ‗hard to
understand principles are usually made clear by the intelligent use of skillfully designed
instructional aids.

It must be remembered that Audio-visual aids can only supplement the teacher but can never
supplant the teacher.
Audio-visual aids are classified into three categories

Audio aids Visual aids Audio- visual aids

1. Tape recorder Non-Projected Non- Projected

2. Public address
system 1. Chalk board Drama, puppet show,
1.
3. Telephone 2. Bulletin board talking doll
4. Radio 3. Picture board and Projected
photograph and
Illustrations 1. Motion
4. Flannel graph, flash picture(cinema)
card, flip chart 2. Video
5. Poster
6. Diagram, map, chart
and graph
7. Specimen,
model, diorama
8. Translide
Projected

1. Slides
2. Filmstrip
3. Opaque projection
4. Overhead projection

Another way of classifying the audio-visual aids

 Display type: Display Type visuals are those which are spread before the audience for
viewing who get the message by looking at them.

Examples: Poster, bulletin board, models, exhibits etc.

 Presentation Type: Presentation Type visuals are presented or projected before the
audience for viewing, but at the same time one explains or presents the message of the
visuals, so that the audience gets a meaningful understanding of them.

Classification of Audio-Visual Aids

 Classification Number 1

Projected and Non-Projected Aids

Projected Aids Non-Projected Aids

Graphic Aids Display Boards 3-Dimensional Audio Aids Activity Aids

Aids

Films Cartoons Blackboard Diagram Radio Computer-Assisted

Film-strips Charts Bulletin Models Recordings Instruction
Opaque Comics Flannel Board Mockups Television Demonstrations
projector Diagrams Magnetic Board Objects Experimentation
Overhead Flash cards Peg board Puppets Field Trips
projector Graphs Specimens Programmed
slides Maps Instruction
Photographs Teaching Machines
Pictures
Posters

Classification Number 2
Audio Materials, Visual Materials and Audio-Visual Materials
Audio Materials Visual Materials Audio-Visual Materials

1. Language 1. Bulletin boards 1. Demonstrations

laboratories 2. Chalk boards 2. Films
2. Radio 3. Charts 3. Printed materials with
3. Sound distribution 4. Drawings recorded sound
system sets 5. Exhibits 4. Sound filmstrips
4. Tape and disco 6. Filmstrips 5. Study trips
recordings 7. Flash cards 6. Television
8. Flannel boards 7. Videotapes
9. Flip books
10. Illustrated books
11. Magnetic boards
12. Maps
13. Models
14. Pictures
15. Posters
16. Photographs
17. Self- instructional
18. Silent films 19. slides
 19. slides

Classification Number 3

Hardware, Software and Systems approach of Instructional technology

 Hardware approach

It refers to instruments or equipment or apparatus useful in the process of teaching such as

different types of projectors, recorders, television, video camera, closed circuit television,
computers etc. this approach is the result of the impact of scientific and technological
development. Hardware mechanizes the instructional process by transmitting, amplifying,
recording and reproducing stimuli. This enables instructors to deal with more learners with less
expenditure in educating them. In other words it increases the power of teachers to reach beyond
the boundaries of an instruction or classroom without necessarily increasing the cost of learners
taught and sometimes even reducing it.

 Software approach

It emphasizes the importance of aids to learning and indicated the application of psychological
principles of learning to the teaching-learning process. It is characterized by task analysis,
writing precise objectives, selection of appropriate learning strategies, immediate reinforcement
of responses and constant evaluation. This approach makes an attempt to manage the teaching-
learning process by promoting individual learning towards mastery level through programmed
learning and learner centered instruction methods. Instructional modules, mini courses and
programming material for computer are some of the software aspects of instructional technology.

 Systems approach

Systems approach to instruction implies planned and organized use of all available learning aids
including instructional media, in order to achieve the desirable learning objectives. It first
focuses on the performance of the learner and then decisions are made regarding content,
learning experiences, instructional media and instructional strategies for realizing the objectives.
It combines the hardware and software approaches and focuses deeply on the process and
products of teaching and learning. It ensures that the resources, i.e. money and energy invested in
instruction should optimize learning through systematic planning from objectives to evaluation.

Classification Number 4

Big Media and Little Media

Big media include computer, VCR and TV. Little media include radio, film strips, graphic, audio
cassettes and various visuals.

Classification Number 5

Three Dimensional Aids

 Models
 Mock-ups
 Specimens

Three dimensional aids are the replicas or substitutes of real objects

Cone of experience

It is devised by Edgar Dale in explaining the inter relationships of various types of audio-visual
materials. As well as their individual position in the learning process.

In this cone each division represents a stage between the two extremes direct experience at the
base, and pure abstraction at the apex. It may be stated that the ‗cone‘ classifies the audio-visual
aids according to their effectiveness in communication.

i) Direct, purposeful experience: It is the unabridged version of life itself, with three
elements directness, purposefulness and responsibility for the outcome. The experiences
gained through the senses are direct and purposeful. It has been amply observed, ‗‘An
ounce of experience is better than a tone of theory, simply because it is only as an
 experience that any theory has vital and verifiable significance.‘‘ This direct experience
is gained through the aids mentioned at the base of the cone.
ii) Contrived Experiences: when the real thing cannot be perceived directly, its
simplification becomes necessary. Contrived experience is like a working model which is
an editing of reality and differs from the original either in size or in complexity. The real
object may be too small or too big, may be confused or concealed. In such a situation,
imitation is preferred for better and easier understanding Eg: models of animals and
mock-ups of machinery.
iii) Dramatized Experiences: Means participating in a reconstructed experience

eg: dramas, puppet shows

iv) Demonstrations
v) Field trips
vi) Exhibits
vii) a.Television

b. Motion picture or Films

viii) a. Radio

b. Recordings

ix) Still pictures

a. Non- projected

b. Projected

x) Visual symbols

xi) Verbal symbols

Visual Aids

 Blackboard or Chalk board

  It is most universally used of all the teaching aids. It is not itself a visual material but a
vehicle for a variety of visual materials. It is one of the cheapest, most effective, and
versatile and easiest to use of all the visual aids.
 The same black board can be used for flannel graph. It can be used as a screen in showing
slides or film strips, by covering it with a clean cloth.
 There are two basic kinds of chalk boards

Rigid and roll-up.

The rigid type is more durable and easier to use, although not easily portable due to its size and
weight. These are made up of wood, plywood, metal, fiberboard or even heavy card board.

The roll-up is lighter, more compact and hence more easily portable. These are usually made of
heavy cloth, canvas or oil cloth, coated with the chalk board paint slating. It should be placed
against a smooth flat surface like a wall or up-turned table, so that chalk pressure can be applied
at any point on the surface to give a good impression.

 Yellow chalk on dark green paint gives better visibility than white chalk on black paint.

Suggestions for using the Chalk Board:

 Have it clean
 Use clean eraser
 Write in large letters
 Don‘t talk as you write
 Face group after and continue the discussion
 Don‘t fill the board-avoid clutter
 Don‘t use abbreviations
 Keep drawings simple
 Use colored chalk. Yellow chalk is good at night
 Don‘t stand in front of the blackboard, stand to one side.

 Bulletin board
It is a simple inexpensive device that can be placed either outdoor, or indoors. A soft board that
will hold pins or tacks is most suitable. It can perform basic communication functions. It can
attract attention, stimulate interest, deliver a message and promote action. Items generally used
on a bulletin board include photographs, cut-out illustrations from publications, drawings,
specimens, notices, posters and wall news papers.

Uses of Bulletin board:

 Local announcement of importance to all the villagers

 Photographs to show local activities
 Follow-up instructions for the villagers on things demonstrated and emphasized Visual
reminders for things to be done, when, how and by whom

Advantages of Bulletin board:

 Draws attention to important announcements

 Develops audience interest
 Facilitates display of graphic and pictorial matter
 Highlights current activities and achievement
 A basic means of communication at less cost
 Effective use of bulletin board
 Place the bulletin board against the entrance or on a well lighted place where the people
are likely to assemble or pass through. Fix it firmly on a stand or on the wall, at eye level.
 Collect and prepare suitable materials for display. Present only one or two relevant topics
at a time. Arrange materials in an orderly and interesting manner. Avoid unrelated
materials and overcrowding.
 Use color harmony and balance. Caption all illustrations give a suitable title to the
display. Change materials regularly and keep the bulletin board up-to date and tidy.

Bulletin boards can be made effective in many ways:

 Choose a location where the board will be seen.

  It should be placed at a height that is appropriate to the viewers and there should be
adequate light so that it can be easily seen
 Keep the bulletin board neat and clean.
 Use a variety of techniques to attract attention.
 Use a variety of lettering techniques
 Involve the audience

 Poster

Poster is a placard displayed in a public place with the purpose of creating awareness amongst
the people.

A poster is generally seen from a distance and person glancing at it seldom has the time or
inclination to stop and read. The job of the poster is to stop the hurriedly passing persons, thrust
the message upon them quickly and lead them to action immediately or eventually.

The standard sizes of posters are 26X38 cm, 38X51cm, 46X56 cm, 51X77 cm.

A good poster should have the following properties:

 It must be able to attract attention

 It must convey the message quickly
 It must lead to action

The A B C„s of poster making are, make it:

Attractive

Brief

Clear

Components in a poster

1) Picture or Illustration:
 It should be such as to bring out the message clearly at a glance. If it is a drawing, the actual
thing be shown should be brought out in bold relief. Avoid unnecessary details so that the
viewer‘s attention is not confused. If you use a photograph, avoid unwanted surroundings
and bring out the point prominently. While preparing illustrations keep in mind the
experience of the audience and use objects familiar to them.

2) Caption in words:

The caption should be as small as possible. A five word caption is the best. Never write the
caption vertically as it creates difficulty in reading. Do not break the caption.

3) Colour:

Use bright attractive colours. The centre core can be highlighted with a more prominent colour.
Even in the caption some prominent word can be given a different colour. Do not use more than
three colours, otherwise it may be confusing. Do not use odd combinations of colours.

4) Space:

If a poster is loaded with pictures and words the viewer gets lost. So provide adequate space.

5) Layout:

It should be well balanced so that the viewer‘s eyes can travel smoothly and quickly through the
caption and illustration. It should hold his attention and clearly bring out the message to the
viewer.

6) Check:

After the rough layout is complete show it to some people of the level of your audience. If there
is any misconception or ambiguity, remove it.

The poster should recommend action. It should be placed where people pass or gather. It should
give only one idea and details should be given through other media.
In general a poster should contain three main divisions. The first part usually announces the
purpose of a project or programme. The second sets out conditions. The third recommends
actions.

Points to be considered when making a poster:

 Support local demonstration, exhibits or activities contain dramatic pictures that will
cause people to stop and look
 Tell the story at a glance, use
 One idea
 Few words
 Plain, bold lettering and lines
 Simple colours – not more than three
 Plenty of everyday living
 Must be timely
 Must be large enough to be easily seen -22‘‘*28‘‘, 28‘‘*44‘‘ etc.
 Place posters where people pass or where people gather. Follow it with other device such
as meetings, demonstrations, films, etc.

 Chart: Diagrammatic representation of facts or ideas, visual symbols for summarizing

comparing, contrasting and performing other services in explaining subject matter can
help to communicate difficult, dull subject in interesting way.

Types of charts

1) Line charts (or Line graphs)

These are particularly useful in showing trends and relationships. A single continuous line may
represent growth or expansion. Multiple lines may show the relation between market price and
quantity of a farm product. A cumulative line chart may show relation trends between production
costs and market price.

2) Bar charts (or Bar graphs)

These are used to compare quantities at different times or under different circumstances. They
are compared of measured blocks spaced along a clearly marked scale.

3) Job charts: Eg: Gramsevak‘s job chart. Where the jobs of persons in the organization are
written
4) Tree chart or stream chart: Are used to show the development or growth of something in
the shape of a tree or stream.
5) Flow charts

These are diagrams used to show organizational or administrative relationships. Boxes connected
with lines show levels and lines of authority. They can be used to show the administrative
relationship in a ministry, an extension service or a university.

6) Strip tease chart or Suspense chart

The appeal of the strip tease chart is in its suspense. It ‗teases‘ the interest and imagination of the
audience.

The information on the chart is covered with thin paper strip to which has been applied wax, tape
or other sticky substance at each end of the strip.

As the speaker wishes to visually reinforce a point with words or symbols, he removes the
appropriate strip of paper. It is possible to add considerable interest to the presentation by
removing the paper with a dramatic flourish.

7) Pictorial graphs (or picot graphs)

To give the viewer a vivid picture and to create a rapid association with the graphic message,
cartoons and other types of illustrations may be used.

The term ―graph‖ is generally used when statistical data are presented in the form of visual
symbols.

