Rocky Module Manual

ANSYS, Inc. Release 2025 R1

Southpointe January 2025
2600 Ansys Drive
Canonsburg, PA 15317 ANSYS, Inc. and
[email protected] ANSYS Europe,
Ltd. are UL
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(T) 724-746-3304 9001: 2015
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Table of Contents
1. Adams Coupling .................................................................................................................................... 19
1.1. Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 19
1.1.1. System Requirements ............................................................................................................. 19
1.1.2. Limitations ............................................................................................................................. 19
1.1.2.1. Adams limitations .......................................................................................................... 20
1.1.2.2. Rocky limitations ........................................................................................................... 20
1.2. Setup procedures ........................................................................................................................... 20
1.2.1. Adams setup for coupling with Rocky ..................................................................................... 20
1.2.2. Rocky setup for coupling with Adams ..................................................................................... 22
1.2.3. Update an existing FMU file in Adams ..................................................................................... 24
1.2.4. Re-import an updated FMU file into Rocky .............................................................................. 24
1.3. Post-processing .............................................................................................................................. 24
2. Ansys Motion Coupling Module ............................................................................................................ 29
2.1. Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 29
2.2. System Requirements ..................................................................................................................... 30
2.3. Limitations ..................................................................................................................................... 30
2.3.1. Ansys Motion limitations ........................................................................................................ 31
2.3.2. Rocky limitations .................................................................................................................... 31
2.4. Setup procedures ........................................................................................................................... 31
2.4.1. Ansys Motion setup for coupling with Rocky ........................................................................... 31
2.4.2. Rocky setup for coupling with Ansys Motion ........................................................................... 34
2.4.3. Update an existing FMU file in Ansys Motion ........................................................................... 35
2.4.4. Re-import an updated FMU file into Rocky .............................................................................. 36
2.5. Post-processing .............................................................................................................................. 36
2.6. Troubleshooting ............................................................................................................................. 40
2.6.1. Troubleshooting in Ansys Motion ........................................................................................... 40
2.6.1.1. I have no "Generate Information Rocky Coupling" button ............................................... 40
2.6.1.2. I get a "Flexible Bodies" message .................................................................................... 40
2.6.2. Troubleshooting in Rocky ....................................................................................................... 41
2.6.2.1. Rocky will not process my coupled simulation ................................................................ 41
2.6.2.2. I have duplicated geometries in Rocky ........................................................................... 41
2.6.2.3. I get an Ansys license manager error in Rocky ................................................................. 41
3. Bond Model Module .............................................................................................................................. 43
3.1. Usage details .................................................................................................................................. 43
3.1.1. Purpose of module ................................................................................................................. 43
3.1.2. Example application ............................................................................................................... 43
3.1.3. Functionality details ............................................................................................................... 44
3.1.4. Limitations and considerations ............................................................................................... 44
3.1.5. Module options ...................................................................................................................... 45
3.1.5.1. Additional Materials Interactions options ....................................................................... 47
3.1.5.2. Additional Inputs options .............................................................................................. 50
3.1.6. Post-processing abilities ......................................................................................................... 50
3.1.7. Setting up and using the module ........................................................................................... 52
3.2. Technical details ............................................................................................................................. 53
4. Boundary Outlet Module ...................................................................................................................... 59
4.1. Usage details .................................................................................................................................. 59
4.1.1. Purpose of module ................................................................................................................. 59
4.1.2. Functionality details ............................................................................................................... 59
4.1.3. Limitations and considerations ............................................................................................... 59

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4.1.4. Module options ...................................................................................................................... 59

4.1.4.1. Additional options enabled in the UI .............................................................................. 59
4.1.5. Setting up and using the module ........................................................................................... 61
5. CFD Particle Combustion Module (Beta) .............................................................................................. 63
5.1. Usage details .................................................................................................................................. 63
5.1.1. Purpose of module ................................................................................................................. 63
5.1.2. About particle combustion ..................................................................................................... 63
5.1.3. Functionality details ............................................................................................................... 64
5.1.4. Limitations and considerations ............................................................................................... 64
5.1.5. Module options ...................................................................................................................... 65
5.1.5.1. Additional Input options ................................................................................................ 69
5.1.5.1.1. Particle Inlets and Volumetric inlets ....................................................................... 69
5.1.5.1.2. Custom Inputs ...................................................................................................... 70
5.1.6. Postprocessing abilities .......................................................................................................... 71
5.1.7. Setting up and using the module ........................................................................................... 74
5.2. Technical details ............................................................................................................................. 75
6. CFD Particle Drying Module .................................................................................................................. 79
6.1. Usage details .................................................................................................................................. 79
6.1.1. Purpose of module ................................................................................................................. 79
6.1.2. About particle drying ............................................................................................................. 79
6.1.3. Functionality details ............................................................................................................... 80
6.1.4. Limitations and considerations ............................................................................................... 80
6.1.5. Module options ...................................................................................................................... 80
6.1.5.1. Additional Inputs options .............................................................................................. 83
6.1.6. Post-processing abilities ......................................................................................................... 86
6.1.7. Setting up and using the module ........................................................................................... 88
6.2. Technical details ............................................................................................................................. 90
6.2.1. CGM Support ......................................................................................................................... 94
7. Coordination Number Module .............................................................................................................. 95
7.1. Usage details .................................................................................................................................. 95
7.1.1. Purpose of module ................................................................................................................. 95
7.1.2. Example application ............................................................................................................... 95
7.1.3. Functionality details ............................................................................................................... 96
7.1.4. Limitations and considerations ............................................................................................... 96
7.1.5. Module options ...................................................................................................................... 97
7.1.6. Post-processing abilities ......................................................................................................... 97
7.1.7. Setting up and using the module ........................................................................................... 99
7.2. Technical details ............................................................................................................................ 100
8. Dhole, Chhabra & Eswaran Drag Law Module ..................................................................................... 101
8.1. Usage details ................................................................................................................................ 101
8.1.1. Purpose of module ............................................................................................................... 101
8.1.2. Limitations and considerations ............................................................................................. 101
8.1.3. Module options .................................................................................................................... 102
8.1.3.1. Additional CFD Coupling options ................................................................................. 103
8.1.4. Post-processing abilities ....................................................................................................... 103
8.1.5. Setting up and using the module .......................................................................................... 104
8.2. Technical details ............................................................................................................................ 104
9. Disable Collision Outside Region Module ........................................................................................... 107
9.1. Usage details ................................................................................................................................ 107
9.1.1. Purpose of module ............................................................................................................... 107
9.1.2. Example application ............................................................................................................. 107

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9.1.3. Functionality details ............................................................................................................. 108

9.1.4. Module options .................................................................................................................... 108
9.1.5. Post-processing abilities ....................................................................................................... 109
9.1.6. Setting up and using the module .......................................................................................... 110
9.2. Technical details ............................................................................................................................ 111
10. Electromagnetic Coupling Module (Beta) ......................................................................................... 113
10.1. Usage details .............................................................................................................................. 113
10.1.1. Purpose of module ............................................................................................................. 113
10.1.2. Functionality details ........................................................................................................... 113
10.1.3. Limitations and considerations ........................................................................................... 113
10.1.4. Module options .................................................................................................................. 114
10.1.4.1. About the Point Cloud field ........................................................................................ 117
10.1.4.2. Additional Input Options ........................................................................................... 117
10.1.4.2.1. Materials ........................................................................................................... 118
10.1.4.2.2. Materials Interactions ........................................................................................ 118
10.1.4.2.3. Geometries ....................................................................................................... 119
10.1.4.2.4. Particle Groups ................................................................................................. 120
10.1.4.2.5. Particle Inlets and Volumetric Inlets ................................................................... 122
10.1.4.2.6. Custom Inputs .................................................................................................. 122
10.1.5. Post-processing abilities ..................................................................................................... 123
10.1.6. Setting up and using the module ........................................................................................ 124
10.2. Technical details .......................................................................................................................... 124
10.2.1. The Screening Distance Concept ......................................................................................... 125
10.2.2. Coulomb Force Particle-Particle .......................................................................................... 125
10.2.3. Coulomb Force Particle-Wall ............................................................................................... 126
10.2.3.1. Coulomb Force Limiter ............................................................................................... 127
10.2.4. Image Charge Force ............................................................................................................ 127
10.2.5. Surface Triboelectrification ................................................................................................. 127
10.2.6. Lorentz Force ..................................................................................................................... 128
10.2.7. Dipole on a Field ................................................................................................................ 129
11. Erosion Model Module ...................................................................................................................... 131
11.1. Usage details .............................................................................................................................. 131
11.1.1. Purpose of module ............................................................................................................. 131
11.1.2. Functionality details ........................................................................................................... 131
11.1.3. Limitations and considerations ........................................................................................... 131
11.1.4. Module options .................................................................................................................. 131
11.1.5. Post-processing abilities ..................................................................................................... 135
11.1.6. Setting up and using the module ........................................................................................ 137
11.2. Technical details .......................................................................................................................... 138
11.2.1. Finnie model ...................................................................................................................... 138
11.2.2. McLaury model .................................................................................................................. 139
11.2.3. Oka model ......................................................................................................................... 139
12. Frictional Heating Module ................................................................................................................ 141
12.1. Usage details .............................................................................................................................. 141
12.1.1. Purpose of module ............................................................................................................. 141
12.1.2. Functionality details ........................................................................................................... 141
12.1.3. Limitations and considerations ........................................................................................... 141
12.1.4. Module options .................................................................................................................. 141
12.1.5. Post-processing abilities ..................................................................................................... 142
12.1.6. Setting up and using the module ........................................................................................ 143
12.2. Technical details .......................................................................................................................... 144

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13. Heat Generation Region Module ...................................................................................................... 145

13.1. Usage details .............................................................................................................................. 145
13.1.1. Purpose of module ............................................................................................................. 145
13.1.2. Functionality details ........................................................................................................... 145
13.1.3. Limitations and considerations ........................................................................................... 145
13.1.4. Module options .................................................................................................................. 145
13.1.5. Post-processing abilities ..................................................................................................... 147
13.1.6. Setting up and using the module ........................................................................................ 147
13.2. Technical details .......................................................................................................................... 148
14. Heterogeneous Fiber Module (Beta) ................................................................................................. 149
14.1. Usage details .............................................................................................................................. 149
14.1.1. Purpose of module ............................................................................................................. 149
14.1.2. Functionality details ........................................................................................................... 149
14.1.2.1. About Custom fiber file .............................................................................................. 151
14.1.3. Limitations and considerations ........................................................................................... 151
14.1.4. Module options .................................................................................................................. 152
14.1.5. Post-processing abilities ..................................................................................................... 154
14.1.6. Setting up and using the module ........................................................................................ 155
15. Leblicq Joint Model Module .............................................................................................................. 157
15.1. Usage details .............................................................................................................................. 157
15.1.1. Purpose of module ............................................................................................................. 157
15.1.2. About the module .............................................................................................................. 157
15.1.3. About the input files ........................................................................................................... 161
15.1.4. Limitations and considerations ........................................................................................... 162
15.1.5. Module options .................................................................................................................. 162
15.1.6. Setting up and using the module ........................................................................................ 163
15.2. Technical Details ......................................................................................................................... 163
16. Leeds Contact Model Module ............................................................................................................ 165
16.1. Usage details .............................................................................................................................. 165
16.1.1. Purpose of module ............................................................................................................. 165
16.1.2. Functionality details ........................................................................................................... 166
16.1.3. Limitations and considerations ........................................................................................... 166
16.1.4. Module options .................................................................................................................. 166
16.1.4.1. Additional Materials Interactions options ................................................................... 167
16.1.5. Setting up and using the module ........................................................................................ 169
16.2. Technical details .......................................................................................................................... 169
17. Liquid Absorption Model Module ..................................................................................................... 173
17.1. Usage details .............................................................................................................................. 173
17.1.1. Purpose of module ............................................................................................................. 173
17.1.2. Functionality details ........................................................................................................... 173
17.1.3. Limitations and considerations ........................................................................................... 173
17.1.4. Module options .................................................................................................................. 173
17.1.4.1. Additional options enabled in the UI .......................................................................... 174
17.1.5. Post-processing abilities ..................................................................................................... 176
17.1.6. Setting up and using the module ........................................................................................ 178
17.2. Technical details .......................................................................................................................... 178
18. Liquid Bridge Module ........................................................................................................................ 179
18.1. Usage details .............................................................................................................................. 179
18.1.1. Purpose of module ............................................................................................................. 179
18.1.2. Functionality details ........................................................................................................... 181
18.1.3. Limitations and considerations ........................................................................................... 181