8) Flip chart

Consists of series of individual charts which are tacked or bound together and hung on a
supporting stand. These individual charts carry a series of related messages in sequence. The
 teacher flips them one after another, as the lesson or story progresses. To be effective, a flip
chart should deal with only one broad theme and give only this salient point without too
much data or details.

9) Overlay charts

Consists of a number of illustrated sheets which can be placed one over the other
conveniently and in succession. The drawing or illustration on each individual sheet forms a
part of the whole picture. This enables the viewers to see not only the different parts but also
see them against the total perspective when one is placed over the other. When a final
overlay is placed the ultimate product is exposed to view. Such a presentation has a dramatic
effect on the viewers.

10) Pie charts (or Pie graphs)

These are in shape of circles and used to show how several parts make up the whole. A pie
chart might be used to show the relative proportion of different crops produced by a country.
Each section of the pie should have its own color key or code in the margin will help the
audience remember what the different sections.

11) Pull charts

Pull charts consist of written messages on a large sheet. Messages are hidden by strips of
thick paper held in position by the slits provided on either side. The messages can be shown
to the viewer, one after another, by pulling out the concealing strips. The same strip can be
replaced in the slits after showing the message.

Other Visual aids

 Diagram: It is able to illustrate a process or an object.

 Graph: It is for getting precise idea or drawing a comparison or conclusion from
numerals or statistical data.
 Photographs: These are the exact visual recordings of things. They may be mounted or
unmounted photographic prints or reproductions of photographs taken from a magazine,
newspaper or book. They may be in black and white or colored. They may be used in
 personal teaching situations or as display type visuals in exhibitions or bulletin boards.
They may be projected with an opaque projector. To be effective teaching aid a
photograph must:
 Tell a story
 Illustrate only one point
 Have plain and simple back-ground
 Show the main subject prominently
 Illustrations: these are non-photographic reconstructions of reality

Eg: Drawings, paintings.

 Map: It is an informative diagram of an area

 Flannel graph
 A flannel graph or Khadder graph is visual teaching aid. Pieces of flannel felt or sand
paper, having rough surfaces or nap will stick to another piece of flannel stretched on
a firm flat surface called a ‗‘flannel board‘‘.
 When attach pieces of flannel felt or sandpaper to the back of pictures, photographs,
drawings, letters etc, these objects will also stick to the flannel board. This device is
called a ‗‘flannel- graph‘‘.
 The surface cloth may or may not be mounted on a permanent backing. Some may
carry with the symbols or parts. When they arrive where the lesson is to be given,
they pin the flannel to a flat surface such as an upturned table, wall or fence.
 The size of flannel graph to use depends on the size of the audience. A flannel graph
is 30 by 40 can be used to tell a story to about 150 people if the parts are sufficiently
bold. Experience will soon tell you whether or not your flannel graph is of
satisfactory size. It will be convenient to keep several different sizes to accommodate
different sizes of audience.
 The first step in planning your flannel graph presentation is to decide exactly what
you want to tell your audience.
 The story should be developed in a logical, step-by-step sequence.
 It should be kept as simple as possible, covering only those parts that are important
and omitting unimportant details.
  Then you are ready to visualize the important points in your story.
 This is where you decide what kinds of parts are needed and what they will illustrate.
 If you have an artist or photographer to help you make the parts, you are fortunate.
 It is well to practice your presentation two or three times before you give it audience.
 This will help you decide just when to place a part on the flannel graph to illustrate a
point. You will also find that you need no notes for your presentation since each part,
if arranged in sequence of use, will serve as an adequate reminder of what to say.

How to use a flannel board:

Pre-planning should include answers to the following:

 What is going to be presented?

 Are the cut-out materials prepared and ready for use?
 Why is the flannel board going to be used?
 How is the information going to be presented?
 What will the audience get out of it?

 Flash cards

Flash cards are brief visual messages on poster board cards, flashed (turned over at short
intervals) before the audience to emphasize important points in a presentation.

In flash card, messages are presented on papers measuring about 30 cm. *25 cm. A number
of them are held like a pack of cards and are flashed to the audience, one-by one in a
sequence along with the talk.

Flash cards are the series of cards which when presented before the audience in proper
sequence, tell a complete story. Each card is of about 10‟‟ to 12‟‟ in size and contains a
picture or diagram. Each individual card is ‗‘flashed‘‘ before the audience accompanied by
the verbal commentary. The extension worker or the student, who wants to use them, holds
them in hand and flashes the card one after another.
Preparation of Flash cards:

 A brief story should be written

 The story should end with suggestions or a morale that leads to action
 A suitable title should be selected for the story
 The story should be divided into a number of scenes which are to be presented in a
number of individual cards
 Different scenes which remain abstract in the preceding stage appear in appealing
visual forms
 Art paper is cut into pieces of 10‟‟* 12‟‟.
 The figures may be photographs, drawings, pictures and diagrams
 The cards are numbered in sequence.
 Every set of card should have a title
 There should be a commentary written on the reverse of each card so that the person
who presents it to the audience can easily read the commentary from reverse
 Attractive lettering increases the effectiveness of the flash cards

How to use a flash card:

 The story should be familiar to the student or person who presents the card
 He must hold cards in a way that the audience can see clearly, better against the body
and should point out the pictures on the cards
 He must bring local names of the people or villages
 Some important points may be jotted down by the back side of the cards to help in the
telling of story
 The cards should be stacked in order, as one card is finished it may be slid behind the
other. In this way they will remain in order for the next time

Advantages of Flash cards:

 Can be made quickly

 Can be made from inexpensive local material
 Can be carried easily
 Are easy to use
  Help speaker emphasize main points of his talk

Guidelines:

 Be large enough for everyone to see. Size of group of 30 to 50 22‟‟*28‟‟

 For small groups 11”*14‟‟ is adequate
 Have color
 Have brief wording
 Have lettering enough for the group to read
 Be 10 to 12 in number optimum
 Size of audience should be under 30
 Story on each card must be familiar to you
 While commenting, use simple words and local expressions
 Use this aid along with other teaching tools

Projected Visual Aids

 Slide projector

An ordinary slide projector has a frame containing two slits into which slides are put for
focusing. They are manually and continually replaced by other slides one after another.

Operation:

 Place the projector on table or on any steady support

 Set up screen in front of the projector
 Insert electric plug in outlet and switch on the lamp
 Standing at the back of the projector, insert test slide in the opening on the right hand
side
 Centre the image and focus it on the screen by slowly moving the lens, to and fro
 Place the slide in the proper order so as to have the thumb mark in the upper right
hand corner
 The new slide gently pushes out the previous slide on the left hand side.
Slide is a transparent photograph which can be projected onto screen by using slide projector.

 Slides

A slide is a transparent mounted picture which is projected by focusing light through it.

Slides of 35mm films mounted on individual card board frames are more common and are
extensively used in extension programmes. Glass slides are generally used in cinema hall.

There are two types of slide projectors one is manual operated and cheap, in which every
time the projected slide is taken out and a new slide is inserted in the slot and pushed by hand
in position. The other one is automatic slide projectors in which large numbers of slides are
serially inserted in the magazine slots beforehand and are changed one by one at the time of
projection by a remote control but produces good quality images and is extremely convenient
for a slide show.

Slides are used in training programme, seminar, workshop, group meeting, campaign
exhibition, T.V. etc.,

Advantages:

 Attract attention and arouse interest of the audience.

 Selected slides may help in motivating the audience.
 Projection of slides may be synchronized with the talk.
 A large image is possible
 Large projected images can be made of small visuals
 Images can be changed remotely, or automatically
 Slides can be sorted, changed or substitute easily
 Slides are relatively inexpensive to have processed

Disadvantages:

 For a clear image and bright color, you must darken the room.
 Slides are expensive if prepared commercially or if the art work, drawing, etc., is
prepared especially for the slide
 Understanding the projected pictures requires ‗live‘ narration
  The extension agent has to develop skill in taking photographs and projection of
slides.

 Transparences

Variety of transparent materials are available

 Acetate sheets in rolls and 10‘‘*10‘‘ cut

 Cellophane paper available in assorted colours
 Waste materials like new cloth transparent wrappers
 Used x-ray sheets after removing the emulsion with potassium ferricinide and sodium
theosulphate in equal quantity of 50 % solution. Strong household soda used
 Any transparent plastic papers.

Types of transparencies:

 Hand written/drawn
 Typed transparency
 Overly transparency
 Cut outs
 Picture transfer process
 Xerox copying
 Mounting and masking of overhead transparencies

 Film strip

Film strip is a continuous strip of film consisting of a small number of individual frames or
pictures arranged in a sequence. Each strip may contain about 30 to 60 frames of
photographs, diagrams, drawings or lettering. The pictures may have explanatory titles. The
entire length of the strip has perforations on both sides, which facilitate forward or backward
movement of the pictures. Some of the slide projectors have facility for projecting filmstrip
also. Filmstrips on some fixed topics may be available from commercial firms or scientific
 organizations. These may be made according to one‘s own requirement with the help of a
good photographic studio. Filmstrips are generally used in training programmes.

Advantages:

 Condense information in a small package

 Projected pictures may be synchronized with the talk
 Light, easy to handle and store
 Less expensive than sound film
 The machines are simple to operate besides being relatively inexpensive
 The pictures can be held on screen for long time
 A filmstrip, when projected can be accompanied with commentary or music played
back by a tape recorder or gramophone

Limitations:

 Commercial filmstrips may not be wholly relevant to a particular extension

programme
 The set of pictures in a filmstrip has a fixed sequence which cannot be altered.
Because of this inflexibility, filmstrips have limited use in field extension work.
 The surface of the filmstrip may become scratched after prolonged use or it may be
burnt if not properly handled while projecting.

 Overhead projection/ projector

In overhead projection, the picture is projected over the head of the speaker on the screen. This is
accomplished by an overhead projector. Drawing, diagram, lettering etc. are made on transparent
sheets and are put on the glass platform of the overhead projector, through which strong light is
passed. The rays of light are converged by a lens and reflected by a mirror held at an angle, on
the screen at the back.

The instructional items may be written or drawn by hand on transparent sheets, transparent
cellophane or polythene rolls with a special pen or wax crayon. These may be wiped cleaned
with a dry cloth. Printing on transparencies may be made through photographic, Xerox or electric
processes. The transparencies may be in colour or in black and white, and may be repeatedly
used.

Overhead projection enables the speaker to simultaneously deliver the talk and project the
instructional materials, while facing the audience. The speaker can also write, make sketch and
ease while projecting them. Important psychological techniques like covering a portion of the
transparency with a sheet of paper and making progressive disclosure and superimposing
diagrams may be achieved in overhead projection at ease and in an effective way. A thin object
may be placed on the transparency and used as pointer by the speaker. Overhead projection is
used in training programmes, group meetings, seminars, symposium, workshop etc.

Advantages:

 Makes the talk dynamic and sustains audience interest

 Complex ideas may be clearly presented
 Saves time in presenting the talk
 Projection of pictures may be synchronized with the talk
 Enables the speaker to face the audience and observe their reaction
 Enables the audience to take notes
 Easy to prepare and project the instructional material
 Materials for transparencies are cheap and easily available

Limitations:

 Requires good preparation by the speaker

 The overhead projector is a bit costly equipment
 Instructor must be close to the projector to change the visual
 There is a tendency to sit down and instruct which can dampen the enthusiasm of learners
 Effectiveness, heavily depends on the presenter

 Opaque projector/ Epidiascope

 In opaque projection a large – aperture projector is used to project opaque materials.
  Opaque projector is also known as Epidioscope
 Pictures, drawings, diagrams directly from books, magazines etc. or drawn on sheets of
paper can be projected
 The size of the projectable material should be around 25 cm*25 cm.
 Materials for projection are inserted into projector by lowering the platen.
 Opaque projection used in training programmes, group meetings

Advantages:

 Stimulates attention and arouses interest of the audience

 Clarifies information
 Saves time and labor
 Equipment easy to operate
 Operation is easy. It can be done by any body
 Projects a wide range of opaque material, like coins, leaves, insects etc. for magnification
 Color of object is also transmitted to screen
 Materials from book could be projected to class for discussion and learning. On the spot
projection with readily available visuals is possible

Limitations:

 Projected pictures are not of superior quality

 The opaque projector is bulky and difficult to carry
 Because of these, opaque projector has limited use in extension work
 Unless the classroom can be darkened completely, the projection will not be satisfactory
 Materials sensitive to heat cannot face the trainees

Electronic Media

Different types of Electronic Media

 Radio
 Television
  Telephone

RADIO

Radio is an effective means of broadcasting information to many people at once. For this reason,
radio is a form of mass communication. The mass media also include newspapers, popular
magazines, and television. Radio and other forms of mass communication do not allow for
convenient, prompt feedback. Receivers who wish to provide feedback on a particular message
typically need to use some other communication channel—telephone, email, or letter—to
respond to a sender. The most common business use of radio is for advertising, primarily at the
local level. It could be used for debate on selected problems, and for dissemination of
information through talks, folk songs, dramas etc.

Radio broadcasting has adjusted itself to the advent of television and has reasserted its place in
the mass communication. Its influence permeates every segment of society. Radio is a mobile
medium. Through a mass medium, it possess the qualities of a direct, personal touch as it uses
the spoken word to convey its message.

Objectives:

 To reach more people more quickly

 To reach illiterate audience.
 To build enthusiasm and maintain interest.
 To meet recreational needs.
 To encourage local talents and abilities.

Procedures:

 The message has to be small and clear so that people can understand it and act.
 Do not make too much lengthy programme because lengthy programmes miss their
attraction and utility.
 Time of the programme should be suitable to the audience.
 Programmes should be dependent on the seasonal needs of the people, so that they act
upon quickly.
 Encourage the people to listen the rural programmes attentively.
  Interesting programmes should be specially announced in advance, so that people are
able to listen them.
 Encourage the people to write about their opinion.
 Feed news stories and cultural programme related to the locality to the broadcasting
stations.

Advantages:

 It reaches more people more quickly than any other means.

 It is relatively cheap.
 It reaches illiterate audience.
 It builds enthusiasm and maintains interest.
 It can also meet recreational needs.
 Wide range of experience can be pooled and made available.

Limitations

 The broadcasting facilities are available only in limited place.

 Only skilled personnel can handle the broadcasting.
 Broadcasting stations are not always accessible to extension workers.
 It is difficult to check on results.
 The time assigned for the talks is usually limited.
 There are not enough radio sets in the rural areas.
 The programmes for rural people frequently lose out in competition with entertainment.
 Its influence is limited to people who can listen intelligently.

Television

Television, another of the mass media, is also an effective means of broadcasting information to
many people at once. In addition to using commercial television for advertising, business has
been making increasing use of TV for education and training programs and videoconferencing.
Because it combines auditory and visual images, TV provides a fairly effective substitute for
face-to-face communication when time, distance, or cost of travel would make face-to-face
communication difficult.
They can also be recorded by the receivers for viewing at a convenient time or viewing
repeatedly to ensure that the message has been understood.

Objectives:

The main objectives of Television in India according to the Information and Broadcasting
Ministry are:

 To act as a catalyst for social change.

 To promote national integration.
 To stimulate scientific temper among people.
 To disseminate message of family planning.
 To promote and help preservation of environmental and ecological balance.
 To stimulate agricultural production.
 To highlight social welfare.
 To inculcate interest in sports.

Procedure:

 Message should be simple and easy to understand.

 Core message should be presented along with some entertainment.
 Dramatization helps in assimilation of the message.
 Programme should be preferable by 15-20mins. Duration.
 Time of the programme should be suitable to the audience.
 Programme should meet seasonal needs of the viewers.
 There should be special programmes for different age and occupation groups.
 Feedback in form of letters and video shots should be encouraged.
 Arrange sitting and place equipment properly for optimum community viewing.
 Check equipment before the programme begins.

Advantages:

 TV helps in social-cultural and economic changes in the life of the viewers.

 Even illiterate audience can learn new ideas through TV.
 It helps in building cultural and social solidarity.
  Inculcates new norms, values and interest in social life.
 Interlinks viewers with the outside world.
 It helps in reviving, reinforcing and sustaining the cultural heritage of the society.
 Provides regular healthy recreational opportunity to the viewers.
 Creates scientific outlook in the viewers.

Limitations:

 It discourages social interaction.

 Creates consumerism in the viewers.
 Acts as an impediment in the children‘s education.
 Telecasting facilities are available in the limited place.
 There are fewer sets in rural areas.
 Programmes cater the need of city dwellers.

Electronic communication—including electronic mail (email), online discussion lists, the

Internet, and the World Wide Web—have further amplified the power of language to shape
ideas, culture, and our personal and professional lives. Electronic communication allows for the
exchange of ideas at a rate far exceeding that of any other form of distribution.

 Internet

A network of networks is known as Internet. Internet is a group of two or more networks they are
interconnected. Internet is the largest collection of www which are interlinked together. Presently
several lakhs of computers are interconnected with each other to share and exchange
information. People use internet to find general information about a subject and also to access
information which is not easily available elsewhere.

Internet is defined as ‗‟a global pool of information and services, accessible by means of
locally executed interface software‟‟.

 Capable of communicating and sharing data with each other.

 Able to act together as a single network.
  Internet covers the globe and includes large International network as many Small LAN‟s.

Advantages

Ocean of information accessible to people across the world but the way it can be put to use on
various platforms is different. Thus Internet is a

 Network- Organization can use the Internet to link their offices and employees turning
the internet into a virtual private network.
 As a Medium- The Internet serves as a communication channel for anybody dealing with
product marketing to corporate communications.
 As a market- The internet is a vast virtual marketing place where you can advertise and
even order for products from the market.
 As a Transaction platform- Allows you complete your financial transactions online while
linked directly to your supplies, customers or financial institutions.
 Exchange e-mails with any of the tens of millions of people with e-mail addresses
 Search for retrieve and read literally millions of files stored on computers throughout the
world
 Search for and bring to your computer shareware, freeware and commercial software
 Search databases of governments, individuals and organizations for files on tens of
thousands of topics
 Join specific topic-oriented discussion groups
 Send and receive programme data files such as desktop publishing files, spreadsheet,
CAD files or word processor files, which you or the receiver can immediately start to
work on
 Conduct test marketing
 Distribute electronic publications
 Read electronic publications
 Sell products and services
 Browse and search ‗catalogs‘ of goods and services and purchase items online
 Browse through resources of private or public information services that are on the
Internet
  Electronic Mail

Email has recently become the most common form of business communication, substituting for
letters, memos, and many telephone calls. It is quick, convenient, and—once the appropriate
hardware and software are installed—inexpensive. Most organizations in the industrialized world
now have email and access to the Internet, a world-wide network connecting most of the world‘s
major computer networks. Although email permits most of the advantages of other forms of
written communication, email users tend to prepare email messages quickly and with less
attention to detail, including grammatical and mechanical correctness, than they do when
preparing paper documents.

The advantages of email are that it is both quick and convenient. It can be printed, saved
electronically, or forwarded to multiple recipients. Email lists—whether maintained by an
individual or by special software designed for the purpose (such as listserv, listproc, and
majordomo)—simplify the process of exchanging information with groups of people who share
common interests.

The disadvantages of email are that because speed often seems more important than correctness,
email messages often contain egregious errors in spelling, grammar, mechanics and content.
Messages containing such errors may be saved or forwarded and/or printed, duplicated, and sent
to a number of people. If such a message were sent to a large mailing list, hundreds or perhaps
thousands of people would see it and form an opinion about the person who sent it.

 World Wide Web (WWW)

Since its inception in 1992, the portion of the Internet known as the World Wide Web—or more
simply as the Web—has grown at virtually an exponential rate. Most organizations of any size
and thousands of individuals have Web sites, which consist of one or more pages of information.
One of the reasons that the Web has grown at such a phenomenal rate is that it provides many of
the advantages of the other communication channels with very few of their disadvantages.

Information presented on the Web can include text, graphics, sound, and video. It can be
prepared quickly or carefully, depending on the purpose of and audience for the message. It can
also allow for immediate feedback by providing email addresses or special forms for feedback on
specific topics. Web sites can be designed for access by anyone with an Internet connection or
for a limited audience on an organization-specific Intranet.

Materials for the Web use a special computer programming language known has Hypertext
Markup Language, or HTML, for formatting text and graphics for online readability. The
inclusion of feedback forms and other types of interactivity requires additional software. While
programs, such as Microsoft‘s FrontPage and Netscape‘s Composer, can help individuals prepare
acceptable Web pages, effective Web site design and management usually requires special
training.

The advantages of the Web as a communication channel is that Web pages can communicate
quickly using text, graphics (including animated graphics), sound, and video with anyone with an
Internet account and allow for immediate feedback. Web page authors have considerable control
over the appearance of their material using HTML and other programming languages.

The principal disadvantage of using the Web to communicate is that the receiver must want the
information badly enough to look for it. Most communication channels allow the sender to
initiate the process, perhaps even at times inconvenient for the receiver. To communicate on the
Web, however, the sender places the information on a Web site and then must wait for the
appropriate receivers to access it. Another disadvantage is that the sender forfeits some
Communication in general and verbal communication in particular is arguably the most
important of all human behaviors. Our use of language defines us as a species and profoundly
influences all our other behaviors. Communication makes human organization and cooperation
possible, and verbal communication establishes culture and civilization.

 Electronic Conferencing

Although mailing lists enable large numbers of people to participate in discussions about issues
of common interest, they are not well-suited to organizing that information in a logical way.
Messages are sent and received in chronological order rather than by topic. Also, even though
mailing lists store or archive messages, retrieving information about a particular topic from the
archives may not be easy. Electronic conferences eliminate those problems by categorizing
subjects by topics or threads. Access to such conferences can also be easily restricted to qualified
individuals, making them useful for discussions of proprietary matters. kui

Individuals who belong to an electronic discussion group can read about and respond to the
subjects of most interest to them and skip those in which they have no interest. Someone who
joins an existing electronic conference can review everything that has been said about a
particular subject without reading the comments about irrelevant subjects.

The principal advantages of electronic conferences are that the information is categorized by
topic and the channel is asynchronous, allowing sender and receiver to access the information
when convenient.

The principal disadvantages of electronic conferences are that they require deliberate access.
Whereas messages from an email list arrive in a person‘s mailbox automatically, he or she must
deliberately access an electronic conference to see what new topics or responses have been added
since his or her last access. If the person forgets to access the conference regularly, he or she
might miss an important message. Also, those posting responses to items on the conference may
not stick to the subject of the item. Such deviation from the topic is usually called drift, and if the
amount of drift on a conference is significant, the usefulness of the conference is diminished.
Three Dimensional Visual Aids (3 D)

Three dimensional visual aids are the non-projected visual aids. Three dimensional aids serve as
good substitutes for the real objects. There is no doubt that an encounter with real objects serves
as an unmatchable source of learning. But on account of several reasons it may not be possible to
bring the real objects in the classroom. The real objects may be too large to move or store in the
classroom. It may be too small to be seen for a group of students. It can be too complicated in
real form to be understood. It may be too rapidly for its operations to be understood. Its
movements may be too slow to be studied completely. It can be too expensive to be purchased by
an educational institution. Being handicapped in such situations a teacher has to search for some
good substitute for the real objects.

Three dimensional visual aids

 Model
 Specimen
 Object
 Diorama

Model:

Model is a replica of real object it may be life size, smaller or larger than the things they
represent. Model is used when the use of real object as a visual aid is not applicable. Where sight
or sometimes touch in understanding of the subject is needed.
Objectives:

 To give first hand information about an idea to the participant.

 To inspire people to work on the real thing.
 For easy understanding and explaining a subject which is very difficult or sometimes
impossible to bring to the class room like a paddy field or a human heart.

Types of models:

 Scale models: Represents external form and shape of original object and prepared to
scale (smaller or larger) e.g.: Tajmahal, insect etc.
  Cross Sectional Models: Reveals internal structure of real object e.g.: Heart Mechanism,
oil engine etc.
 Working Models: Shows operational of essential parts of real objects e.g.: Working
telephone, oil engine etc.
 Simplified Models: Shows simple features of the external form of the real objects
without reproducing the original in precise proportion. E.g. - Animals, birds, fruits etc.
 Mock-ups: A mock-up refers to a specialized model or working replica of the object
being depicted. In a mock-up, a certain element of the original reality is emphasized or
highlighted to make it more meaningful for the purpose of instruction. Mock-ups are
often used in technical institutions for training purposes.

Principles of using Models:

 Arrange display of models to stimulate interest and arouse curiosity

 Secure models when real objects cannot be brought in to the classroom
 Use mock-ups or synthetic devices to show functioning of complete units
 Explain that any model or mock-up is incomplete or out of its natural setting
 Encourage making of models and mock-ups in certain subjects
 Avoid too large, unorganized or over-elaborate displays of models
 Avoid using models or mock-ups too complicated for maturity of the group

Advantages

 Allows learners to see the equipment or operation in real life.

 Other senses brought into play.
 The three dimensional form affords a back for concrete experience.
 Reduction/enlarge of objects to a convenient size is possible.
 Provide interior views of objects which are normally invisible.
 They afford dissection and assimilation of parts.
 A model provides the correct concept of an industrial unit or a bridge or a dam like, the
Bhakra Dam etc
 A working model explains the various processes of objects and machines.