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18.1.4. Module options .................................................................................................................. 182

18.1.4.1. Additional options enabled in the UI .......................................................................... 182
18.1.4.2. Additional Inlets options ............................................................................................ 184
18.1.5. Post-processing abilities ..................................................................................................... 185
18.1.6. Setting up and using the module ........................................................................................ 186
18.2. Technical Details ......................................................................................................................... 187
18.3. Coarse Grain Modeling (CGM) for Liquid Bridge ........................................................................... 190
19. Liquid Drying by Heat Flux Module .................................................................................................. 193
19.1. Usage details .............................................................................................................................. 193
19.1.1. Purpose of module ............................................................................................................. 193
19.1.2. Functionality details ........................................................................................................... 193
19.1.3. Limitations and considerations ........................................................................................... 193
19.1.4. Module options .................................................................................................................. 194
19.1.5. Additional options enabled in the UI ................................................................................... 195
19.1.5.1. Additional Inputs options ........................................................................................... 195
19.1.5.2. Custom Inputs ........................................................................................................... 196
19.1.6. Post-processing abilities ..................................................................................................... 197
19.1.7. Setting up and using the module ........................................................................................ 198
19.2. Technical details .......................................................................................................................... 199
20. Liquid Drying Region Module ........................................................................................................... 201
20.1. Usage details .............................................................................................................................. 201
20.1.1. Purpose of module ............................................................................................................. 201
20.1.2. Functionality details ........................................................................................................... 201
20.1.3. Limitations and considerations ........................................................................................... 201
20.1.4. Module options .................................................................................................................. 201
20.1.5. Additional options enabled in the UI ................................................................................... 203
20.1.5.1. Additional Inputs options ........................................................................................... 203
20.1.6. Post-processing abilities ..................................................................................................... 207
20.1.7. Setting up and using the module ........................................................................................ 210
20.2. Technical details .......................................................................................................................... 211
21. Liquid Sphere Injection Module ........................................................................................................ 213
21.1. Usage details .............................................................................................................................. 213
21.1.1. Purpose of module ............................................................................................................. 213
21.1.2. Functionality details ........................................................................................................... 215
21.1.3. Limitations and considerations ........................................................................................... 215
21.1.4. Module options .................................................................................................................. 215
21.1.4.1. Additional options enabled in the UI .......................................................................... 216
21.1.5. Post-processing abilities ..................................................................................................... 218
21.1.6. Setting up and using the module ........................................................................................ 219
21.2. Technical details .......................................................................................................................... 219
22. Liquid Injection Region Module ........................................................................................................ 221
22.1. Usage details .............................................................................................................................. 221
22.1.1. Purpose of module ............................................................................................................. 221
22.1.2. Functionality details ........................................................................................................... 221
22.1.3. Module options .................................................................................................................. 221
22.1.4. Additional options enabled in the UI ................................................................................... 223
22.1.4.1. Additional Inputs options ........................................................................................... 223
22.1.5. Post-processing abilities ..................................................................................................... 226
22.1.6. Setting up and using the module ........................................................................................ 227
22.2. Technical details .......................................................................................................................... 228
23. Thornton-Ning Normal Force Module ............................................................................................... 229

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23.1. Usage details .............................................................................................................................. 229

23.1.1. Purpose of module ............................................................................................................. 229
23.1.2. Functionality details ........................................................................................................... 230
23.1.3. Limitations and considerations ........................................................................................... 230
23.1.4. Module options .................................................................................................................. 230
23.1.4.1. Additional Materials Interactions options ................................................................... 230
23.1.5. Setting up and using the module ........................................................................................ 231
23.2. Technical details .......................................................................................................................... 232
24. Nonlinear Hysteretic Normal Force Module ...................................................................................... 235
24.1. Usage details .............................................................................................................................. 235
24.1.1. Purpose of module ............................................................................................................. 235
24.1.2. Functionality details ........................................................................................................... 236
24.1.3. Limitations and considerations ........................................................................................... 236
24.1.4. Module options .................................................................................................................. 236
24.1.4.1. Additional Materials Interactions options ................................................................... 237
24.1.5. Setting up and using the module ........................................................................................ 239
24.2. Technical details .......................................................................................................................... 239
25. SPH Non-Newtonian Models (Beta) .................................................................................................. 241
25.1. Usage details .............................................................................................................................. 241
25.1.1. Purpose of module ............................................................................................................. 241
25.1.2. Example application ........................................................................................................... 241
25.1.3. Functionality details ........................................................................................................... 242
25.1.4. Limitations and considerations ........................................................................................... 242
25.1.5. Module options .................................................................................................................. 242
25.1.6. Setting up and using the module ........................................................................................ 244
25.2. Technical details .......................................................................................................................... 244
26. Heat Conduction Model Module ....................................................................................................... 247
26.1. Usage details .............................................................................................................................. 247
26.1.1. Purpose of module ............................................................................................................. 247
26.1.2. Functionality details ........................................................................................................... 247
26.1.3. Limitations and considerations ........................................................................................... 247
26.1.4. Module options .................................................................................................................. 248
26.1.4.1. Additional options enabled in the UI .......................................................................... 249
26.1.5. Post-processing abilities ..................................................................................................... 251
26.1.6. Setting up and using the module ........................................................................................ 251
26.2. Technical details .......................................................................................................................... 252
27. Normal and Tangential Energy Dissipation Module ......................................................................... 255
27.1. Usage details .............................................................................................................................. 255
27.1.1. Purpose of module ............................................................................................................. 255
27.1.2. Functionality details ........................................................................................................... 256
27.1.3. Limitations and considerations ........................................................................................... 256
27.1.4. Module options .................................................................................................................. 256
27.1.5. Post-processing abilities ..................................................................................................... 257
27.1.5.1. Post-processing Curves .............................................................................................. 257
27.1.5.2. Post-processing Properties ......................................................................................... 259
27.1.6. Setting up and using the module ........................................................................................ 260
27.2. Technical details .......................................................................................................................... 260
28. 1-Way CFD Field Coupling Module .................................................................................................... 263
28.1. Usage details .............................................................................................................................. 263
28.1.1. Purpose of module ............................................................................................................. 263
28.1.1.1. About the Fluid Velocity Field Point Cloud .................................................................. 264

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28.1.2. Functionality details ........................................................................................................... 264

28.1.3. Limitations and considerations ........................................................................................... 264
28.1.4. Module options .................................................................................................................. 264
28.1.5. Setting up and using the module ........................................................................................ 265
28.2. Technical details .......................................................................................................................... 266
29. Overlap-Based Breakage Model Module .......................................................................................... 267
29.1. Usage details .............................................................................................................................. 267
29.1.1. Purpose of module ............................................................................................................. 267
29.1.2. Functionality details ........................................................................................................... 268
29.1.3. Limitations and considerations ........................................................................................... 268
29.1.4. Module options .................................................................................................................. 268
29.1.5. Additional module options for Particle sets ......................................................................... 269
29.1.6. Post-processing abilities ..................................................................................................... 271
29.1.7. Setting up and using the module ........................................................................................ 273
29.2. Technical details .......................................................................................................................... 273
30. Parametric Gidaspow, Bezburuah & Ding Module ............................................................................ 277
30.1. Usage details .............................................................................................................................. 277
30.1.1. Purpose of module ............................................................................................................. 277
30.1.2. Functionality details ........................................................................................................... 277
30.1.3. Limitations and considerations ........................................................................................... 277
30.1.4. Module options .................................................................................................................. 278
30.1.5. Setting up and using the module ........................................................................................ 279
30.2. Technical details .......................................................................................................................... 280
31. Parametric Ranz & Marshall Law Module .......................................................................................... 283
31.1. Usage details .............................................................................................................................. 283
31.1.1. Purpose of module ............................................................................................................. 283
31.1.2. Functionality details ........................................................................................................... 283
31.1.3. Limitations and considerations ........................................................................................... 283
31.1.4. Module options .................................................................................................................. 284
31.1.4.1. Additional CFD Coupling options ............................................................................... 285
31.1.5. Post-processing abilities ..................................................................................................... 285
31.1.6. Setting up and using the module ........................................................................................ 285
31.2. Technical details .......................................................................................................................... 286
32. Particle Freeze Outside Region Module ............................................................................................ 289
32.1. Usage details .............................................................................................................................. 289
32.1.1. Purpose of module ............................................................................................................. 289
32.1.2. Example application ........................................................................................................... 289
32.1.3. Functionality details ........................................................................................................... 290
32.1.4. Limitations and considerations ........................................................................................... 290
32.1.5. Module options .................................................................................................................. 290
32.1.6. Post-processing abilities ..................................................................................................... 291
32.1.7. Setting up and using the module ........................................................................................ 292
32.2. Technical details .......................................................................................................................... 293
33. Particle Freeze when Settled Module ............................................................................................... 295
33.1. Usage details .............................................................................................................................. 295
33.1.1. Purpose of module ............................................................................................................. 295
33.1.2. Application example .......................................................................................................... 296
33.1.3. Functionality details ........................................................................................................... 297
33.1.4. Limitations and considerations ........................................................................................... 297
33.1.5. Module options .................................................................................................................. 297
33.1.6. Post-processing abilities ..................................................................................................... 298

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33.1.7. Setting up and using the module ........................................................................................ 300

33.2. Technical details .......................................................................................................................... 300
34. SPH Point Cloud Air Drag (Beta) ........................................................................................................ 303
34.1. Usage details .............................................................................................................................. 303
34.1.1. Purpose of module ............................................................................................................. 303
34.1.1.1. About the Fluid Velocity Field Point Cloud .................................................................. 304
34.1.2. Example application ........................................................................................................... 305
34.1.3. Functionality details ........................................................................................................... 305
34.1.4. Limitations and considerations ........................................................................................... 305
34.1.5. Module options .................................................................................................................. 306
34.1.6. Post-processing abilities ..................................................................................................... 307
34.1.7. Setting up and using the module ........................................................................................ 308
34.2. Technical details .......................................................................................................................... 309
34.2.1. Element deformation ......................................................................................................... 310
34.2.2. Drag coefficient .................................................................................................................. 311
34.2.3. SPH exposed area ............................................................................................................... 312
34.2.3.1. Deformed cross-sectional area ................................................................................... 312
34.2.3.2. Exposed area ............................................................................................................. 313
34.2.4. Drag force .......................................................................................................................... 314
35. Region Outlet Module ....................................................................................................................... 315
35.1. Usage details .............................................................................................................................. 315
35.1.1. Purpose of module ............................................................................................................. 315
35.1.2. Functionality details ........................................................................................................... 315
35.1.3. Limitations and considerations ........................................................................................... 315
35.1.4. Module options .................................................................................................................. 315
35.1.5. Setting up and using the module ........................................................................................ 317
36. SPH Air Drag Module (Beta) .............................................................................................................. 319
36.1. Usage details .............................................................................................................................. 319
36.1.1. Purpose of module ............................................................................................................. 319
36.1.2. Example application ........................................................................................................... 319
36.1.3. Functionality details ........................................................................................................... 320
36.1.4. Limitations and considerations ........................................................................................... 320
36.1.5. Module options .................................................................................................................. 321
36.1.6. Post-processing abilities ..................................................................................................... 322
36.1.7. Setting up and using the module ........................................................................................ 323
36.2. Technical details .......................................................................................................................... 323
36.2.1. Element deformation ......................................................................................................... 324
36.2.2. Drag coefficient .................................................................................................................. 325
36.2.3. SPH exposed area ............................................................................................................... 326
36.2.3.1. Deformed cross-sectional area ................................................................................... 326
36.2.3.2. Exposed area ............................................................................................................. 327
36.2.4. Drag force .......................................................................................................................... 328
37. SPH Freeze Outside Region (Beta) .................................................................................................... 329
37.1. Usage details .............................................................................................................................. 329
37.2. Technical details .......................................................................................................................... 334
38. Stress-Based Multi-Contact Normal Force Module ........................................................................... 335
38.1. Usage details .............................................................................................................................. 335
38.1.1. Purpose of module ............................................................................................................. 335
38.1.2. Functionality details ........................................................................................................... 335
38.1.3. Limitations and considerations ........................................................................................... 335
38.1.4. Module options .................................................................................................................. 335

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38.1.4.1. Additional particle groups options ............................................................................. 336

38.1.5. Setting up and using the module ........................................................................................ 337
38.2. Technical details .......................................................................................................................... 338
39. TBM Breakage Model Module ........................................................................................................... 341
39.1. Usage details .............................................................................................................................. 341
39.1.1. Purpose of module ............................................................................................................. 341
39.1.2. Functionality details ........................................................................................................... 342
39.1.3. Limitations and considerations ........................................................................................... 342
39.1.4. Module options .................................................................................................................. 343
39.1.5. Additional module options for Particle sets ......................................................................... 343
39.1.6. Post-processing abilities ..................................................................................................... 345
39.1.7. Setting up and using the module ........................................................................................ 347
39.2. Technical details .......................................................................................................................... 347
39.2.1. Breakage criterion .............................................................................................................. 347
39.2.2. Fragments size distribution ................................................................................................. 349
40. Thermal Radiation Module ................................................................................................................ 351
40.1. Usage details .............................................................................................................................. 351
40.1.1. Purpose of module ............................................................................................................. 351
40.1.2. Example application ........................................................................................................... 351
40.1.3. Functionality details ........................................................................................................... 352
40.1.4. Thermal modeling considerations ....................................................................................... 352
40.1.5. Limitations and other considerations .................................................................................. 353
40.1.6. Module options .................................................................................................................. 353
40.1.6.1. Additional options enabled in the UI .......................................................................... 354
40.1.6.1.1. Additional material options ............................................................................... 354
40.1.7. Best practices for better performance and accuracy ............................................................ 356
40.1.8. Setting up and using the module ........................................................................................ 356
40.2. Technical details .......................................................................................................................... 358
40.2.1. Calculation assumptions ..................................................................................................... 358
40.2.2. Calculations ....................................................................................................................... 359
40.2.3. Radiation view factor .......................................................................................................... 360
41. Velocity-Dependent Adhesive Force Module .................................................................................... 363
41.1. Usage details .............................................................................................................................. 363
41.1.1. Purpose of module ............................................................................................................. 363
41.1.2. Limitations and considerations ........................................................................................... 363
41.1.3. Module options .................................................................................................................. 364
41.1.3.1. Additional materials interactions options ................................................................... 365
41.1.4. Post-processing abilities ..................................................................................................... 366
41.1.5. Setting up and using the module ........................................................................................ 366
41.2. Technical details .......................................................................................................................... 367
42. Velocity-Dependent Restitution Model ............................................................................................ 369
42.1. Usage details .............................................................................................................................. 369
42.1.1. Purpose of module ............................................................................................................. 369
42.1.2. Limitations and considerations ........................................................................................... 369
42.1.3. Module options .................................................................................................................. 369
42.1.3.1. Additional materials interactions options ................................................................... 370
42.1.4. Post-processing abilities ..................................................................................................... 372
42.1.5. Setting up and using the module ........................................................................................ 374
42.2. Technical details .......................................................................................................................... 374
Bibliography ............................................................................................................................................. 377

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List of Figures
1.1. Rocky tab in Adams. ............................................................................................................................. 21
1.2. Rocky Coupling dialog in Adams. ......................................................................................................... 22
1.3. Rocky Coupling dialog in Multybody Dynamics FMU Coupling Module. ................................................. 23
1.4. Standard Adams Coupling Curves for a geometry that was exported out of Adams as an Output. ............ 25
1.5. Additional Adams Coupling Curves for a geometry that was exported out of Adams as an Input. ............. 26
2.1. Standard Rocky Motion Frames vs. Ansys Motion Coupling Cabilities. ..................................................... 29
2.2. Ansys Motion Coupling FMU file lifecycle. .............................................................................................. 30
2.3. Co-Simulator tab in Ansys Motion. ......................................................................................................... 32
2.4. Rocky Coupling dialog in Ansys Motion. ................................................................................................ 33
2.5. Rocky Coupling dialog in Multybody Dynamics FMU Coupling Module. ................................................. 34
2.6. Standard Ansys Motion Coupling Curves for a geometry that was exported out of Ansys Motion as an
Output. ...................................................................................................................................................... 37
2.7. Additional Ansys Motion Coupling Curves for a geometry that was exported out of Ansys Motion as an
Input. ......................................................................................................................................................... 38
2.8. "Flexible Bodies" message in Ansys Motion. ........................................................................................... 40
2.9. Ansys License Manager Error in Rocky. ................................................................................................... 42
3.1. Example application of a drilling process using the Bond Model module. ............................................... 43
3.2. Physics | Momentum tab options when the Bond Model module is enabled. ............................................. 44
3.3. Contacts tab options. ............................................................................................................................ 45
3.4. Bond Model module options. ................................................................................................................. 46
3.5. Bond Model module materials interactions options. ............................................................................... 48
3.6. Bond Model module inputs options. ..................................................................................................... 50
3.7. Additional Contact Properties created by the Bond Model module. ......................................................... 51
3.8. Additional Particle Properties created by the Bond Model module. .......................................................... 52
3.9. Geometry of the bond between two spherical particles of different sizes. ............................................... 54
3.10. Forces and moments exerted by a bond on a particle. .......................................................................... 56
4.1. Boundary Outlet module options for an individual geometry component that you have imported. .......... 60
5.1. Particle combustion over time using the CFD-Coupled Particle Combustion module. ............................. 64
5.2. CFD-Coupled Particle Combustion module options under the Species tab. ............................................. 65
5.3. CFD-Coupled Particle Combustion module under the Reactions Tab. ..................................................... 66
5.4. CFD-Coupled Particle Combustion module options under the Advanced Tab. ......................................... 66
5.5. Options for a Continuous Injection input ............................................................................................... 69
5.6. Options for a Volumetric Inlet input. ...................................................................................................... 70
5.7. Options for a Custom Inlet input. ........................................................................................................... 71
5.8. Particles properties when the CFD-Coupled Particle Combustion is enabled. .......................................... 73
5.9. Setting the mixture species in Fluent. .................................................................................................... 74
6.1. Particle drying rate over time as a function of the moisture content. ...................................................... 79
6.2. CFD-Coupled Particle Drying module input parameters. .......................................................................... 81
6.3. Options for a Particle Inlet Input (left) and a Volumetric Inlet Input (right). ................................................ 83
6.4. Options for a Particle Custom Inlet. ......................................................................................................... 85
6.5. Particles Properties when the CFD-Coupled Particle Drying module is enabled. ........................................ 87
6.6. Fluent species model configuration. ..................................................................................................... 89
6.7. Fluent species mixture-template configuration. .................................................................................... 89
6.8. Particle Drying - problem description. ................................................................................................... 90
6.9. Damping factor as a function of the moisture content for different damping function B coefficients with
nc = nv = 1.0. .............................................................................................................................................. 92
6.10. Damping factor as a function of the moisture content for different damping function nc coefficients
with B = 0.501. ............................................................................................................................................ 93

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6.11. Damping factor as a function of the moisture content for different damping function nv coefficients
with B = 0.501. ............................................................................................................................................ 94
7.1. Example application of grains packing using the Coordination Number module. .................................... 95
7.2. Example application of particle mixing using the Coordination Number module. ..................................... 96
7.3. Coordination Number module options. .................................................................................................. 97
7.4. Coordination Number module options. .................................................................................................. 98
8.1. Interactions tab options for the 1-Way Constant CFD Coupling mode when the Dhole, Chhabra & Eswaran
Drag Law module is enabled. ..................................................................................................................... 102
8.2. Dhole, Chhabra & Eswaran Drag Law module options. ........................................................................... 103
9.1. Snow accretion 1-way Rocky- Fluent coupling simulation using the Disable Collision Outside Region
module. Blue particles are enabled whereas light pink particles are removed from contact detection calcula-
tions. ........................................................................................................................................................ 108
9.2. Disable Collision Outside Region module options. .................................................................................. 109
9.3. Additional Particle Properties created by the Disable Collision Outside Region module. .......................... 110
10.1. Electromagnetic Coupling Module options under the Model tab. .......................................................... 114
10.2. Electromagnetic Coupling Module options under the Fields tab. ........................................................... 115
10.3. Electromagnetic Coupling Module options under the Advanced tab. .................................................... 115
10.4. Electromagnetic Coupling Module options under Materials. ................................................................. 118
10.5. Electromagnetic Coupling Module options under Material Interactions. ................................................ 119
10.6. Electromagnetic Coupling Module options under Geometries. ............................................................. 120
10.7. Electromagnetic Coupling Module options under Particle Groups. ........................................................ 121
10.8. Electromagnetic Coupling Module options under Particle Inlets and Volumetric Inlets. .......................... 122
10.9. Electromagnetic Coupling Module flowchart. ....................................................................................... 125
11.1. Eroded Mass Analyses module options under tab. ............................................................................... 132
11.2. Eroded Mass Analyses module options under tab. ............................................................................... 133
11.3. Eroded Mass Analyses module options under tab. ............................................................................... 133
11.4. Additional Geometry Properties created by the Eroded Mass Analyses module. ................................... 136
11.5. Additional Geometry Curves created by the Eroded Mass Analyses module. ......................................... 137
12.1. Options for the Frictional Heating module. ......................................................................................... 142
12.2. Frictional Heating module options. ..................................................................................................... 143
13.1. Options for the Heat Generation Region module. ................................................................................ 146
14.1. Tag column on the custom fiber definition file. .................................................................................. 149
14.2. Pairs of Tags table .............................................................................................................................. 150
14.3. Tags mapped to joints ....................................................................................................................... 150
14.4. Elastic Ratio and Joint Damping Ratio. ............................................................................................... 151
14.5. Element Damping Ratio. .................................................................................................................... 152
14.6. Options for the Heterogeneous Custom Fiber (Beta) module. ................................................................ 152
14.7. Options for the Heterogeneous Custom Fiber (Beta) module. ................................................................ 153
14.8. —Additional particle properties created by the Heterogeneous Custom Fiber (Beta) module. ................ 154
15.1. Options for the Leblicq Joint Model module. ....................................................................................... 157
15.2. Example paths to stiffness input files. ................................................................................................ 158
15.3. Joint Model options for a multi-element Fiber when the Leblicq Joint Model module is enabled. .......... 159
15.4. Example Loading Stiffness table. ....................................................................................................... 161
15.5. Example Unloading Stiffness table. .................................................................................................... 161
15.6. Folder location of the example .csv files. ............................................................................................ 162
16.1. Physics | Momentum tab options when the Leeds Contact Model module is enabled. .......................... 166
16.2. Options for the Leeds Contact Model module. ..................................................................................... 167
16.3. Materials Interactions options when the Leeds Contact Model module is enabled. ............................... 168
16.4. Schematic diagram of a typical normal force overlap response of the Leeds Contact Model. ............... 170
16.5. Normal force in Leeds Contact Model as a composition of repulsive and adhesive forces. .................... 172
17.1. Options for the Liquid Absorption module. ......................................................................................... 174