Limitations:
  Many items obviously cannot be brought into the class room
 Models are not available for many items
 Good models are expensive or very time consuming to make or have made
 Some danger involved for learners
 Time and money usually limit the number of learners who can work with items
individually

Mock-ups:

A mock-up refers to a specialized model or working replica of the object being depicted. In a
mock-up, a certain element of the original reality is emphasized or highlighted to make it more
meaningful for the purpose of instruction. While a model is a recognizable imitation of an object,
a mock-up may or may not be similar in appearance. Mock-ups of aeroplanes, auto-mobile
engines, bridges, ships and tunnels etc, may be demonstrated for explaining their structure and
actual working. Mock-ups are often used in technical intuitions for training purpose.

 Specimen

Specimen is a part of an object or is one of a group or class takes to represent the whole group.
They are real and provide direct experience to the learners.

Objectives:

 For appeal to many senses – eyes, touch , smell and perhaps taste also.
 To attract attention and interest.
 To give an opportunity to use the object when it might not be seasonally or otherwise
available

They are usually treated and mounted in a special way are specimen.

Eg: Plants, soils, seeds, insects, fertilizers etc.

The specimens should be collected in the most natural conditions. The mounted or preserved
specimens of various kinds can either be produced from outside or can be prepared locally. Three
methods are followed in preserving specimens.
 1) Dry Preservation Method: the sample is dried and preserved in the
bottle. E.g. – seeds, fertilizers etc.
2) Wet preservation method: The sample is preserved in a container filled
with preservative liquid.

E.g. Liver of an animal (formalin solution for plant disease specimens and formaldehyde solution
for animal disease specimens)

3) Live preservation method: The specimen is kept alive in near to natural surrounding e.g.
Fish in small water filled tank (specimens can be seen in action)

Advantages

 Specimens are real and hence appeal to senses like sight, touch, smell and taste.
 They offer better scope for study than when they are in natural surroundings.

Limitations

 Good planning and preparation is necessary.

 Moderately costly.

 Real Objects

The term object refers to the real things.

Real objects are the best visual aids when compared to all other types of aids as it involves
maximum number of senses in learning.

Advantages

 Real objects are material things capable of appealing to senses.

 Real objects can be shown in its natural settings.
 No substitute for real object as it should be used wherever feasible.
 Real objects offer better scope for study.

Limitations
  Difficulty of taking them to class room- it may be too small to handle or to see actual
field situations etc.,
 It may be complex to understand if it is removed from natural environment- it may loose
its meaning.

 Diorama

Diorama is the scenic representation of the original with specimen, model and painting.

These are prepared by arranging small cut out pictures and models in a box which has one side
open through which the scene is viewed.

A curved background with pictures of distant trees, hills and houses helps to give a realistic
effect.

Types of Education

 Informal Education: Is the life long process by which every person acquires and
accumulates knowledge, skills, attitudes and insights from daily experiences and
exposure to the environment at home, at work etc. Ex: Reading Newspaper, listening
radio, interaction with fellow citizens.
 Formal Education: Is the highly institutionalized, chronologically graded and
hierarchically structured education system, spanning lower primary school and the
upper reaches of the university. Ex: Primary education, School education, College
education and University education.
 Non-formal Education: Is an organized, systematic, educational activity carried on
outside the framework of the formal system to provide selected types of learning to
 particular groups in the population. Ex: Adult education, School dropout education,
Bridge schools.
 Extension Education: Is an educational process to provide knowledge to the rural
people about the improved practices in a convincing manner and to help them to take
decisions within their specific local conditions. Ex: Method demonstrations,
Technology transfer trainings, Farm school programmes.

Extension education centers around three units

 Farmers or rural people or clients

 Innovations or inventories
 Extension workers or extension agency.

Difference between formal education and extension education

S.No Formal Education Extension Education

1 Teaching is largely confined to the Teaching is largely outside the four

premises of the institution. walls of the institution.

2. The learners are homogeneous with The learners are heterogeneous

common goals. and have diverse goals.

3. Strict adherence to institutional Freedom and choice of subject

norms and no free choice for the matter left to the learners.
learners.

4. There is a fixed curriculum, after There is no fixed curriculum,

completion of which the students flexible depending on the needs of
are examined and degrees are the learner. No examination and
awarded. no degrees are awarded

5. Knowledge flows from teacher to The extension agent also learns

the learner. from those whom he teaches.

6. The teacher only instructs the The extension agent teaches a

 students. great deal through local leaders.

7. Education stars from theoretical Education starts with practical and

and works up to the practical. develops into theoretical aspects.

Formal Education

Formal education or formal learning usually takes place in the premises of the school, where a
person may learn basic, academic, or trade skills. Small children often attend a nursery or
kindergarten but often formal education begins in elementary school and continues with
secondary school.
Post-secondary education (or higher education) is usually at a college or university which may
grant an academic degree. It is associated with a specific or stage and is provided under a certain
set of rules and regulations.

The formal education is given by specially qualified teachers they are supposed to be efficient in
the art of instruction. It also observes strict discipline. The student and the teacher both are aware
of the facts and engage themselves in the process of education.

Examples of Formal Education

 Learning in a classroom
 School grading/certification, college, and university degrees
 Planned education of different subjects having a proper syllabus acquired by attending the
institution.
Characteristics of formal education

 Formal education is structured hierarchically.

 It is planned and deliberate.
 Scheduled fees are paid regularly.
 It has a chronological grading system.
 It has a syllabus and subject-oriented. The syllabus has to be covered within a specific time
period.
  The child is taught by the teachers
Advantages of Formal education:

 An organized educational model and up to date course contents.

 Students acquire knowledge from trained and professional teachers.
 Structured and systematic learning process.
 Intermediate and final assessments are ensured to advance students to the next learning
phase.
 Institutions are managerially and physically organized.
 Leads to a formally recognized certificate.
 Easy access to jobs.
Disadvantages of Formal education:

 Sometimes, brilliant students are bored due to the long wait for the expiry of the academic
session to promote to the next stage
 Chance of bad habits‘ adoption may be alarming due to the presence of both good and bad
students in the classroom
 Wastage of time as some lazy students may fail to learn properly in spite of motivation by
the professional trainers.
 Some unprofessional and non-standard education system may cause the wastage of time and
money of the students which leads to the disappointment from formal education and argue
them to go for non-formal education.
 Costly and rigid education as compare to other forms of learning

Informal Education

Informal education may be a parent teaching a child how to prepare a meal or ride a bicycle.
People can also get an informal education by reading many books from a library or educational
websites.

Informal education is when you are not studying in a school and do not use any particular
learning method. In this type of education, conscious efforts are not involved. It is neither pre-
planned nor deliberate. It may be learned at some marketplace, hotel or at home.
Unlike formal education, informal education is not imparted by an institution such as school or
college. Informal education is not given according to any fixed timetable. There is no set
curriculum required. Informal education consists of experiences and actually living in the family
or community.

Examples of Informal Education

 Teaching the child some basics such as numeric characters.

 Someone learning his/her mother tongue
 A spontaneous type of learning, ―if a person standing in a bank learns about opening and
maintaining the account at the bank from someone.‖
Characteristics of Informal Education

 It is independent of boundary walls.

 It has no definite syllabus.
 It is not pre-planned and has no timetable.
 No fees are required as we get informal education through daily experience and by learning
new things.
 It is a lifelong process in a natural way.
 The certificates/degrees are not involved and one has no stress for learning the new things.
 You can get from any source such as media, life experiences, friends, family etc.
Advantages of Informal Education

 More naturally learning process as you can learn at anywhere and at any time from your
daily experience.
 It involves activities like individual and personal research on a topic of interest for
themselves by utilizing books, libraries, social media, internet or getting assistance from
informal trainers.
 Utilizes a variety of techniques.
 No specific time span.
 Less costly and time-efficient learning process.
 No need to hire experts as most of the professionals may be willing to share their precious
knowledge with students/public through social media and the internet.
  Learners can be picked up the requisite information from books, TV, radio or conversations
with their friends/family members.
Disadvantages of Informal Education
 Information acquired from the internet, social media, TV, radio or conversations with
friends/family members may lead to the disinformation.
 Utilized techniques may not be appropriate.
 No proper schedule/time span.
 Unpredictable results which simply the wastage of time.
 Lack of confidence in the learner.
 Absence of discipline, attitude and good habits.

Non-formal Education

Non-formal education includes adult basic education, adult literacy education or school
equivalency preparation.
In non-formal education, someone (who is not in school) can learn literacy, other basic skills or
job skills.

Home education, individualized instruction (such as programmed learning), distance learning

and computer-assisted instruction are other possibilities.

Non-formal education is imparted consciously and deliberately and systematically implemented.

It should be organized for a homogeneous group. Non-formal, education should be programmed
to serve the needs of the identified group. This will necessitate flexibility in the design of the
curriculum and the scheme of evaluation.

Examples of Non-formal Education

 Boy Scouts and Girls Guides develop some sports program such as swimming comes under
nonformal education.
 Fitness programs.
 Community-based adult education courses.
 Free courses for adult education developed by some organization.
Characteristics of Non-formal Education

 The nonformal education is planned and takes place apart from the school system.
 The timetable and syllabus can be adjustable.
 Unlike theoretical formal education, it is practical and vocational education.
 Nonformal education has no age limit.
 Fees or certificates may or may not be necessary.
 It may be full time or part-time learning and one can earn and learn together.
 It involves learning of professional skills.
Advantages of Non-formal Education

 Practiced and vocational training.

 Naturally growing minds that do not wait for the system to amend.
 Literacy with skillfulness growth in which self-learning is appreciated.
 Flexibility in age, curriculum and time.
 Open-ended educational system in which both the public and private sector are involved in
the process.
 No need to conduct regular exams.
 Diploma, certificates, and award are not essential to be awarded.
Disadvantages of Non-formal Education

 Attendance of participants is unsteady.

 Sometimes, it‘s just wastage of time as there is no need to conduct the exam on regular basis
and no degree/diploma is awarded at the end of the training session.
 Basic reading and writing skills are crucial to learn.
 No professional and trained teachers.
 Students may not enjoy full confidence as the regular students enjoy.
 Some institutes provide fake certification through online courses just for the sake of earning.
Participatory Rural Appraisal – PRA

Origin of PRA

The basics of Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) can be found in the educational methods of
Paulo Freire, who emphasized that active involvement of empowered local population is
necessary for the enhanced development of a rural community. Through PRA, the poor and
exploited people should be able to realize their own needs. Prior to PRA, the term RRA was
used which is referred to as Rapid Rural Appraisal.

RRA is a social science approach that emerged in the late 1970s. The basic idea of RRA is to
quickly collect, analyze and evaluate information on rural conditions and local knowledge. This
information is generated in close co-operation with the local population in rural areas. Therefore,
the research methods had to be adjusted to local conditions, i.e. they had to meet the
communication needs of illiterate people or people who are not used to communicating in
scientific terms. Tools like mapping, diagramming and ranking were developed or improved in
order to gather information for decision-makers in development agencies. One of the key
principles of RRA is the visualization of questions and results by using locally comprehensible
symbols.

Main reason for developing RRA was to find shortcuts in the search for relevant information on
rural development issues in order to avoid costly and time consuming research procedures. In
most of the cases small team of researchers or trained professional carry out RRA in one to three
days in a kind of workshop. The role of the local population in RRA is to provide relevant local
knowledge for research purposes and development planning. The RRA team decide on how to
utilize this information.

In 1983, the term Rapid Rural Appraisal was used by Robert Chambers, for finding out the
information about problems, needs and potentials in a rural community. By mid 1980‘s, the term
‗participatory‘ was associated with RRA. In 1988, the Aga Khan Rural Support Programme
(AKRSP), India, with the support of International Institute for Environment and Development
(IIED), London, carried out participatory RRA in two villages which led to the development of
Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA). By mid 1990‘s the term RRA had been replaced by other
terms such as ―Participatory Rural Appraisal‖ (PRA) and ―Participatory Learning Action
(PLA)‖.

Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) is considered as one of the popular and effective approaches
to gather information in rural areas, analyze the local problems and formulate solutions with
local people. This approach resulted in considerable shift in paradigm from top-down to bottom-
up approach and from blueprint to the learning process. In fact, it is a shift from extractive
survey questionnaires to experience sharing by local people from simple methods such as
observation, talking to the people, walking through the community and many others.

 PRA is an important tool which enables planners to learn about rural conditions along
with the rural people and in a way transfers the role of planning and decision making
traditionally taken by government institutions and agencies to the community itself.
 It is found to be most promising method in participatory data gathering. It enables
multidisciplinary teams to join with village leaders to gather data, assess village needs
and priorities.
 PRA is based on village experiences where communities effectively manage their natural
resources. It is intended to enable local communities to conduct their own analysis and to
plan and take action
 PRA involves project staff learning, together with the villagers about the village. The aim
is to help strengthen the capacity of villagers to plan, make decisions, and to take action
towards improving their own situation.
 PRA is a methodology of learning rural life and their environment from the rural people
themselves. It requires researchers/ field workers to act as facilitators to help local people
conduct their own analysis, plan and take actions accordingly.
  PRA is based on the principle that local people are creative, capable and can do their own
analysis and planning. It enables them to take a leading role in appraising and identifying
solutions.
 There are a wide range of participatory tools and techniques available for PRA. People
can use these tools and techniques according to their situation or needs. Generally, the
application of different tools may vary from one situation to another
 The main feature of PRA is participation. RRA and PRA are almost same, but PRA is an
improved developed version of RRA. The major contrast between RRA and PRA is that
in RRA information is more elicited and extracted by outsiders while in PRA it is more
owned and shared by local people.

RRA

 Information is extracted by outsiders; outsiders process and analyze the information

accordingly to themselves.
 Information is owned by outsiders and often not shared with rural people.
 Learning rapidly and directly from villagers.
 Project staff learns and obtain information, take it away, and analyze it.

PRA

 Information is owned and shared by local people. Outsiders facilitate rural people in
collection, presentation and analysis of information by themselves.
 Information is owned by rural people and usually shared with outsiders.
 Learning with villagers.
 Facilitate local capacity to analyze, plan, make decisions, take action, resolve conflicts,
monitor, and evaluate according to the needs of the villagers.

The basic concept of PRA is to learn from rural people. PRA is a refined and developed version
of RRA which emphasized the participation of local people. Over a period of time, the concept
of PRA has undergone several changes, but still the main thrust of PRA- “putting people first”
remains intact.

Principles of PRA
1) Participation – It depends heavily on participation by the communities, as the
method is designed to enable local people to be involved, not only as sources of
information, but also as partners with the PRA team in gathering and analyzing
the information.
Participation by Village Women as a Source of Information along with the
Extension Workers

2) Flexibility - The combination of techniques that is appropriate in a particular

development context will be determined by such variables as the size and skill of
the PRA team, the time and resources available, and the topic and location of the
work.

3) Teamwork - Generally, a PRA is best conducted by a local team using local

languages in presence of few outsiders in which there is a significant
representation of local women of different socio-economic status and age and a
mix of sector specialists and social scientists.

4) Optimal Ignorance - To be efficient in terms of both time and money, PRA work
intends to gather just enough information to make the necessary recommendations
and decisions. It deals with collection of only needed information.

5) Systematic - As PRA-generated data are largely qualitative in nature and

relatively have small sample size, these are seldom conducive to statistical
analysis. Therefore, alternative ways have been developed to ensure the validity
and reliability of the findings. These include sampling, based on approximate
stratification of the community by geographic location or relative wealth, and
cross-checking, using a number of techniques to investigate views on a single
 topic through a final community meeting to discuss the findings and correct
inconsistencies.

Techniques and tools of PRA

1) Mapping

Participatory mapping is one of the most versatile and powerful tools in generating pictures on
any aspect of the physical reality. The technique is pictorial or symbolic representation of
information. It is a visual representation of what the community perceives as their community
space. This involves construction of maps on the sand, ground or on paper using locally available
materials such as sticks, stones, flowers, grass and others. Also it is used for providing
distribution information eg. population distribution, demographic data, infrastructure, natural
resources etc. These maps cannot be compared with the geographical maps, exactly reduced
representations of geophysical structures.

 Maps can be produced for big regions (movement of animal herds of pastoralists),
villages, and farms or even of a single plot, depending on questions people are interested
in.
 The products of participatory mappings are documentation of mental maps and can be
different for different groups of people of the same village (e.g. men, women, and
children).
 Usually mapping is used to depict infrastructures, natural resources, land ownership,
settlement pattern, soil types, cropping pattern, vegetation, water availability, road,
schools, health facilities etc.
 It is preferable to draw the map from a high vantage point so that the PRA team can relate
the map with direct observations. The location of the mapping session should be freely
accessible to all groups of the community i.e. different castes, men and women, rich and
poor.
  Maps can also be used according to a timeline like the village 30 years back and now. A
future model can be drawn to discuss people‘s vision of the future how it will be or how
they want it should be. Such historical maps help to discuss the roots of present situation
and possible future developments.

Different types of maps used are social maps and resource maps.

 Social maps
 Resource Map

Social maps

Purpose:

 To learn about the social structures in the village and the differences among the
households with respect to ethnicity, religion and wealth.
 To learn about who is living where and how many people live an area.
 To learn about the social institutions and the different views local people might have
regarding those institutions.

Social mapping is a PRA method that involves the sketching/drawing of houses and other social
facilities and infrastructure like temples, stores, rice mills, school, pharmacy, trails and roads,
water pumps, irrigation and recreational facilities in a village. These features have usually not
been well specified in the village setting and village land-use maps. It helps to visualize and
locate the location of households and other social facilities/infrastructure in a village. It serves as
a baseline for planning, implementation, monitoring, and evaluation of village development
activities including selection of village organizing strategy.

Resource Map

Purpose

To learn the villagers' perception of what natural resources are found in the community and how
they are used.
It is one of the commonly used PRA methods, next to social map. The village resource map is a
tool that helps to learn about a community and its resource base like fields and lands uses, water
location, soil types and hills. The primary concern is not to develop an accurate map but to get
useful information about local perceptions of resources. The map is not drawn by experts, but by
local people as they have in depth knowledge of the surroundings where they are living. The
participants should develop the content of the map according to what is important to them.

2) Timeline or Historical Mapping

Purpose: To understand what local or national events the community considers being important
in its history.

Time line is a method of knowing a list of major events in the history of the community. This
method is also known as historical time line of a community. The facilitator prepares the time
line through discussion with small groups or elderly villagers in detail with reference to the
important changes that have taken place in their society in past and has impact on their
economic, social and agro-ecological life. These significant events asked in oral form can be
documented for later use and serves as the base for further work.

Time line records could include, forest history, diseases, diets etc. These discussions provide a
good opportunity to ask elders or any other long term resident about previous trends and
traditional responses, as well as about possible opportunities to resolve current problems. The
facilitator team can only assist by asking probing questions. The community institutions, such as
church groups, self-help-groups, political units or the local administrations and both men and
women should be included to get their usually different perspectives. The timeline with basic
events can be used for focused discussions on problems, social and technological innovations or
on communities‘ history of co- operation and activities which helped them to solve the problems
of past successfully.
3) Time chart or Seasonal calendar
Purpose:
To learn about changes in livelihoods over the year and to show the seasonality of
agricultural and non agricultural workload, food availability, human diseases, gender-
specific income and expenditure, water, forage, credit and holidays.

Seasonal calendar is also called as seasonal analysis, seasonal activity profile and
seasonal diagram. This PRA tool indicates the perceptions of the local people regarding
seasonal variations on a wide range of items.
A seasonal calendar is a PRA method that determines patterns of activities and trends
throughout the year within a community. It can be used to find changes in rainfall
distribution, food availability, agricultural production, income and expenditures, health
problems, labour demand, wood supply for fuel, disease incidence, migration for
employment, cash crops, live stock and many other elements that change over time.
The seasonal calendar can also be used to collect information on how villagers allocate
their time as well as their labour in various activities within the village.
A time chart or seasonal calendar is prepared by drawing a two-dimensional matrix and
writing the time period (i.e. month, year) on one axis and the different village activities
on the other axis. Villagers are encouraged to fill in the matrix of the chart/calendar by
marking the grid or by placing stones or other objects on the matrix.
4) Venn diagram on institutions/ chappati diagram

Purpose:

 To identify institutions/groups/important persons active in the community and

how they interact with each other.
 To identify the importance or influence of institutions/groups or decision
making in the community.
 To find out how different organisations and groups relate to each other in
terms of contact, co-operation, flow of information, provision of services and
improvement in development programmes.
Venn diagram on institutions shows institutions, organisations, groups or individuals who are
important in the village, as well as the villager‘s view of their importance in the community.
Additionally the diagram explains who participates in these groups in terms of gender and
wealth. The institutional relationship diagram also indicates how close the contact and
cooperation between those organizations and groups is.

Venn diagram is also popularly known as Chapati diagram, as the method uses circles of
various sizes to represent institutions or individuals. The bigger the circle, the more important is
the institution/individual and small circle indicates little importance. However, the distance
between circles, represents the degree of contact between individuals or institutions. Overlapping
circles indicate the degree of contact between institution e.g. a large overlap indicates high
interaction and no overlap- a distant relationship.

5) Ranking

Ranking method helps to identify individual and group priorities among a number of alternative
problems or solutions. It helps to explain the reasons of choosing one item from the other.

This is an important PRA technique, used to compare various kinds of things according to
different qualities people value. This places things in an order of what is more or what is less
important. Ranking like several other PRA techniques is a useful tool for finding out different
possibilities in a local setting with respect to different aspects.

Ranking means placing something in order. There are rankings of people, problems and
opportunities and of things. These methods are useful to learn from the people about their
categories, criteria, choices and priorities. These are useful for sensitive information like income
or wealth

Ranking can be undertaken with key informants or group of villagers that represents a good
mixture of interests. It can also be conducted based on gender to determine different preferences
between men and women. For simple issues villagers can rank them during the semi-structured
interview. For complicated issues, ranking can be undertaken using pair-wise ranking in order to
determine the villagers‘ preferences.

Methods of Ranking

 Problem, preference and opportunity ranking

 Pair wise ranking
 Matrix ranking
 Wealth ranking

Extension programmes

Extension activities were initiated by different agencies as developmental programmes. They can
be explained in terms of four eras:

1) Pre-Independence Programmes -1866-1947

2) Post-Independence Programmes -1947-1953
3) Community Development and National Extension Scheme -1953-1960
4) Intensive Agricultural Era -1960 on wards
1) Pre-Independence Programmes -1866-1947
a) Gurgaon Experiment
b) Gandhian Constructive
c) Rural Reconstruction Work
d) Marthandam Project
e) Reconstruction Movement in Baroda
a) Gurgaon Experiment (1920)

The rural upliftment programme on a mass scale was firstly started by Mr. F. L. Brayne, Deputy
Commissioner in Gurgaon District of Punjab in 1920. According to him the main principle of
this experiment was development on practical basis. He stated "Upto that moment success is not
hoped unless the village people will not take interest in each programme. Duty of Government
workers is to cooperate, help and guide the people".

Objectives

 To jerk villagers out of old groves and convince them that improvement is possible and
also to kill their fatalism by demonstrating disease and insect control.
 To deal with whole life of the village.
 The work should be started in whole district at a time.
 Development work should be taken at campaign level.

Area of work

 Agricultural development and increasing food production.

 Health improvement.
 Village sanitation.
 Social improvement (Reforms).
 Reforms in rural institutions.
 Emphasis on women education.
 Organization of cooperative societies.
 Coordination and publicity.

There should be publicity to check the more expenses on festivals and jewellery.

Method of work

 Propaganda was done by drama and music, to mould the human thoughts.
 Guides were appointed to express the programme at village level and to help the rural
people.
 The teacher of village schools used to teach the village people the importance of
programme and dignity of labour.

b) Gandhian Constructive Programme (1920)

Mr. M. K. Gandhi (Mahatma Gandhi) started this programme in 1920 at Sewagram. Later it
was extended to Wardha in 1938 after 2nd non-cooperation movement. This programme was
totally based on psychological principles i.e. "Helping the people to help themselves".

Objectives

 To serve the under privileged villagers.

 To make the villagers self sufficient and self reliant.
 To develop the power and courage in rural people, so that they stand up in opposition of
oppression and injustice.

Activities

 Economic equality:
 Decentralized production and equal distribution of wealth.
 Wanted to eliminate middle men and exploiters so that cultivators may get full price.
 Self sufficiency in villages.
 Education:
 Basic education based on the learning by doing.
 Education should be based on everyday experiences of life.
 Social equality:
 Removal of untouchability.
 Equal opportunity for women.
 Community unity.

Method of work

 Self help
 Dignity of labor e.g. Shramdan, etc.
 Self respect
 Truth and non-violence.
c) Rural Reconstruction Work by Christian Mission (1920)

The educational and constructive activities of these missions can be accounted under these
heads:
  Education: The aim of their educational system has in view of character building,
sharpening of general intelligence, spread of literacy, recreation, cultural activities
and instruction in subsidiary and constructive employment.
 Medical: Throughout India, they established mission hospitals which are still serving
as centers of heeling, imparting education in medicine, nursing, compounding and
midwifery. This service has benefited the rural masses to a great extent.
 Rural reconstruction centers: Several agricultural extension centers were set up,
namely at Marthandam, Ramaanthpuram and Patanachery and Y.M.C.A. institutions
have been doing useful work in rural areas.
d) Marthandum Project (1928)

This programme was started in 1928 by Dr. Spencer Hetch under the auspices of Y.M.C.A. and
Christian Church. The Y.M.C.A. was interested in development of social aspects while Church
was responsible for development of children and Juveniles. It was having a 3 field programme-
development of spirit, mind and body. But later it evolved a fivefold programme-development of
the mental faculty, physic, spirit, mind, economic and social aspects of life. Area covered was
100 villages, 40 villages in radius of 3 miles and rest in radius of 5-6 miles.