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17.2. Liquid Absorption module options for a Continuous Injection Input. ..................................................... 175
17.3. Particles Properties created by the Liquid Absorption module. ............................................................. 177
18.1. Example mixing process using the Liquid Bridge Model ..................................................................... 179
18.2. Liquid Bridge Model module options. .................................................................................................. 180
18.3. Liquid Bridge Model overriding the Adhesive Force setting. ................................................................... 181
18.4. Liquid Bridge Model Materials Interactions options. ............................................................................. 183
18.5. Options for a Volumetric Inlet (left) and a Particle Inlet (right). ............................................................ 184
18.6. Options for a Particle Custom Inlet. ..................................................................................................... 185
18.7. Options for a Particle Custom Inlet. ..................................................................................................... 186
18.8. Geometry of a liquid bridge between two particles. ........................................................................... 187
18.9. Geometry of a liquid bridge between a particle and a boundary. ........................................................ 188
19.1. Options for the Liquid Drying by Heat Flux module. ............................................................................. 194
19.2. Options for a Continuous Injection Input (left) and a Volume Fill Input (right). ..................................... 195
19.3. Options for a Custom Input. ................................................................................................................ 196
19.4. Particle Properties added by the Liquid Drying by Heat Flux module. .................................................... 198
20.1. Options for the Liquid Drying Region module. ..................................................................................... 202
20.2. Options for a Continuous Injection Input (on the left) and a Volume Fill Inputs (on the right). ............... 204
20.3. Options for a Custom Input. ................................................................................................................ 206
20.4. Particle Properties added by the Liquid Drying Region module. ............................................................ 208
21.1. Defining a Point Cloud in Rocky. ......................................................................................................... 213
21.2. Example text file defining a Point Cloud. ............................................................................................. 214
21.3. Example spheres of influence formed around the points defined in a Point Cloud. ............................... 214
21.4. Liquid Injection Sphere Clouds module options. ................................................................................... 215
21.5. Liquid Injection Sphere Clouds module options for a Continuous Injection Input. ................................... 217
21.6. Particles property created by Liquid Injection Sphere Clouds module. ................................................... 218
22.1. Options for the Liquid Injection Region module. .................................................................................. 222
22.2. Options for a Continuous Injection Input (on the left) and a Volume Fill Input (on the right). ............... 223
22.3. Options for a Custom Input. ................................................................................................................ 225
22.4. Particle Properties added by the Liquid Injection Region module. ......................................................... 227
23.1. Physics | Momentum tab options when the Thornton-Ning Normal Force module is enabled. ............. 229
23.2. Options for the Thornton-Ning Normal Force module. ........................................................................ 230
23.3. Materials Interactions options when the Thornton-Ning Normal Force module is enabled. .................. 231
24.1. Physics | Momentum tab options when the Nonlinear Hysteretic Normal Force module is enabled. ......... 236
24.2. Options on the Nonlinear Hysteretic Normal Force module. .................................................................. 237
24.3. Materials Interactions options when the Nonlinear Hysteretic Normal Force module is enabled. ............. 238
25.1. Example application of the SPH Non-Newtonian (Beta) module in a food modelling scenario. ............. 242
25.2. SPH Non-Newtonian Models (Beta) module options. ............................................................................ 243
25.3. Non-newtonian models flow curves. .................................................................................................. 244
26.1. Physics | Thermal tab options when the Nonlinear Thermal Contact Model module is enabled. .............. 248
26.2. Nonlinear Thermal Contact Model module options. ............................................................................. 248
26.3. Nonlinear Thermal Contact Model module options for an individual material component. .................... 250
26.4. Illustration of a piece-wise scheme. .................................................................................................... 252
27.1. Inter-group Collisions Statistics module Curves upon which the Normal and Tangential Energy Dissipation
module is based. ....................................................................................................................................... 255
27.2. Inter-particle Collision Statistics module Property upon which the Normal and Tangential Energy Dis-
sipation module is based. .......................................................................................................................... 256
27.3. Normal and Tangential Energy Dissipation module options. ................................................................. 257
27.4. Particles Curves created by the Normal and Tangential Energy Dissipation module. .............................. 258
27.5. Particles properties created by the Normal and Tangential Energy Dissipation module. ......................... 259
27.6. Normal Force and Tangential Force Contact Models. .......................................................................... 261
28.1. Defining a Point Cloud in Rocky. ......................................................................................................... 263

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28.2. Example text file defining a fluid velocity field point cloud. ................................................................ 264
28.3. Options for the 1-Way CFD Field Coupling module. .............................................................................. 265
29.1.Breakage | Criteria tab options (left) and Breakage | Fragments tab options (right) for the Particle set when
the Overlap-Based Breakage Model module is enabled. ............................................................................... 267
29.2. Overlap-Based Breakage Model module options. ................................................................................. 268
29.3. Overlap-Based Breakage Model module options for a Particle set. ........................................................ 270
29.4. Particles Properties created by the Overlap-Based Breakage Model module. ......................................... 272
30.1.Interactions tab options for the 2-Way Fluent Unresolved Coupling mode when the Parametric Gidaspow,
Bezburuah & Ding module is enabled. ........................................................................................................ 278
30.2. Parametric Gidaspow, Bezburuah & Ding module options. .................................................................... 279
31.1.Interactions tab options for the 1-Way Constant CFD Coupling mode when the Parametric Ranz & Marshall
Law module is enabled. ............................................................................................................................. 284
31.2. Parametric Ranz & Marshall Law module options. ................................................................................ 285
32.1. Disk harrow simulation using the Particle Freeze Outside Region module. Blue particles are enabled
whereas light pink particles are frozen and removed from contact detection calculations. .......................... 289
32.2. Particle Freeze Outside Region module options. ................................................................................... 291
32.3. Additional Particle properties created by the Particle Freeze Outside Region module. ........................... 292
33.1. Filling of a silo using the Particle Freeze when Settled module. Grey particles are frozen whereas blue
particles are active. ................................................................................................................................... 296
33.2. Particle Freeze when Settled module options. ...................................................................................... 298
33.3. Additional Particle Properties created by the Particle Freeze when Settled module. ............................... 299
34.1. Defining a Point Cloud in Rocky. ......................................................................................................... 304
34.2. Example text file defining a fluid velocity field point cloud. ................................................................ 304
34.3. Example application of the SPH Point Cloud Air Drag (Beta) module in a gearbox. .............................. 305
34.4. SPH Point Cloud Air Drag (Beta) module options. ................................................................................. 306
34.5. Additional property enabled on the SPH entity when the SPH Point Cloud Air Drag (Beta) is used. ........ 308
34.6. Flowchart illustrating the steps involved in computing the drag force for each SPH element. .............. 310
34.7. Deformation of a droplet from the spherical shape with radius L to the disk-like shape with radius
......................................................................................................................................................... 312
34.8. Occlusion factor computation accounting for the angle between the direction of fluid flow, vi,?rel, and
the neighbor direction xi,?j. ....................................................................................................................... 313
35.1. Options for the Region Outlet module. ............................................................................................... 316
36.1. Example application of the SPH Air Drag (Beta) module in a fire hose jet scenario. .............................. 320
36.2. SPH Air Drag (Beta) module options. ................................................................................................... 321
36.3. Additional property enabled on the SPH entity when the SPH Air Drag (Beta) is used. .......................... 322
36.4. Flowchart illustrating the steps involved in computing the drag force for each SPH element. .............. 324
36.5. Deformation of a droplet from the spherical shape with radius L to the disk-like shape with radius
......................................................................................................................................................... 326
36.6. Occlusion factor computation accounting for the angle between the direction of fluid flow, vi,?rel, and
the neighbor direction xi,?j. ....................................................................................................................... 327
37.1. Simplified wheel simulation using the SPH Freeze Outside Region module. Blue SPH elements are enabled
whereas light red elements are frozen and removed from contact detection calculations. .......................... 329
37.2. Cube creation inside Region of Interest setup. ....................................................................................... 330
37.3. Cylinder creation inside Region of Interest setup. .................................................................................. 331
37.4. SPH Freeze Outside Region module options. ........................................................................................ 332
37.5. Additional SPH properties created by the SPH Freeze Outside Region module. ...................................... 333
38.1. Stress-Based Multi-Contact Normal Force module options. ................................................................. 336
38.2. Stress-Based Multi-Contact Normal Force module options for a particle group. ................................... 337
38.3. Illustration of a contact pair interaction with the average stress terms of particle i (green) and particle
j (red) from the neighboring particles contacts. ......................................................................................... 338

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39.1.Breakage | Criteria tab options (left) and Breakage | Fragments tab options (right) for the Particle set when
the TBM Breakage Model module is enabled. .............................................................................................. 342
39.2. TBM Breakage Model module options. ................................................................................................ 343
39.3. TBM Breakage Model module options for a Particle set. ....................................................................... 344
39.4. Particles Property created by the TBM Breakage Model module. .......................................................... 346
39.5. Breakage specific energy versus particle size. ..................................................................................... 348
40.1. Heating particles inside a cylinder using the Thermal Radiation module.The upper surface is set to a
high temperature, which heats the particles at the top.The particles then exchange heat with each other in
the lower layers. ........................................................................................................................................ 351
40.2. Options for the Thermal Radiation module. ........................................................................................ 353
40.3. Thermal Radiation module options for an individual material component. .......................................... 355
40.4. Illustration of the calculation domain for radiation heat transfer according to the defined screening
distances. ................................................................................................................................................. 358
40.5. Particle-particle interaction. .............................................................................................................. 360
40.6. Triangle-particle interaction. .............................................................................................................. 361
41.1. Physics | Momentum tab options when the Velocity-Dependent Adhesive Force module is enabled. ....... 364
41.2. Velocity-Dependent Adhesive Force module options. ............................................................................ 364
41.3. Velocity-Dependent Adhesive Force module options for a pair of materials interactions. ........................ 365
41.4. Contacts Properties created by the Velocity-Dependent Adhesive Force module. ................................... 366
42.1. Velocity-Dependent Restitution Model module options. ........................................................................ 369
42.2. Velocity-Dependent Restitution Model module options for a pair of materials interactions. .................... 371
42.3. Contacts Property created by the Velocity-Dependent Restitution Model module. ................................. 373
42.4. Coefficient of restitution as a function of impact velocity, for different values of the exponent K. ......... 375

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Chapter 1: Adams Coupling
1.1. Introduction
Adams Coupling enables users to prescribe specific, complex motions for their equipment in Adams and
then have those same motions available to be used in a DEM simulation that is carried out by Rocky.