Objectives:

 Self help and cooperation.

 Helping people to help in their own work.
 There should be a voluntary association.
 Opening the demonstration centers.

Activities:

 Poultry
 Cultivation by improved methods
 Bee keeping
 Reforms in cattle industry
 To bring out the serving habit in people
  The members of voluntary association were staying in villages for few days to work with
them in the same condition.
 Rural dramas for recreation
 Short courses of 6 weeks training to villagers and school teachers were organized during
summer vacation.
 Poultry and Bee keeping programmes were launched.
 Tours, Camps, Exhibitions and Melas were organized.

e) Rural Reconstruction Movement in Baroda State (1932)

This movement was started by V.T. Krishnachari in 1932 in the Baroda state where he was
Dewan at that time. In the first instant its objective was to bring about a rapid increase in
standards of living, industrialization and rapid expansion of the educational system. The second
objective was to increase agricultural production through the provision of basic necessities for
the development of the same. At first, some extension workers were taken on deputation from
Dr. Spencer Hatch of Marthandam.

The first rural reconstruction centre commenced work in April, 1932 in a group of villages
around Kosambain, Navsari district.

After the centre had been at work for a year, the number of villages under it was increased and
Baroda state issued an order explaining the aims of the movement as follows:

 The centre should aim at effecting an improvement in all aspects of rural life changing in
fact the outlook of the agriculturist, the target being creating desire for a higher standard
of living.
 Work intended to realize this aim should be intensive. It should be confined to a group of
villages in which it will be possible for the superintendent and his trained co-workers to
establish personal contact with all the agriculturalists.
 Village leadership of the best type should be developed.
 The centre should apply itself to the following programmes:
 Economic programme:
  Subsidiary occupations, kitchen gardening, weaving, poultry farming, silk worm rearing,
bee keeping or any other trade may be found suitable.
 In each village, Panchayat should be a live-body discharging its function of providing
drinking water, improving sanitation, building village roads in other words adding to the
opportunities of village life.
 Educational and moral programme: This included adult education, development of
community sense and of a feeling of solidarity in the village, propaganda against evils
like early marriage and unreasonable customs connected with social observances, the
proper use of village libraries, the scout movement and other educative work through
magic lantern. Village school should be the centre of such activities.

Method of work:

 Self help
 Dignity of labour, e.g., Shramdan etc.
 Self respect
 Truth and non violence

f) State Rural Development Programme (1935-36)

This programme was started by Indian Government in 1935-36; with the budget provision of
Rupees One Crore for the whole country"

Objectives:

 Economic development.
 Development of village communication.
 Rural sanitation and recreation.
 Provision for medical aids.
 Improvement of agriculture.

Activities:

 Encouragement of village industry.

  Construction of roads, post offices, etc. means of communication and transportations.
 Sanitation and village recreation.
 Opening dispensaries and mobile facilities for dispersing medical aids.
 Agricultural development.

Method of work:

 Rural reconstruction centers were organized for extension work in rural areas.
 Non official organization and educational institutions participated in the work.
 Rural upliftment Board consisting of official and non official was set up.

g) Firka Development Programme (1946)

This programme was started by Government in the last quarter of 1946 in Firkas throughout
Madras state. It was extended to another 50 additional Firkas at the rate of two Firkas per district.

Selection of Firkas

 On the basis of their backwardness.

 Possibilities for increasing the production of handloom clothes and other cottage
industries.

Objectives

 To tackle the rural problem as a whole.

 Preparation of short term plans for the development of rural communication, water
supply.
 Formation of panchayats and organization of cooperatives.
 Long term plan to make the area self sufficient through agricultural, irrigational and
livestock improvements.
 Development of Khadi and Cottage Industries.
 2) Post-Independence Programmes -1947-1953
a) Nilokheri Experiment
b) Grow More Food Campaign
c) Etawah Pilot Project
d) Indian Village Service
a) Nilokheri Experiment

It was started to settle the 7000 displaced persons (from Pakistan) and later integrated with 100
villages surrounding Nilokheri. It was built around the vocational training centre that was
transferred from Kurukshetra in July 1948 to the 100 acres of Swampy land on Delhi Ambala
highway. This scheme was called "Mazdoor Manzil".

Objectives:

 Self sufficiency for rural cum urban township in all essential requirements of life.
 Making provision of work and training for the people according to their native
background.
 To check middle men.
 To enable transactions between the consumer and the producer, to approach a vertical
order.

Activities:

 Polytechnic training for B.D.O. and S.E.O. and V.L.W.

 Housing and marketing facilities.
 Management of schools, hospitals and recreation centre.
 To make the cultivable land of all 700 acres of Swampy land.
 Cooperative credit facility.
 Small scale industries were run on cooperative basis.

b) Grow More Food Campaign

This campaign was launched in 1948 as a programme of crop production; field demonstration
and contact with the farmers to introduce the improved techniques and initiation of a dialogue
with the villagers were the main lines of approach.

But the campaign failed to achieve its targets. Soon after Independence (1947), the Central
Government re-defined the objectives of the Grow-More-Food Campaign as the attainment of
self-sufficiency in food grains by 1952, and simultaneously increased the targets of production of
other crops to meet the shortfall as a result of the partition of the country. At the same time,
arrangements were made for integration and co-ordination of the entire campaign for increasing
agricultural production. Some state governments associated the public with working of the
campaign by setting up non-official committees at the village, taluka, district and state levels.
The plans were revised from time to time to make the campaign more effective.

Grow-More-Food Enquiry Committee Report

Though efforts were made to revitalize the Grow-More-Food Campaign, it was observed that the
system was not functioning properly and the cultivator's response to the programme was very
poor. As a result, the Government of India in 1952 appointed a committee known as the GMF
Enquiry Committee to examine the working of the Grow-More-Food. The Committee came to
the conclusion that it was only by bringing about an appreciable improvement in the standards of
rural life to make it fuller and richer that the rural masses could be awakened to take interest in
not only increasing agricultural production but also improving their own conditions and creating
a will to live better.

c) Etawah Pilot Project

The second name of this project is "Average district project". By name it seems that this is a
representative district on the basis of resources criteria; so that successful programme should be
adopted in all places easily.
It was conceived in 1947. But it was started in September 1948. This project was initiated in the
guidance of Lt. Colonel Albert Mayor who had come to India with American armed forces in
1944, and had background of this type of work in USA.

Mr. Harace Holenes was the person at the spot who translated the scheme into practice. It
received the Assistance from the U.S. point 4 programme. Project was started with 64 villages
but it was increased by 97.

d) Indian Village Service (I.V.S.)

It was founded by Mr. Arther T. Mosher of New York and B. N. Gupta in 1947. Residents of
15 villages near Allahabad were beneficiaries of this programme.

Objectives:

 To assist the villagers to realize their best in their own villages.

 Developing individuals and local agencies.
 To enable them to be effective in helping themselves and others.
 Assisting government in developing villages.

3) Community Development and National Extension Scheme -1953-1960

a) Community Development
b) National Extension Scheme
c) Panchayat Raj System
d) Agricultural Universities

Types of Community Development programmes

I) Integrated type:
  It has country wide scope and emphasizes on development and the coordination of
technical services.
 Based on the need of people the objectives are set. To achieve these objectives the
existing relevant departments and programmes are incorporated into the programmes and
implemented through a readily available department. This department coordinates at
every level the efforts of both Governmental and non-Governmental organizations.
 In some cases new administrative areas are created into the traditional ones to coordinate
technical services closer to people.

II) Adaptive type:

 It was designed to be country wide, with emphasis on community organization, self-help

and involves change in administrative organizations of Government.
 They can be attached to any department and adjusted to the prevailing administrative
organization of government.

III) Project type:

 These are of geographical scope with emphasis on development.

 They cannot be implemented without the interference of local Government
Organizations.

Steps in Community development programme

Identification of felt needs of people with their participation.

Need → Programme planning → Institution

Needs are addressed through a programme, which is to be implemented by an institution.

Panchayati Raj System

After the initiation of the Community Development and National Extension service in India and
its working for sometime, it was realized that the people's participation was not coming forth to
the desired extent. So that local leadership might develop and enable the local people to take up
the planning and implementation of development programme themselves. In order to achieve this
objective, it was decided in 1958 to introduce the Panchayati Raj, as recommended by the
Balwant Rai Mehta Committee.

This system envisages a three-tier system at the district, block and village levels, as indicated
below:

District level - Zilla Parishad

Block Level - Panchayat Samiti

Village Level - Village Panchayat

According to this system a Panchayat will be established in each village. These village
Panchayats would be responsible for the planning and implementation of the Community
Development and Extension Programmes at the village level.

At the block level the Panchayat Samities consisting of all the presidents of the village
Panchayats in the block and some co-opted members are constituted. The Panchayat Samiti is in
complete charge of the planning and implementation of the Community Development
Programmes. The B.D.O. is the chief executive officer of the Samiti and all the extension
officers are subordinate to him. The financial resources of the Samiti consist of money derived
from land revenue, taxes, funds allotted for Community development, funds received from All-
India Boards, etc., contributions from Panchayats and the people.

The third tier of the Panchayati Raj is the Zila Parishad consisting of all the presidents of the
Panchayat Samitis in the district, the people's representatives such as the Members of Legislative
Assemblies, Members of Parliament, and the District Collector and some co-opted members. The
Zila Parishad consolidates plans prepared in respect of all the blocks in the district and co-
ordinates activities of the Samities.
Agricultural Universities

The first university established in 1960 was the Govind Ballabh Pant University of
Agricultural Science and Technology at Pantnagar (Uttar Pradesh).

In each state one (in some states more than one) agricultural university was established and at
present there are twenty-two such Universities in India. In these Universities, teaching, research
and extension education are integrated.

For extension education programmes and activities, each of these Universities has a directorate
of extension education, headed by a director who is supported by a team of subject matter
specialists from all the major disciplines, such as genetics, agronomy, animal husbandry, soil
science, entomology, plant pathology, horticulture, agricultural economics, agricultural
engineering and extension education.

4) Intensive Agricultural programmes - 1960 on wards

a) Green revolution

b) Intensive Agricultural Area Programme

c) High Yielding Varieties Programme

d) Small and Marginal Farmers Development Programme

e) Drought Prone Area Programme

f) Training and Visits System

Green Revolution

Green Revolution is a process of technological development of agricultural techniques. It was

started in Mexico in 1944 and has since spread throughout the world.
The goal of the Green Revolution was to increase the efficiency of agricultural processes so that,
the productivity of the crops was increased, and to help developing countries face their growing
populations' needs.

Noted agronomist, Dr. M S Swaminathan from India led the Green Revolution. Dr. Norman
Borlaug from the US supported the Green Revolution through the introduction of high yielding
variety of wheat seeds.

India was in the grip of a food crisis in the mid-'60s. It was a situation of a terrible food
economy. With domestic production of wheat hovering around 12 million tonnes, another 10
million tonnes were imported annually from the US. The US administration often used this
leverage of a life-saving handout to squeeze India.

The introduction of dwarf high-yielding varieties of wheat like Lerma Rojo and Sonora 64, on
Indian soils during the mid-'60s coupled with farm technology, use of other inputs like chemical
fertilisers and pesticides and backed by a strong governmental support allowed cereal production
to increase manifolds to feed hungry mouths, thus bring about the green revolution. While this
led to rapid increase of cereal production and transformed India from a food hungry to self
sufficient country, it also had the associated negative effects of indiscriminate use of chemicals
and synthetics which we are now realising.

Intensive Agricultural Area Programme (IAAP)

Intensive Agricultural Era - 1960 on wards

To meet the demand of food for the vast population of the country, it was decided that at least 20
to 25 per cent of cultivated area of the country should be earmarked and selected for intensive
agricultural development. Accordingly in 1964, IAAP came into operation in 114 districts of the
country.

The main objective of IAAP was to bring about the progressive increase in production of major
crops in selected areas by intensive and coordinated use of various aids to production.

The IAAP partially achieved its prime objectives by increasing food production in the selected
area and on the selected crops.
High Yielding Varieties Programme

The intensive area approach acquired new potency with the emergence of exotic high yielding
varieties of cereal crops and technological improvements. These were incorporated in the high
yielding varieties programme which became the kingpin of the new strategy of agricultural
development launched in 1966-67.

The sole objective of HYV programme was to increase the total food production by utilizing
high yielding seeds of selected crops. The selected crops were paddy, wheat, bajra, jowar and
maize.

ICAR Research Projects

National Demonstration Project (NDP)

The National Demonstration Project was the oldest and first transfer of technology project in the
country implemented through ICAR in the year 1965, on a modest scale with the introduction of
high yielding production potentiality of new technologies and influencing the farmers as well as
the extension agencies.

The main objectives of the project were as follows:

 To demonstrate convincingly to farmers and extension workers, the genetic production

potentialities of major crops for the area per unit acre of land per unit time and encourage
them to adopt/popularize these technologies for accelerating the production.
 To fully exploit these demonstrations for the purpose of training farmers and field
extension workers in improved cultivation practices.
 To provide the research workers a firsthand knowledge of the problems being faced by
farmers in adopting high yielding varieties and practicing recommended package of
practices.
 To determine the income and employment generation potentialities of the crop under
demonstrations and to educate the farmers and extension workers about them; and,
  To influence extension system (state departments of agriculture, voluntary organizations
etc.) in the country by demonstrating the yield gaps and pointing out the operational
constraints.

Operational Research Project (ORP)

The ORP was launched in 1975 by the ICAR. The basic aim of ORP was to demonstrate the
technologies to the farmers and the extension workers on a watershed basis to evoke community
action and participation.

The main objectives of ORPs were:

 To test, adopt and demonstrate the new agricultural technologies in farmer's field in a
cluster of three to four villages or in a watershed area.
 To calculate profitability of the new technology meant for increasing production and
economic returns substantially,
 To identify socio-economic constraints affecting transfer of new technologies
 To assess the credit worthiness of the new agricultural practices.

The overall aim of the project was the socio-economic development of farmers with an
integrated approach comprising of modern technologies of crops, horticulture, animal
production, homestead, vocations and improving health hygiene and nutrition etc. by utilizing
local available resources.

Front Line Demonstration

The Front-line demonstrations is to demonstrate newly released crop production and protection
technologies and its management practices in the farmers‘ field under different agro-climatic
regions and farming situation. While demonstrating the technologies in the farmers‘‘ fields, the
scientists are required to study the factors contributing higher crop production, field constraints
of production and thereby generate production data and feedback information. Front line
demonstrations are conducted in a block of two to four hectares land in order to have better
impact of the demonstrated technologies on the farmers and field level extension functionaries.

The front-line demonstrations are different than the normal demonstrations conducted by the
extension functionaries. The special features of FLD are;

 FLD are conducted under the close supervision of the scientists

 Only newly released technologies or those likely to be released in near future are selected
 FLDs are organized in a block of two to four hectares involving all those farmers whose
plots fall in the identified demonstration block.
 Only critical inputs and training are provided from the scheme budget, remaining inputs
are supplied by the farmers themselves
 Training of the farmers associated with the frontline demonstration is a pre-requisite for
conducting such demonstrations
 The target audience of FLDs is both farmers and the extension officers. The purpose is to
be convince extension functionaries and farmers together about the potentialities of
technologies for further wide scale diffusion
 FLDs are used as a source of generating data on factors contributing higher crop yields
and constraints of production under various farming situations.

On-Farm Testing

The term on-farm research refers to experimentation on farms that range from researcher-
directed experiments to farmers conducting experiments completely on their own.

On-farm tests have a high level of farmer involvement because the farmers help decide what to
test and perform most or all of the work.

The goal of on-farm testing is to evaluate the performance and potential application of a
particular farming practice using a valid experiment. It is not done to determine cause/effect
relationships. The farmer may or may not receive help from the Extension educator or university
researcher in gathering data. Often farmers receive only minimal help such as designing the test,
locating portable weighing equipment for harvest, and interpreting the results.
On-farm testing makes use of statistically valid experimental designs, including true replication
and randomization. This improvement has had a significant impact on the outcome of farmer
conducted research.

Farmers are achieving a much higher degree of trust in their experimental results, and find it
easier to interest others in their ideas. Only a few acres are needed to produce an accurate
comparison between a new practice and the grower's normal practice. As a result, on-farm tests
reduce the risk of trying new farming techniques.

Lab to Land Programme

The Lab to Land Programme (LLP) was launched by the ICAR in 1979 as a part of its Golden
Jubilee celebration. The overall objective of the programme was to improve the economic
condition of the small and marginal farmers and landless agricultural labourers, particularly
scheduled castes and scheduled tribes, by transfer of improved technology developed by the
agricultural universities, research institutes etc. The specific objectives of the Lab to Land
programme, according to Prasad, Choudhary and Nayar (1987) were-

 Study and understand the background and resources of the selected farmers and landless
agricultural labourers. To introduce low-cost relevant agricultural and allied technologies
on their farms and homes for increasing their employment, production and income.
 Assist the farmers to develop feasible farm plans keeping in view the availability of
technologies, needs and resources of the farmers and the resources which could be made
available from external sources and agencies.
 Guide and help the farmers in adopting improved technologies as per their farm plans and
demonstrate to them the economic viability of those technologies as well as methods of
cultivation and farm management.
 Organize training programmes and other extension activities, in relation to their adopted
practices and prepare them for active participation in agricultural development
programmes of the state.
 Make the farmers aware of the various opportunities and agencies which they could
utilize to their economic advantage.
  Develop functional relations and linkages with the scientists and institutions for future
guidance, advisory services and help.
 Utilize this project as a feedback mechanism for the agricultural scientists and extension
functionaries.

National Agricultural Research Project (NARP)

The National Agricultural Research Project (NARP) was formulated by the Indian Council of
Agricultural Research (ICAR) for strengthening the regional research capabilities of the State
Agricultural Universities (SAUs). Assistance for the project was provided by the International
Development Association (IDA), an affiliate of the International Bank for Reconstruction and
Development (IBRD). An agreement in this respect was signed in December 1978. The project
was administered by the ICAR through a Project Funding Committee (PFC).

Objectives and approach of NARP

The main objective of NARP was to strengthen the regional research capabilities of the State
Agricultural Universities (SAUs) as an important means of finding solutions to the location
specific problems in different agro-climatic zones in their respective service areas.

For this purpose, intensification of research efforts was envisaged in respect of:

 Cereals, millets, pulses and oilseeds, particularly those that are grown under rainfed
conditions,
 Farming systems involving crop-livestock and crop-fish production systems
 Agronomic practices
 Soil and water conservation techniques
 Land use patterns for more efficient use of natural resources and ecological potential.

The objectives were sought to be achieved through

 Rationalization of university research programmes and research organizations

 Strengthening the infrastructural facilities of the State Agricultural Universities (SAUs)
to undertake research on location specific problems.
The main approaches for this comprise:

 Development/strengthening of at least one main station in each specific agro-climatic

zone in the service area of the University, supported wherever necessary, by sub-stations
by providing resource of staff, equipment and infrastructure needed to strengthen on-
going research and to pursue new applied research.
 Provision of resources, including infrastructure for verification of research results both at
the main station and substations.
 Provision of resources to initiate, strengthen and accelerate basic research on topics
which are crucial for long term agricultural development of the state.

National Agricultural Technology Project (NATP)

National Agriculture Technology programme was conceived as a pilot project. It was launched in
November, 1998. It was an initiation of government of India with World Bank Assistance. Under
this project, Innovations in Technology Dissemination (ITD) component has been planned,
which aims at developing a transfer of Technology (TOT) system that is demand driven, well
integrated with research and financially sustainable and accountable to stake holders of
agricultural development.

The innovation in technology dissemination (ITD) component of the project aimed at addressing
key constraints in technology generation, validation and dissemination by introducing new
institutional models and operational reform process in selected states. The states were namely
Bihar, Andhra Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, Jharkhand, Maharashtra, Orissa and Punjab. The
project was pilot tested in four districts of above mentioned each states.

Objectives

The overall objective of NATP was to revitalize the agriculture technology generation
assessment, refinement and dissemination systems.
  Increase the quality and type of technologies disseminated through
 Location specific technology development.
 Diversification and intensification of farming systems.
 Use of sustainability enhancing technologies.
 Enable research and extension systems to become demand driven and responsible for
solving problems of farmers.
 Strengthen research-extension-farmers (R-E-F-) linkages.
 Increase financial sustainability of the system.
 Shared ownership of agricultural Technology System (ATS) by key stakeholders i.e.
farmers especially poor, women and disadvantaged, public sector research and extension
agencies like ICAR, SAUs, DOA etc.

Under NATP

 Establishment of decentralized district level autonomous institution named ATMA (

Agricultural technology management agency)
 Establishing FAIC (Farm Information and Advisory Centre at block level).
 Establishment of state level agricultural extension management training institutions
named SAMETI (State Agricultural Extension management and training institutes).
 Evolutions of state levels coordination and policy making body named IDWG (Inter
Department Working Group).

National Agricultural Innovation Project (NAIP)

The Government of India has launched the National Agricultural Innovation Project with a credit
support of the World Bank. The project will run up to June 2012.

The overall objective of the project is to facilitate accelerated and sustainable transformation of
Indian agriculture for rural poverty alleviation and income generation by the application of
agricultural innovations through collaboration among public research organizations, farmers‘
groups, NGOs, the private sector and the civil societies and other stakeholders.

The important objectives of NAIP are -

 To build the critical capacity of- the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) as a
catalyzing agent for management of change of the Indian National Agricultural Research
System (NARS).
 To promote research in the production-to-consumption system mode in the priority
areas/themes to enhance agricultural productivity and profitability and, nutrition, income
and employment of the rural stakeholders.
 To improve livelihood security of the rural people living in selected disadvantaged
regions through technology-led innovative systems which encompass the wide process of
social and economic change among all the stakeholders.
 To build capacity to undertake basic and strategic research in strategic areas of
agricultural sciences to meet the technology development challenges in the immediate
and predictable future.

Technology Assessment and Refinement

The Technology Assessment and Refinement (TAR) was a site specific project with farmer‘s
participation and provision of technical solutions to existing problems. It is inter-disciplinary and
interactive in approach. The project started in 42 centres of selected ICAR Institutes and SAU‘s.

The objectives include multifaceted directions for ensuring productivity of small production
systems and ensuring profitability. The programme also includes on – farm value addition of
agricultural products, bi-products and wastes for greater economic dividends, addresses gender
specific issues and assesses the impact of refined technologies in different production systems.
The research based findings under NATP are carried out through five Agro-Eco Systems (AES).
The technologies thus assessed and refined are finally passed on to district extension system for
implementation of innovation through Agricultural Technology Management Agency.
Institutional Village Linkage Programme (IVLP)

IVLP is an innovative program developed by the ICAR to help scientists to have direct
interaction with the farming community so that appropriate technologies are developed for
farmers. Here research, extension and farmers establish firm links by carrying together the
assessment and refinement functions in the technology development and dissemination process.

The IVLP is being implemented through ICAR institute headquarters, SAUS headquarters, and
Regional Research Stations, Zonal Research Stations of the ICAR institute, SAUs and KVKs.
The centers selected for the purpose have required infrastructural facilities, viz. in terms of team
of scientists, laboratory and transport. Each centre has to adopt a village or cluster of villages
representing of the district.

Objectives of IVLP as per ICAR guidelines are as follows

 To introduce technological intervention with emphasis on stability and sustainability

along with productivity of small production systems.
 To introduce and integrate the appropriate technologies to sustain technological
interventions and their integration to maintain productivity and profitability taking
environmental issues into considerations in comparatively well defined production
systems.
 To introduce and integrate the appropriate technologies to increase the agriculture
productivity with marketable surplus in commercial farm production systems.
 To facilitate adoption of appropriate post - harvest technologies for conservation and on -
farm value addition of agriculture products, by products and wastes for greater economic
dividend and national priorities.
 To facilitate adoption of appropriate technologies for removal of drudgery increased
efficiency and higher income of farm woman.
 To monitor socio-economic impact of the technologies intervention for different
production systems.

Agricultural Technology & Information Centre (ATIC)

The Agricultural Technology Information Centre (ATIC) is a single window support system
linking the various units of a research institution with intermediary users and end users (farmers)
in decision making and problem solving exercise.

The objectives for establishment of ATIC are:

 To provide a single window delivery system for the products and services to the farmers
and other interested groups as a process of innovativeness in technology dissemination
 To facilitate direct access of the farmers to the institutional resources available in terms
of technology advice, technology products etc., for reducing technology dissemination
losses
 To provide mechanism for feedback from the users to the Institute.

The important criteria of Agricultural Technology Information are:

Availability (or accessibility) of new technologies;

 Relevance of new technologies;
 Responsiveness of new technologies to the needs of different categories of farmers;
 Sustainability of such unit within the overall institutional system.