When compared to the standard method of defining Motion Frames in Rocky, movements defined with
Adams Coupling have the added benefit of simulating geometry-to-geometry interactions, stress and
deformation of geometry components, chained motions and more.

It is not a requirement for both Adams and Rocky to be opened at the same time. Adams needs a license
for each instance of it running. Therefore, in order to have an open instance of Adams while a coupled
simulation is running, more than one license is needed. However, in order to make use of the Adams
solver in Rocky, you must still have a valid Adams license and have it installed in the same machine
that is running the Rocky simulation.

The Adams Coupling module allows for each portion of the coupling setup to be accomplished by dif-
ferent users and have only the FMU file shared between them. Therefore, separate setup instructions
for each product will be provided in this document; follow one or both sets of instructions as needed.

1.1.1. System Requirements

This guide assumes that all the following system and program requirements have already been met.

• Users of Adams must ensure all the following:

– You have installed one of the compatible versions of Adams -2023.4.1

– You have installed the Adams Coupling Module plugin. For information about installation, refer
to the Adams Coupling Installation Guide.

• Users of Rocky must ensure all the following:

– You have installed Rocky version 2025 R1 or later.

– You have a valid license for your version of Adams and you have it installed on the same machine
as Rocky.

1.1.2. Limitations
This version of Adams Coupling has the following limitations:

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Adams Coupling

• Gravity direction must match in both Adams and Rocky. Make sure that the gravity acceleration is
set in Adams in all directions (x, y, z). If a direction has no gravity force, make sure that the field is
filled with 0 (zero).

• The Simulation Duration in Adams must be greater than or equal to the one set in Rocky.

In addition, there are specific limitations for each product, as described below.

1.1.2.1. Adams limitations

This version of Adams Coupling is currently not compatible with the following Adams features and
functionality:

• Flexible bodies for which you want to have particle interactions.

• Flexible bodies are supported on the Adams side of the coupled simulation; however, Rocky will
be unable to calculate particle interactions on those flexible bodies.

• Including flexible bodies in your coupled simulation might also increase the processing time.

1.1.2.2. Rocky limitations

This version of Adams Coupling is currently not compatible with the following Rocky feature:

• Motion Frames : A Rocky project with Adams Coupling cannot also have Motion Frames. Your
simulation will not start processing until all Motion Frames are removed.

1.2. Setup procedures

Once the System Requirements have been met for the product(s) you are using, you can begin setting
up either or both of your projects to perform its part of the Adams Coupling procedure.

1.2.1. Adams setup for coupling with Rocky

The steps you take in Adams to enable motions to be coupled with Rocky are as follows:

1. Open a compatible version of Adams View.

2. Open an Existing Model or create a New Model, setting up your equipment and motions as you
normally would. Important:.

• Ensure that the Gravity direction in Adams is set to what you later want to use in Rocky. These
must match for the coupling process to work. Check also if the gravity acceleration is filled in
all directions (with a value set to zero if there is no gravity in that direction).

• Ensure that the simulation time (T) in Adams is equal or greater than the Simulation Duration
you later want to use in Rocky.

3. Ensure that the model that you want to export is correctly selected in the drop down menu.

4. From the Rocky tab select Generate FMU for Rocky Coupling (see Figure 1.1:Rocky tab in
Adams. (p. 21)).

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 Setup procedures

Figure 1.1: Rocky tab in Adams.

5. From the Select parts for Rocky coupling dialog (Figure 1.2:Rocky Coupling dialog in
Adams. (p. 22)), do the following:

a. For each of the rigid Body parts without beam elements, do one or both of the following:

• Add to the Output box the parts you want motions to be shared with Rocky.

• Add to the Input box the parts you want forces and moments to be collected due to inter-
actions with particles. This data will then be used by the Adams solver during processing.

Tip: to add the parts to a box, right click an empty area of it. Then point to Part, then
Browse... and then select the parts to be added to the box.

b. Click the Export button. If no errors are reported, the operations were successful.

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Adams Coupling

Figure 1.2: Rocky Coupling dialog in Adams.

At this point, the FMU file has been generated and is stored in the Working Directory defined in
Adams. It can now be shared with a Rocky user for them to complete the second part of the coupling
procedure, or you can continue with the next step yourself.

1.2.2. Rocky setup for coupling with Adams

The steps you take in Rocky to enable motions from Adams to be coupled with your DEM simulation
are as follows:

1. Open Rocky version or later.

2. Begin a new simulation project. (From the File menu, click New Project.)

3. From the Data panel, under Modules, select Multibody Dynamics FMU Coupling.

4. From the Data Editors panel, on the Multibody Dynamics FMU Coupling tab, do the following
(Figure 2.5: Rocky Coupling dialog in Multybody Dynamics FMU Coupling Module. (p. 34)):

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 Setup procedures

Figure 1.3: Rocky Coupling dialog in Multybody Dynamics FMU Coupling Module.

a. Click the FMU filename: button, and then from the Select file to import dialog, locate and
select the FMU file you want to use, and then click Open. Save the project now if you are
asked to do so.

b. From the Communication step size control list, select one of the following options:

• Automatic: For each Adams time step, Rocky computes 100 timesteps.

• Manual: Adams' time step is defined by the Communication step size value.

• Rocky timestep: The time step in Adams is the same as in Rocky.

c. If Manual was selected for Communication step size control, then in the Manual commu-
nication step size field, enter what time step you want Adams to use.

5. From the Data panel, right-click Geometries, and then click Import Geometry.

6. From the Select file to import dialog, locate and select the CAD files of the geometry to be sim-
ulated.

Important:

The geometry imported in Rocky should be exactly the same used to export the
FMU from Adams. Therefore it is recommended that you use the same CAD files
to setup both Adams and Rocky simulations. If the geometry was created inside
Adams or you do not have access to the CAD files that were used to setup the
Adams simulation, the geometry can be exported from Adams and then imported
in Rocky. A CAD software may be required to convert CAD files from the formats
exported by Adams to formats that are readable in Rocky.

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Adams Coupling

7. From the Import File Info dialog, select the options you want, and then click OK. The Geometries
list is populated with the parts that were imported.

8. Set up the rest of your simulation as you normally would, being careful to ensure the following:

• You have defined the gravity direction in Rocky to match what was set in the Adams.

• You have defined the Simulation Duration in Rocky to be less than or equal to the duration
that was set in the Adams.

9. Process your simulation and analyze the results in Rocky as you normally would.

1.2.3. Update an existing FMU file in Adams

If you have already created a FMU file in Adams but then later removed, added, or renamed bodies
in the project file, you can just follow the same steps you did originally to export the file again.

1.2.4. Re-import an updated FMU file into Rocky

Use the below procedure if you have already imported a prior version of the FMU file into Rocky, but
now have a newer version of the FMU file with which to replace it.

1. With the Rocky project open that contains information from the FMU file you want to update, do
the following:

a. Remove and then re-import the geometries added by the FMU file by doing the following:

i. From the Data panel, under Geometries, select or multi-select all the parts that were ori-
ginally imported by the FMU file.

ii. Right-click the selected geometries, and then click Remove Geometries.

iii. Re-import the geometries files as you normally would.

Alternatively, if you made only small changes to the bodies in Adams, you can make those
changes to individual Geometries in Rocky without removing all of them and importing them
again. However, you must ensure that the changes you make exactly match the information
in the FMU file you import.

b. Re-import the FMU file.

2. Set up, process, and analyze the results of your simulation as you normally would.

1.3. Post-processing
After processing your coupled simulation, you will have new Curves for your geometry components,
depending upon whether they were selected to be exported out of Adams as an Output body (Fig-
ure 1.4: Standard Adams Coupling Curves for a geometry that was exported out of Adams as an Out-
put. (p. 25)) – which has no interactions with Particles – or an Input body (Figure 1.5: Additional Adams
Coupling Curves for a geometry that was exported out of Adams as an Input. (p. 26)) – which does have
interactions with Particles.

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 Post-processing

Figure 1.4: Standard Adams Coupling Curves for a geometry that was exported out of Adams as
an Output.

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Adams Coupling

Figure 1.5: Additional Adams Coupling Curves for a geometry that was exported out of Adams as
an Input.

These Curves are explained below:

• Acceleration : Rotational : X: The amount of rotational (angular) acceleration for the geometry in
the X direction as measured from the Center of Mass.

• Acceleration : Rotational : Y: The amount of rotational (angular) acceleration for the geometry in
the Y direction as measured from the Center of Mass.

• Acceleration : Rotational : Z: The amount of rotational (angular) acceleration for the geometry in
the Z direction as measured from the Center of Mass.

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 Post-processing

• Acceleration : Translational : X: The amount of translational acceleration for the geometry in the X
direction as measured from the Center of Mass.

• Acceleration : Translational : Y: The amount of translational acceleration for the geometry in the Y
direction as measured from the Center of Mass.

• Acceleration : Translational : Z: The amount of translational acceleration for the geometry in the Z
direction as measured from the Center of Mass.

• Displacement : X: The distance the geometry was displaced in the X direction.

• Displacement : Y: The distance the geometry was displaced in the Y direction.

• Displacement : Z: The distance the geometry was displaced in the Z direction.

• Force : X : Instantaneous: Only for geometries that were exported out of Adams as an Input body,
this provides the force applied to the geometry along the X axis.

• Force : Y : Instantaneous: Only for geometries that were exported out of Adams as an Input body,
this provides the force applied to the geometry along the Y axis.

• Force : Z : Instantaneous: Only for geometries that were exported out of Adams as an Input body,
this provides the force applied to the geometry along the Z axis.

• Moment : X : Instantaneous: Only for geometries that were exported out of Adams as an Input body,
this provides the moment (torque) applied to the geometry’s Center of Mass around the X axis.

• Moment : Y : Instantaneous: Only for geometries that were exported out of Adams as an Input body,
this provides the moment (torque) applied to the geometry’s Center of Mass along the Y axis.

• Moment : Z : Instantaneous: Only for geometries that were exported out of Adams as an Input body,
this provides the moment (torque) applied to the geometry’s Center of Mass along the Z axis.

• Orientation Angle: The angle the geometry is rotated around the Orientation Vector.

• Orientation Vector X: The X component defining the vector around which the geometry is rotated.

• Orientation Vector Y: The Y component defining the vector around which the geometry is rotated.

• Orientation Vector Z: The Z component defining the vector around which the geometry is rotated.

• Position X: The global coordinate of the geometry’s Center of Mass as specified in the X direction.

• Position Y : The global coordinate of the geometry’s Center of Mass as specified in the Y direction.

• Position Z : The global coordinate of the geometry’s Center of Mass as specified in the Z direction.

• Velocity : Rotational : X : The amount of rotational (angular) velocity for the geometry in the X dir-
ection as measured from the Center of Mass.

• Velocity : Rotational : Y: The amount of rotational (angular) velocity for the geometry in the Y direction
as measured from the Center of Mass.

• Velocity : Rotational : Z: The amount of rotational (angular) velocity for the geometry in the Z direction
as measured from the Center of Mass.

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Adams Coupling

• Velocity : Translational : X: The amount of translational velocity for the geometry in the X direction
as measured from the Center of Mass.

• Velocity : Translational : Y: The amount of translational velocity for the geometry in the Y direction
as measured from the Center of Mass.

• Velocity : Translational : Z: The amount of translational velocity for the geometry in the Z direction
as measured from the Center of Mass.