Organizational structure of Panchayath Raj-

the 3 Tier system of Democratic Decentralization

Elected Govt.
Level Institution
Representative Representative

Commissionerat
Commissioner,
State of Panchayath MinisterforPanchayathRaj
Panchatyath Raj
Raj

Dt. Collector
Chief Executive
Chairman
Officer(CEO)
District Zillaparishad(ZP) Zilla PradesikTerrritorial
District
Members (ZP
Panchayath
Officer(DPO)
 Manadal Praja Parishad
Mandal Parishad
Mandal Praja President Mandal
Mandal Development
Parishad (MPP) Pradesik Terrritorial
Officer(MPDO)
Members (MPTC)

Grama Surpanch Upa surpanch

Village Village Secretary
Panchayth Ward Members

Yojana

 Swarnjayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana (SGSY)

Programme for self-employment of the poor has been an important component of the anti-
poverty programmes implemented through government initiatives in the rural areas in India. The
Swarnjayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana (SGSY) is the major on-going programme for the self-
employment of rural poor at present. The programme was started with effect from 01.04.1999
after review and restructuring of erstwhile Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP)
and Development of women and children in rural area (DWCRA), TRYSM, Million wells
scheme and Ganga kalyani yojana The earlier programmes are no more in operation with the
launching of the SGSY.

The basic objective of the SGSY is to bring the assisted poor families (Swarozgaris) above the
Poverty Line by providing them income-generating assets through a mix of bank credit and
governmental subsidy. The programme aims at establishing a large number of micro enterprises
in rural areas based on the ability of the poor and potential of each area.

Strategy

 Promotion of self employment of rural poor.

  Organization of rural poor into Self Help Groups (SHGs), capacity building of the Group
through financial assistance, training, selection of key activities, infrastructure build up,
technology and marketing support.
 Community mobilization and organization. Self Help Groups (SHGs) to be a national
movement.
 Involvement of NGOs/CBOs/Animators for social mobilization, training and capacity
building of Self Help Groups.
 15% of the central allocation earmarked for sanction of projects for development of
infrastructure and activity cluster.

 National Rural Employment Guarantee Programme

After the notification of the National Rural Employment Guarantee Act on September 7, 2005 a
new scheme named ―National Employment Guarantee Scheme (NREGS)‖ has been launched on
February 2, 2006 by Dr. Manmohan Singh in a remote village Bandlapalli in Anantpur district of
Andhra Pradesh. The on-going programmes Sampoorna Grammen Rozgar Yojana (SGRY) and
National Food for Work Programme (NFFWP) are being subsumed within the NREGS in the
200 districts identified in the initial stage. All the districts in the country will be covered under
the scheme within five years.

State Governments to provide at least 100 days of guaranteed wage employment in every
financial year to every household whose adult members volunteer to do unskilled manual work.

 Bharat Nirman

Bharat Nirman is a time-bound plan for rural infrastructure by the Government of India in
partnership with State Governments and Panchayat Raj Institutions. It was launched in 2005. It
has 6 components:
  Water:
 Roads:
 Irrigation:
 Telephone Connectivity:
 Electricity:
 Housing:

Indira Awaas Yojana (IAY)

The Government of India is implementing Indira Awaas Yojana (IAY) since the year 1985-86 to
provide financial assistance for construction / upgradation of dwelling units to the below poverty
line (BPL) of rural households belonging to the scheduled castes, scheduled Tribes and free
bonded labourers categories.

Agricultural Technology Management Agency (ATMA) is one of the innovations in

technology dissemination components of National Agricultural Technology Project (NATP).

ATMA is a society of key stakeholders involved in agricultural activities for sustainable

agricultural development in the district. It is a focal point for integrating Research and Extension
activities and decentralizing day to day management of the public Agricultural Technology
System (ATS). It is a registered society responsible for technology dissemination at the district
level. As a society, it would be able to receive and expend project funds, entering into contracts
and agreements and maintaining revolving accounts that can be used to collect fees and thereby
recovering operating cost.

The main function of the Governing Board is to acts as a policy making body, provides guidance
as well as reviews progress and functioning of ATMA.
Krishi Vigyan Kendra (KVKs)

In pursuance of the recommendations of the education commission (1964-66), to establish

institutions for providing vocational education in agriculture at the pre-and-post matriculation
level, the ICAR started a scheme to establish KVKs in the country during 1974. The overall
objective of the Kendras is to provide a strong training support for bringing about production
breakthrough in agriculture.

The first KVK was established in 1974 at Pondicherry under Tamil Nadu Agricultural
University. Presently there are 415 KVKs supported by 10 Trainers' Training Centre (TTC), 70
Institute Village Linkage Programme (IVLPs) and 44 Agricultural Technology Information
Centre (ATIC).

Mandate

 Conducting of On Farm Testing (OFT) for identifying technologies in terms of location

specificity and sustainable land use system.
 Organize training programmes to update the extension personnel with emerging advances
in agricultural research on regular basis.
 Organize short and long term vocational courses in agriculture and allied sectors for the
youth and farmers with emphasis on learning by doing for higher production on farms
and generating self employment.
 Organize Front Line Demonstrations (FLD) of proven technologies to generate
production data and feedback information.

To fill the mandate, each KVK is provided with adequate infrastructure like 50 acres of land,
administrative office and training centre. The head of the institution is Programme Coordinator
with specialization in Agricultural Extension and Subject Matter Specialist (SMS) of Agronomy,
Agriculture Engineering, Horticulture, Veterinary and Home Science. The following activities
are conducted in KVKs to meet the mandate
  Instructional farm activity for income generation and also to demonstrate the latest
technologies to farmers
 Seed multiplication programme for the supply breeder and foundation seed duly certified
 Short and long term vocational training programmes by each SMS.
 OFTs and FLDs to verify the technologies under the socio-economic conditions of the
farmers.

Lists of Acts

• Government of India Act, 1833

• Caste Disabilities Removal Act, 1850

• Fatal Accidents Act, 1855

• Hindu Widow‘s Remarriage Act, 1856

• Convert‘s Marriage Dissolution Act, 1866

 Married Women‘s Property Act, 1874

• Births, Deaths and Marriages Registration Act, 1886

• Guardians and Wards Act (GAWA), 1890

• Indian Fisheries Act. 1897

 Indian Stamp Act, 1899

• Anand Marriage Act, 1909

• Wild Birds and Animals protection Act, 1912

• Banaras Hindu University Act, 1915

• Hindu Disposition of property Act, 1916

• Indian Red Cross Society Act, 1920

• Hindu Inheritance (Removal of Disabilities) Act, 1928

 Child Marriage Restraint Act, 1929

• Sale of good act, 1930

• Agricultural produce (Grading & Marketing) Act, 1937

• Drugs and cosmetics Act, 1940

• Drugs control Act, 1950

• Prevention of food Adulteration Act (PFA), 1954

• Essential commodities Act, 1955

 Hindu Marrige Act, 1955

• U.G.C. Act, 1956

• AIIMS Act, 1956

• Life insurance Corporation Act, 1956

• Hindu Minority & Guardianship Act, 1956

• National Highways Act, 1956

• Khadi & village Industreis commission Act, 1956

• Hindu Adoptions and maintenance Act (HAMA)- 1956

• Indain Medical council Act, 1956

• Women‘s and children‘s institutions Act,1956

• Wealth tax Act, 1957

• Orphanages & other charitable homes Act, 1960

• Hindu marriages Act (Validation of proceedings) Act, 1960

• Dowry prohibition Act, 1961

• Maternity benefit Act, 1961

• Textiles committee Act, 1963

• Wild life (protection) Act, 1972

• Water (Prevention & control of pollution) Act, 1974

• Standards of weights & measures Act, 1976

• Prevention of black marketing & maintenance of supplies of Essential commodities Act,

1980

• Air (Prevention & control of pollution) Act, 1981

• National security Guard Act, 1986

• Child labour (CL) Prohibition and Regulation Act, 1986

• Bureau of Indain standards (BIS) Act, 1986

• Consumer protection Act, 1986

• Mental health Act, 1987

• Commission of Sati (Prevention) Act, 1987-88

• Labour laws Act, 1988

• SC & ST act, 1989

• National commission for women Act, 1990

• Person Bharati (Broadcasting corporation of india) Act, 1990

• Central Agricultural University Act, 1992

• Infant Milk substitutes, feeding bottles and infants foods (Regulation of production)
supply and distribution, Act, 1992
• Production of human Rights Act, 1993-94

• Transplantation of human organ Act, 1994

• Pre-conception& Pre- natal diagnostic techniques (PC PNDT) (Prohibition of Sex

selection) Act, 1994

• Persons with disabilities Act (PWD Equal opportunities pro techtion of right & full
participation), 1995

• Trade marks Act, 1999

• Information Technology Act, (care & protection of children) Act, 2000

• Consumer protection (Amendment) Act, 2002

• Biological diversity Act, 2002-03

• Cigarettes & other Tabaco products Act, 2003

• Right to information Act, 2005

• National Rural Employment Guarantee Act, 2005

• Protection of women from domestic violence Act, 2005

• Commission for protection of child rights Act, 2005

• Food safety & standards Act, 2006 (FSSA)

• Prohibition of child marriage Act, 2006

• National Institutes of technology Act, 2007

• Prevention Institutes of technology Act, 2007

• Prevention & control of infections & contagious diseases in Animals Act, 2009

• Right of children to free & compulsory education Act, (RTE), 2009 Comes in action,
2010
• Protection of children from sexual offences Act (POCSO), 2012

• Rajiv Gandhi National institute of youth development Act, 2012

• Sexual Harassment of women at work place (Prevention, prohibition & redressed) Act,
2013

• National food security Act, 2013

• Right of persons with disabilities Act (PWD) 2016

• Mental healthcare Act, 2017

• Central goods & services Tax Act, 2017

• Human Immunodeficiency virus (HIV) & Acquired immune deficiency Syndrome Act,
2017

• The muslim women (protection of rights on marriage) Act, 2019

SCHEMES & YOJANA

• Sustainable Development Goals targeted-2030

• Right to Education (RTE)- 4th aug 2009 (Free & Compulsory education ) (6 to 14 yrs
old) or VIII class

• National Health policy-1983

• National policy for children-1974

• National policy Education-1968

• Sarva shiksha Abhiyan S.SA-2001

• Beti Bacho.Beti padao (BBBP)-2015

• NREGAS (National Rural Employment Grantee schene)-2006 NREGAS act,2005

• MGNREGA-2feb 2006(100 days of wage employment)

• NRLH (National Rural livelihood Mission)-2011

• Sukanya Samridhi Yojan-22jan 2015 as a part BBBP Account can be open at any india
post office or branch of authorized commercial banks

Birth 10 years तक account कत

Min-250 rs

Max-150,000

50% with drawl at the age of 18 .mature-21 years

• Bell Bajao Andolan (2008)-Anti- domestic violence

• Red ribbon Express -2007-HIV/AIDS awareness

• Navdanya-1994-Girl child Education (NGO)

• Mudra Yojana-8April 2005-Credit for micro-enterprises

• Vandana Shiva -―Environmental Sustainability‖ launched book ―pulse of life

• Aruna Roy- Right to Work. Founded Mazdoor kisan Shakti sang than launched book –
the RTI story 1996

• Medha parker – Narmada Bachao Andolan (1989)

• Ila Ben Bhatt-self employment for woman (1972)

• Swatch Bharat Abhiyan-2oct 2014

• RTI-2005

• NEEM – National Elementary Education Mission

• JSY ( ) – 2005

• SGSY (swaranajayanti Gram Swaroigar Yojana) – 1999

• DPEP (District primary education prong) 1993-94 SSA

• PMJDY (Pradhan mantra Jan dhan yojana )-2014-15

Financial prog-applicable to 10 to 65 yr. age group

 Etwah pilot project-1948

 Community Dev.prog.1952

• Lab to land project (LLP)by(ICAR)-1979

• KVK (Krishi Vighyan Kendra)-1974

• NCW (National commission for women 1992)

• RCI- Rehabilitation council of India 1992

• NCPCR- National commission for protection of child rights -2005

• NHRC – National Human right commission 1994-95

• ICDS – (Integrated child development services) 1975

• National Rural health mission -2005

• National literacy Mission (NLM) – 1988 (15 to 35 Years)

• Indira Awaas Yojana – 1985

• Pradhan Mantri gram Sadak Yojana - 2000

• Integrated woman sanitary complex. – 2001

•
• Gurgaon Experiment – FL Brayne

• Sriniketan Experiment – Rabindranath Tagore

• Marthandum Experiments – Spemcer Hatch

• Etawah Pilot Project – Albert T Mayor

• World consumer Right day- 15th March