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Chapter 2: Ansys Motion Coupling Module
2.1. Introduction
Ansys Motion Coupling enables users to prescribe specific, complex motions for their equipment in Ansys
Motion and then have those same motions be used in a DEM simulation that is carried out by Rocky.

As illustrated in Figure 2.1: Standard Rocky Motion Frames vs. Ansys Motion Coupling Cabilities. (p. 29),
when compared to the standard method of defining Motion Frames in Rocky, movements defined with
Ansys Motion Coupling have the added benefit of simulating geometry-to-geometry interactions, stress
and deformation of geometry components, chained motions, and more.

Figure 2.1: Standard Rocky Motion Frames vs. Ansys Motion Coupling Cabilities.

The current implementation of Ansys Motion Coupling includes the installation of one module for the
Ansys Motion product, which enables Ansys Motion users to export all applicable geometries, motion
definitions, and motion solver files needed for coupling to a Functional Mock-Up Unit (FMU) file.

For Rocky, an internal module named Multibody Dynamics FMU Coupling is used to import that same
FMU file and have Rocky use it to simulate both the geometries and geometry motions during the DEM
simulation (Figure 2.2: Ansys Motion Coupling FMU file lifecycle. (p. 30)).

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Ansys Motion Coupling Module

Figure 2.2: Ansys Motion Coupling FMU file lifecycle.

2.2. System Requirements

This guide assumes that all the following system and program requirements have already been met.

• Users of Ansys Motion must ensure all the following:

– You have installed one of the compatible versions of Ansys Motion 2025 R1

– You have installed the Ansys Motion Module: FMU Setup for Rocky component.

• Users of Rocky must ensure all the following:

– You have installed Rocky version 2025 R1 or later.

– You have a valid license for your version of Ansys Motion. It is also required that you have Ansys
Motion installed on the same machine as Rocky.

2.3. Limitations
This version of Ansys Motion Coupling has the following limitations:

• Gravity direction must match in both Ansys Motion and Rocky.

• The Simulation Duration in Ansys Motion must be greater than or equal to the one set in Rocky.

In addition, there are specific limitations for each product, as described below.

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 Setup procedures

2.3.1. Ansys Motion limitations

This version of Ansys Motion Coupling is currently not compatible with the following Ansys Motion
features and functionality:

• Rigid bodies with beam elements

• Flexible bodies for which you want to have particle interactions

• Flexible bodies are supported on the Ansys Motion side of the coupled simulation; however, Rocky
will be unable to calculate particle interactions on those flexible bodies.

• Including flexible bodies in your coupled simulation might also increase the processing time.

2.3.2. Rocky limitations

This version of Ansys Motion Coupling is currently not compatible with the following Rocky features
and functionality:

• Motion Frames: A Rocky project with Ansys Motion Coupling cannot also have Motion Frames.
Your simulation will not start processing until all Motion Frames are removed.

• Resume processing a stopped simulation: Once you click Stop on the Solver tab, you might be
unable to resume processing from the point you stopped.

• Extend the duration of a simulation: Once you click Stop on the Solver tab, you might be unable
to extend your processing time. Or if you are able to extend your processing time, you might have
errors resuming processing.

• Save a copy of the partially processed simulation for restart purposes: If you choose to Save
as a New Project for Restart your Ansys Motion Coupling project, you might get errors when
creating the file. Or, if you are able to create the file, you might be unable to restart it.

2.4. Setup procedures

Once the System Requirements have been met for the product(s) you are using, you can begin setting
up either or both of your projects to perform its part of the Ansys Motion Coupling procedure.

2.4.1. Ansys Motion setup for coupling with Rocky

The steps you take in Ansys Motion to enable motions to be coupled with Rocky are as follows:

1. Open a compatible version of Ansys Motion Preprocessor.

2. Open an existing subsystem file or create a new subsystem file, setting up your equipment and
motions as you normally would.

Tips:

• Ensure your Gravity direction in Ansys Motion is set to what you later want to use in Rocky.
These must match for the coupling process to work.

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Ansys Motion Coupling Module

• Ensure your simulation time (T) in Ansys Motion is greater than Simulation Duration the you
later want to use in Rocky.

Because you cannot resume or extend a stopped simulation in Rocky, it is recommended that
you make the simulation time longer than you think you need.

• It’s recommended to use the default Ansys Motion unit system (m, kg, N, s, V, A), using Ansys
Motion Pre or Ansys Motion inside Ansys Mechanical environment. If the user needs to work
with millimeters, change the Postprocessor units settings (inside Analysis Settings) to "Convert
to Motion-specific (mm kg N s rad)". Manually changing the import scale, when importing
geometries to Rocky, will not fix the movements unit scale on Ansys Motion.

3. From the Work Navigator panel, under Generate Information, select the .dfsub file representing
the geometries and motions you want to couple with Rocky (Figure 2.3: Co-Simulator tab in Ansys
Motion. (p. 32)).

Figure 2.3: Co-Simulator tab in Ansys Motion.

4. From the Co-Simulator tab, click the Generate Information button on the Rocky Coupling
toolbar (Figure 2.3: Co-Simulator tab in Ansys Motion. (p. 32)).

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 Setup procedures

5. From the Rocky Coupling dialog (Figure 2.4: Rocky Coupling dialog in Ansys Motion. (p. 33)), do
the following:

a. For each of the rigid Body components without beam elements listed, do one or both of the
following:

• Enable the Output checkbox for each component you want motions to be shared with
Rocky.

• Enable the Input checkbox for each component you want forces and moments to be col-
lected due to interactions with particles. This data will then be used by the Ansys Motion
solver during processing.

b. Leave the FMI version as it is set by default.

c. Enter a Model description for the file.

d. Click the Export button.

Figure 2.4: Rocky Coupling dialog in Ansys Motion.

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Ansys Motion Coupling Module

6. From the Save As dialog, verify the file name and location, and then click Save. The progress bar
on the Rocky Coupling dialog indicates export status.

Important: To avoid errors during geometry import later, an FMU file should not be manually
renamed after it is generated.

7. From the confirmation message that appears, click OK.

8. Click Close to close the Rocky Coupling dialog.

At this point, you can share the FMU file with a Rocky user for them to complete the second part of
the coupling procedure, or continue with the next step yourself.

Sometimes, if inside the Ansys Motion set-up there are two or more geometries with the same name,
or maybe a geometry, a function expression, and a joint load properties named equally, Motion
automatically changes the name of the geometry with a prefix ID inside its post-processing. The user
can still export the FMU file with this configuration, but he will need to manually fix the geometry
name in Rocky’s side (remove the ID).

2.4.2. Rocky setup for coupling with Ansys Motion

The steps you take in Rocky to enable motions from Ansys Motion to be coupled with your DEM
simulation are as follows:

1. Open Rocky version or later.

2. Begin a new simulation project. (From the File menu, click New Project.)

3. From the Data panel, under Modules, select Multibody Dynamics FMU Coupling.

4. From the Data Editors panel, on the Multibody Dynamics FMU Coupling tab, do the following
(Figure 2.5: Rocky Coupling dialog in Multybody Dynamics FMU Coupling Module. (p. 34)):

Figure 2.5: Rocky Coupling dialog in Multybody Dynamics FMU Coupling Module.

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 Setup procedures

a. Click the FMU filename: button, and then from the Select file to import dialog, locate and
select the FMU file you want to use, and then click Open. Save the project now if you are
asked to do so.

b. From the Communication step size control list, select one of the following options:

• Automatic: For each time step in the motion tool, Rocky computes 100 timesteps.

• Manual: The motion tool’s time step is defined by the Communication step size value.

• Rocky timestep: The time step in the motion tool is the same as in Rocky.

c. If Manual was selected for Communication step size control, then in the Manual commu-
nication step size field, enter what time step you want the motion tool to use.

5. From the Data panel, right-click Geometries, and then click Import Geometry.

6. From the Select file to import dialog, locate and select one or more files in STL format containing
the geometries used in the motion tool project.

Important:

It is critical that you import the exact same geometry parts required for the
coupling and with the same exact names. Otherwise, the motions may not work.
If you later need to re-import a newer version of this FMU file, ensure that you
also update the geometry files. See Reimport an updated FMU file into Rocky
procedure for more details.

7. From the Import File Info dialog, select the options you want, and then click OK. The Geometries
list is populated with the components that were exported out of the motion tool.

8. Set up the rest of your simulation as you normally would, being careful to ensure the following:

• You have defined the gravity direction in Rocky to match what was set in the motion tool.

• You have defined the Simulation Duration in Rocky to be less than or equal to the duration
that was set in the motion tool.

9. Process your simulation and analyze the results in Rocky as you normally would.

Once you have started processing the simulation, avoid stopping the simulation as you will be
unable to resume processing once it has started. Refer to the Limitations section for more details.

2.4.3. Update an existing FMU file in Ansys Motion

If you have already created a FMU file in Ansys Motion but then later removed, added, or renamed
bodies in the Subsystem file, you can just follow the same steps you did originally to export the file
again.

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Ansys Motion Coupling Module

2.4.4. Re-import an updated FMU file into Rocky

Use the below procedure if you have already imported a prior version of the FMU file into Rocky, but
now have a newer version of the FMU file with which to replace it.

1. With the Rocky project open that contains information from the FMU file you want to update, do
the following:

a. Remove and then re-import the geometries added by the FMU file by doing the following:

i. From the Data panel, under Geometries, select or multi-select all the components that
were originally imported by the FMU file.

ii. Right-click the selected geometries, and then click Remove Geometries.

iii. Re-import the geometries via the updated FMU file as you normally would.

Alternatively, if you made only small changes to the bodies in Ansys Motion, you can make
those changes to individual Geometries in Rocky without removing all of them and importing
them again. However, you must ensure that the changes you make exactly match the inform-
ation in the FMU file you import into the Ansys Motion Coupling module.

b. Re-import the FMU file into the Ansys Motion Coupling module by following the Rocky setup
for coupling with Ansys Motion procedure.

2. Set up, process, and analyze the results of your simulation as you normally would.

2.5. Post-processing
After processing your coupled simulation, you will have new Curves for your geometry components,
depending upon whether they were selected to be exported out of Ansys Motion as an Output body
(Figure 2.6: Standard Ansys Motion Coupling Curves for a geometry that was exported out of Ansys Motion
as an Output. (p. 37)) – which has no interactions with Particles – or an Input body (Figure 2.7: Additional
Ansys Motion Coupling Curves for a geometry that was exported out of Ansys Motion as an Input. (p. 38))
– which does have interactions with Particles.

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 Post-processing

Figure 2.6: Standard Ansys Motion Coupling Curves for a geometry that was exported out of Ansys
Motion as an Output.

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Ansys Motion Coupling Module

Figure 2.7: Additional Ansys Motion Coupling Curves for a geometry that was exported out of
Ansys Motion as an Input.

These Curves are explained below:

• Acceleration : Rotational : X: The amount of rotational (angular) acceleration for the geometry in
the X direction as measured from the Center of Mass.

• Acceleration : Rotational : Y: The amount of rotational (angular) acceleration for the geometry in
the Y direction as measured from the Center of Mass.

• Acceleration : Rotational : Z: The amount of rotational (angular) acceleration for the geometry in
the Z direction as measured from the Center of Mass.

• Acceleration : Translational : X: The amount of translational acceleration for the geometry in the X
direction as measured from the Center of Mass.

• Acceleration : Translational : Y: The amount of translational acceleration for the geometry in the Y
direction as measured from the Center of Mass.

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 Post-processing

• Acceleration : Translational : Z: The amount of translational acceleration for the geometry in the Z
direction as measured from the Center of Mass.

• Displacement : X: The distance the geometry was displaced in the X direction.

• Displacement : Y: The distance the geometry was displaced in the Y direction.

• Displacement : Z: The distance the geometry was displaced in the Z direction.

• Force : X : Instantaneous: Only for geometries that were exported out of Ansys Motion as an Input
body, this provides the force applied to the geometry along the X axis.

• Force : Y : Instantaneous: Only for geometries that were exported out of Ansys Motion as an Input
body, this provides the force applied to the geometry along the Y axis.

• Force : Z : Instantaneous: Only for geometries that were exported out of Ansys Motion as an Input
body, this provides the force applied to the geometry along the Z axis.

• Moment : X: Instantaneous: Only for geometries that were exported out of Ansys Motion as an Input
body, this provides the moment (torque) applied to the geometry’s Center of Mass around the X axis.

• Moment : Y: Instantaneous : Only for geometries that were exported out of Ansys Motion as an Input
body, this provides the moment (torque) applied to the geometry’s Center of Mass along the Y axis.

• Moment : Z: Instantaneous: Only for geometries that were exported out of Ansys Motion as an Input
body, this provides the moment (torque) applied to the geometry’s Center of Mass along the Z axis.

• Orientation Angle: The angle the geometry is rotated around the Orientation Vector.

• Orientation Vector X: The X component defining the vector around which the geometry is rotated.

• Orientation Vector Y: The Y component defining the vector around which the geometry is rotated.

• Orientation Vector Z: The Z component defining the vector around which the geometry is rotated.

• Position X: The global coordinate of the geometry’s Center of Mass as specified in the X direction.

• Position Y: The global coordinate of the geometry’s Center of Mass as specified in the Y direction.

• Position Z: The global coordinate of the geometry’s Center of Mass as specified in the Z direction.

• Velocity : Rotational : X: The amount of rotational (angular) velocity for the geometry in the X dir-
ection as measured from the Center of Mass.

• Velocity : Rotational : Y: The amount of rotational (angular) velocity for the geometry in the Y direction
as measured from the Center of Mass.

• Velocity : Rotational : Z: The amount of rotational (angular) velocity for the geometry in the Z direction
as measured from the Center of Mass.

• Velocity : Translational : X: The amount of translational velocity for the geometry in the X direction
as measured from the Center of Mass.

• Velocity : Translational : Y: The amount of translational velocity for the geometry in the Y direction
as measured from the Center of Mass.

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Ansys Motion Coupling Module

• Velocity : Translational : Z: The amount of translational velocity for the geometry in the Z direction
as measured from the Center of Mass.

2.6. Troubleshooting
If you have trouble with either creating the FMU file in Ansys Motion or importing the FMU file in Rocky,
see the sections below for solutions.

If you have trouble finding the modules in either program, refer instead to the Ansys Motion Coupling
Installation Guide.

2.6.1. Troubleshooting in Ansys Motion

2.6.1.1. I have no "Generate Information Rocky Coupling" button

The Generate Information | Rocky Coupling button will only appear on the Co-Simulator tab if
you have successfully installed the Ansys Motion Coupling component.

2.6.1.2. I get a "Flexible Bodies" message

If after clicking the Generate Information button on the Rocky Coupling toolbar, you get a message
similar to the one shown in Figure 2.8: "Flexible Bodies" message in Ansys Motion. (p. 40), then
flexible bodies have been detected in your Ansys Motion project.

Figure 2.8: "Flexible Bodies" message in Ansys Motion.

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 Troubleshooting

If you require these flexible bodies for proper motion setup, you can click OK and continue with
your FMU file generation as usual. Just be aware that the flexible bodies will not be able to interact
with particles in Rocky when the coupled simulation is processed. Also know that a coupled simu-
lation with flexible bodies might take longer to process.

If you do not require these flexible bodies for proper motion setup, you can help reduce processing
time later by removing the flexible bodies from the Ansys Motion project, and then generating the
FMU file again. (Click OK on this message, cancel out of the FMU generation dialog, remove those
flexible bodies from your Ansys Motion project, and then click the Generate Information | Rocky
Coupling button again.) If you have properly removed the flexible bodies, then you should no
longer see the message shown in Figure 2.7: Additional Ansys Motion Coupling Curves for a geometry
that was exported out of Ansys Motion as an Input. (p. 38).

2.6.2. Troubleshooting in Rocky

2.6.2.1. Rocky will not process my coupled simulation

You must have a valid Ansys Motion license for one of the compatible versions in order for the
motion solver bundled with the imported FMU file to work inside Rocky and also have Ansys Motion
installed in the same machine as Rocky.. Refer to the System Requirements section for details about
compatible versions.

If you do not have this kind of license for Ansys, please contact your Ansys and/or Rocky represent-
ative for assistance.

2.6.2.2. I have duplicated geometries in Rocky

Whenever you have updated your FMU file in Ansys Motion, it is necessary to ensure that the
geometries in Rocky match the bodies within the FMU file. The easiest way to ensure this is to remove
all geometry components previously imported by the old FMU file, and then re-import the geometries
via the new FMU file.

If you have duplicated geometries in your Rocky project, then you might have re-imported geometries
from the FMU file before removing the old geometry components. Refer to the Re-import an updated
FMU file into Rocky section for specific steps.

2.6.2.3. I get an Ansys license manager error in Rocky

If after you start processing your coupled simulation in Rocky, you get an error similar to the one
shown in Figure 2.9: Ansys License Manager Error in Rocky. (p. 42), then you might not have an
active license for your Ansys Motion version. Refer to the System Requirements section for details
about compatible versions.

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Ansys Motion Coupling Module

Figure 2.9: Ansys License Manager Error in Rocky.

While you do not need to have a copy of Ansys Motion on the same machine you are running
Rocky, you do need to have an active license of Ansys in order to process the coupled simulation
in Rocky. Ensure your system meets the System Requirements, and then try processing your
coupled simulation again.

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Chapter 3: Bond Model Module
3.1. Usage details

3.1.1. Purpose of module

The Bond Model module allows you to create cylindrical shaped bonds between pairs of neighbor
particles. The module also allows you to specify the normal and the tangential strength limits of these
bonds, which will break when the external loads acting on them exceed these limits so the particles
will not be bonded anymore.

Figure 3.1: Example application of a drilling process using the Bond Model module.

3.1.2. Example application

Figure 3.1: Example application of a drilling process using the Bond Model module. (p. 43) shows an
example of how this module can be applied. The process of drilling a hole in the wall is simulated

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Bond Model Module

where neighboring particles are bonded to represent the concrete. As the rotary drill bit forwards
against the wall, the bonds strength limits are exceeded and the hole is formed.

3.1.3. Functionality details

This module works by applying particle-to-particle bonds between neighboring particles that have
the bond model enabled by you in the Materials Interactions properties and that are also located at
a distance lower than the activation distance, which is calculated indirectly according to the distance
factor and to the maximum elongation, both defined in the Rocky UI.

The bonds created by the Bond Model exert elastic and viscous forces and moments on the neighboring
particles as a reaction to deformations caused by their relative motion. Moreover, the bond model
includes also the possibility of adding particle-to-boundary bonds to the simulation.

3.1.4. Limitations and considerations

This module is not compatible with Multiple Element (flexible) particles nor with Coarse-Graining
Modeling (CGM).

Internally, the module associates every bond in the simulation to an adhesive contact and, as a con-
sequence, Rocky recognizes the module as an adhesive model. Therefore, even if there are no adhesion
effects enabled by this module, the iterative method being used takes the place of an adhesion
model and will therefore override what you have set for Adhesive Force on the Momentum tab of
the Physics entity (Figure 3.2:Physics | Momentum tab options when the Bond Model module is en-
abled. (p. 44)).

Figure 3.2: Physics | Momentum tab options when the Bond Model module is enabled.

Simulations using the Bond Model require the contacts data collection to be enabled by the Collect
Contacts Data checkbox from Contacts entity (Figure Figure 3.3:Contacts tab options. (p. 45)).
Moreover, these simulations can be resumed if you enable the option to save the adhesive contact
data. To do that, you must also enable the Include Adhesive Contacts checkbox for Contacts.

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 Usage details

Figure 3.3: Contacts tab options.

Simulations using the Bond Model module cannot be saved as project for Restart.

If you are running a simulation with both Bond Model and Particle Freeze Outside Region enabled, keep
in mind that any bond that leaves the region of interest will be lost. Thus, particles that were bonded
will no longer have bonds if they reenter the region of interest.

3.1.5. Module options

This module has one parameter that you can set, which is defined below and shown in Figure 3.4:Bond
Model module options. (p. 46).

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Bond Model Module

Figure 3.4: Bond Model module options.

where:

• Reference Time Step for non-Viscous Damping: This defines the reference amount of time
to dissipate energy through the non-viscous damping model.

Range: [Positive values]

Note:

This only needs attention if the non-viscous damping model will be used. Otherwise,
you can skip this setting.

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 Usage details

• Radius Multiplier Regions:

Note:

This only needs attention if you wants to customize the Bond radius. Otherwise,
you can skip this setting.

– Region Of Interest: The Region of Interest that you want to apply a radius multiplier to the
bond that are inside it when the bond is activated.

Range: [Any Region of Interest that has already been defined in the simulation]

– Radius Multiplier: This defines the radius multiplier that will be applied to the Bond radius.

Range: [Positive values]

3.1.5.1. Additional Materials Interactions options

Besides the parameter you define in the module itself, there are additional parameters you must
set for each materials interaction. See the section below for details.

There are ten additional parameters that you must set in the Materials Interactions entity, as shown
in Figure 3.5:Bond Model module materials interactions options. (p. 48).

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Bond Model Module

Figure 3.5: Bond Model module materials interactions options.

These parameters are explained below:

• Enable Bonds: This enables the bonds for the particles associated with the selected materials.

Range: [Turns on or off ]

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 Usage details

• Approximate Maximum Elongation: The estimated value of the largest elongation of any bond
during a simulation. The value of this parameter must be chosen carefully because a bond might
be deactivated if its actual elongation exceeds that maximum value, even if the bond breakage
criteria are not satisfied. On the other hand, the simulation performance can be compromised if
too large values are prescribed for this parameter.

Range: [Positive values]

• Damping Ratio: This defines the damping ratio attributed to the bond.

Range: [Positive values]

• Distance Factor: This defines the factor for the bonds activation distance calculation.

Range: [Positive values]

• Maximum Activation Distance: This defines the maximum distance for the bonds activation.

Range: [Positive values]

• Normal Stiffness Per Area: This defines the normal stiffness per area, which is used to calculate
the normal component of the linear elastic force applied on the particles in each bonded pair.

Range: [Positive values]

• Reference non-Viscous Damping Coefficient: This defines the reference non-viscous damping
coefficient attributed to the bond.

Range: [Positive values]

Note:

This is the input parameter of the Non-viscous damping model. If this parameter is
defined as zero, the Non-viscous damping model will not have effect on the simulation.

• Shear Stress Limit: This defines the shear stress limit of the bonds.

Range: [Positive values]

• Tangential Stiffness Per Area: This defines the tangential stiffness per area, which is used to
calculate the tangential component of the linear elastic force applied on the particles in each
bonded pair.

Range: [Positive values]

• Tensile Stress Limit: This defines the tensile stress limit of the bonds.

Range: [Positive values]

Since there are no adhesion effects enabled by this module, the parameter Adhesive Distance will
not be used in any calculations.

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Bond Model Module

3.1.5.2. Additional Inputs options

There is an additional parameter you must set for your Inputs. See the section below for details.

For the Inputs step, a new Modules sub-tab will appear to help you define the properties of the
particles, as shown below.

Note:

This sub-tab will appear only for the Particle Inlet and Volume Fill inputs. For Particle
Custom Inlets, there is not a Modules sub-tab; rather, the Modules parameters will appear
on the main tab for Particle Custom Inlets.

Figure 3.6: Bond Model module inputs options.

• Bond Activation Time: Defines the specific time when the bonds activation happens.

Range: [Positive values]

3.1.6. Post-processing abilities

After processing your simulation, you can analyze the results using the same contact-related properties
that are available by default in Rocky.

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 Usage details

In addition, some extra contact properties are available as shown in Figure 3.7: Additional Contact
Properties created by the Bond Model module. (p. 51) and explained below.

Figure 3.7: Additional Contact Properties created by the Bond Model module.

Note:

Properties generated by this module will only appear if the Meshed Particles Upscaling is
disabled. Refer to Rocky User Manual (About Meshed Particles Upscaling) for more details.

• Bond Force : X: is the bond force component in the X direction.

• Bond Force : Y: is the bond force component in the Y direction.

• Bond Force : Z: is the bond force component in the Z direction.

• Bond Moment : X: is the bond moment component in the X direction.

• Bond Moment : Y: is the bond moment component in the Y direction.

• Bond Moment : Z: is the bond moment component in the Z direction.

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Bond Model Module

• Bond Shear Stress: is the bond shear stress at the current time.

• Bond State: is a criterion that classifies whether the bond is active, inactive or broken. When equals
to 0, the bond is inactive; when equals to 1, the bond is active; and when equals to 2, the bond is
broken.

• Bond Tensile Stress: is the bond tensile stress at the current time.

• Bond Volume: is the cylindrical volume of bond.

• Radius Multiplier: is the radius multiplier applied to the bond.

Moreover, two additional properties are available for the particles as shown in Figure 3.8: Additional
Particle Properties created by the Bond Model module. (p. 52) and explained below.

Figure 3.8: Additional Particle Properties created by the Bond Model module.

• Bond Activation Time: is the time when the bond was activated.

• Particle Broken Bonds: is the number of broken bonds for the particle.

3.1.7. Setting up and using the module

1. Ensure that the module is enabled. (From the Data panel, select Modules and then from the
Data Editors panel, ensure the Bond Model checkbox is enabled.)

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 Technical details

2. From the Data panel, under Modules, select Bond Model.

3. From the Data Editors panel, enter the values you want for the bond model parameters.

4. Continue setting up the project as you normally would.

5. Prior to processing your simulation, ensure that you do the following for each material that will
be assigned to particles that you want to have bonds in your project:

a. From the Data panel, select Materials, and from the Materials Interactions tab, select the
materials that you assigned to the particles that will have bonds, and then from the Data Ed-
itors panel do the following:

i. From the Materials Interactions tab, enable the Enable Bonds option.

ii. From the Materials Interactions tab, enter the values you want for the bond model
parameters.

b. From the Data panel, under Inlets and Outlets, select the inlet entity, and then from the Data
Editors panel do the following:

i. From the Modules tab, define the Bond Activation Time.

6. Process your simulation as you normally would.

7. When you are ready to analyze your simulation results, you may choose to make use of any contact-
related property and may also make use of the additional module-related properties.

3.2. Technical details

The bond model implemented in this module is similar to the models described in [2] (p. 377) and
[3] (p. 377). In this model, a bond is a massless entity of cylindrical shape attached to a pair of neighboring
particles, that exerts elastic and viscous forces and moments on them as a reaction to deformations
caused by their relative motion. If the external load acting on a bond exceeds its specified strength, it
will break and its bonding action over the particles will cease.

Bonds are created between pairs of particles (or a particle and boundary) satisfying the following two
conditions:

• Bonds are explicitly enabled for the material interaction associated to the pair of particles (or a particle
and boundary) by turning on the checkbox Enable Bonds in the Rocky UI.

• The closest points of the particles pair surfaces (or a particle and boundary) have a distance from
each other, which is lower/equal than the activation distance given by:

(3.1)

where and are the radii of the bonded particles, as shown in Figure 3.9: Geometry of the bond
between two spherical particles of different sizes. (p. 54), while and are input parameters
listed as Distance Factor and Maximum Activation Distance in the Rocky UI, respectively. The ac-

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Bond Model Module

tivation of bonds happens only once during a simulation, at a specific time defined by the value of
the parameter listed as Bond Activation Time in the Rocky UI.

Note:

For non-spherical particles, the radius is replaced by one half of the sieve size in
equation Equation 3.1 (p. 53) and other equations including it.

Since Rocky calculates forces and solves motion equations at discrete times, the actual
activation of the bonds will happen at the discrete time nearest to the specified activ-
ation time.

Figure 3.9: Geometry of the bond between two spherical particles of different sizes.

The search algorithm has an increment to compensate the bond tensile deformations during the simu-
lation. This will guarantee the Bond remains inside the search algorithm and avoids deactivating a Bond
wrongly:
(3.2)

where is an input parameter listed as Approximate Maximum Elongation.

The radius of the bond between two particles (or a particle and boundary) depends only on the radii
of those particles, by means of the following equation:
(3.3)

where is an input parameter listed as Radius Multiplier.

Note:

If you skipped the settings of Radius Multiplier Regions on Rocky UI, a default value of
1 will be used.

At the time of its activation, a bond is in an undeformed state. From that time on, any relative motion
of the bonded particles will cause a deformation on the bond, to which it will react exerting forces and
moments opposing to that relative motion. The bond deformation can be linear or angular, being the
former caused by both the translational and rotational motion of the bonded particles, while the latter
is exclusive consequence of their rotational motion. In the module, both types of deformation are cal-
culated incrementally, starting from the time of bond activation, . Thus, the linear deformation of a
bond at any given time is given by:

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 Technical details

(3.4)

where is the instantaneous relative velocity at the center point of the bond, , while is the sim-
ulation timestep. Internally, the module associates every bond in the simulation to an adhesive contact.
Therefore, the center point of a bond will coincide with the point where Rocky locates the associated
adhesive contact. That point is located in the middle of the shortest segment between the two bonded
particles, as depicted in Figure 3.9: Geometry of the bond between two spherical particles of different
sizes. (p. 54).The relative velocity is calculated as:
(3.5)
where:

• and are the translational velocities of the bonded particles.

• and are the rotational velocities of the bonded particles. For particle-to-boundary bonds,
and will be the translational and rotational velocity of the boundary.

• is the vector that joins the centroid of the particle to the bond's center point . The definition
is equivalent for the vector .

The bond in the considered model will oppose to the linear deformation by exerting an elastic force
on both bonded particles. The normal and tangential components of this force will be given, respectively,
by:
(3.6)
(3.7)
where:

• and are the normal and tangential stiffnesses per unit area, respectively. These are input
parameters which are listed as Normal Stiffness Per Area and Tangential Stiffness Per Area, re-
spectively, in the Rocky UI.

• is the cross-sectional area of the bond.

• and are, respectively, the normal and tangential components of the bond's linear deformation
.

The decomposition of the vector is carried out by using the following simple expressions:
(3.8)
(3.9)
in which is the normal unit vector parallel to bond's axis, as depicted schematically in Figure 3.10: Forces
and moments exerted by a bond on a particle. (p. 56). At any given time, the shortest distance between
the two bonded particles will be in the direction of this unit vector. It is worth noting that depending
on the relative motion of the particles, can be positive or negative. Therefore, the normal force
can be attractive or repulsive.

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Bond Model Module

Figure 3.10: Forces and moments exerted by a bond on a particle.

As previously stated, a bond will also react to angular deformations caused by the relative rotation of
the bonded particles, by exerting a moment opposing to that deformation. As in the linear deformation
case, the angular deformation of a bond, , is also calculated incrementally. The expression employed
in this case is:

(3.10)

where is the relative rotational velocity, given simply by:

(3.11)

The normal component of the angular deformation vector, , represents a torsional deformation of
the bond, while the tangential component, , characterizes the bond's bending. The corresponding
torsional and bending components of the moment that oppose to those angular deformations are cal-
culated, respectively, as:
(3.12)
(3.13)
where:

• and are the normal and tangential stiffnesses per unit area, respectively. These are input
parameters which are listed as Normal Stiffness Per Area and Tangential Stiffness Per Area, re-
spectively, in the Rocky UI.

• is the polar moment of inertia of the bonds cross-section.

• is the moment of inertia of the bonds cross-section.

In order to obtain the normal and tangential components of the bonds angular deformation, this vector
is decomposed using expressions equivalent to Equation 3.8 (p. 55) and Equation 3.9 (p. 55).

In addition to the elastic forces and moments described above, in this module a bond may also exert
viscous forces and moments intended for reducing oscillations that may arise between bonded particles.
The normal and tangential components of those forces and moments are calculated using the following
expressions:
(3.14)

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 Technical details

(3.15)

(3.16)

(3.17)

where:

• is the damping ratio attributed to the bond. The value of this parameter can be specified by users
and is listed in the Rocky UI as Damping Ratio. For this parameter is allowed any value in the interval
between 0 and 1, the larger the value, the faster oscillations will be damped out.

• is the equivalent mass of the pair of bonded particles, whose masses are and . For
particle-to-boundary bonds, this equivalent mass will be equal to the mass of the bonded particle.

• and are the normal and tangential components, respectively, of the relative velocity vector
defined by Equation 3.5 (p. 55). Expressions equivalent to equations Equation 3.8 (p. 55) and Equa-
tion 3.9 (p. 55) are used to decompose that vector.

• and are the normal and tangential components, respectively, of the relative rotational velocity
vector defined by Equation 3.11 (p. 56). Expressions equivalent to equations Equation 3.8 (p. 55) and
Equation 3.9 (p. 55) are used to decompose that vector.

This implementation can also include a non-viscous damping model to the bond, which is defined as
a relaxation factor. The bond forces and moments are calculated in a time incremental algorithm and
the relaxation factor is applied to the previous forces and moments during the calculation [2] (p. 377).
The description for the time incremental and next value are written below for the normal bond force,
but the same incremental method is applied to the other forces and moments:
(3.18)
(3.19)

where is the normal bond force from previous timestep and is the non-viscous damping coeffi-
cient. If , the previous timestep force value is fully used to the next timestep and no force/energy
is dissipated, and if , a dissipation occurs since the previous timestep value is only partially carried
to the next timestep.

The non-viscous damping coefficient is simulation timestep independent and defined as:
(3.20)

where:

• is the Reference non-Viscous Damping Coefficient parameter available in the Rocky UI.

• is the Reference Time Step for non-Viscous Damping parameter available in the Rocky UI.

Another distinctive feature of the bond model implemented in this module is the ability to break bonds
whose strength capacity has been exceeded, and remove them from the simulation. The breakage cri-

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Bond Model Module

terion is based on the maximum values of the tensile and shear stresses acting on the periphery of the
bond. Those values are given, respectively, by [3] (p. 377):

(3.21)

(3.22)

During a simulation the values of the maximum tensile and shear stresses are constantly monitored for
all active bonds. When exceeds the tensile strength limit or exceeds the shear strength limit,
the bond breaks and, consequently, is deactivated immediately. After such a breakage event, a bond
cannot be reactivated again during the simulation. The values of the tensile and shear stress limits can
be specified through the parameters Tensile Stress Limit and Shear Stress Limit, respectively, in the
Rocky UI.

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Chapter 4: Boundary Outlet Module
4.1. Usage details

4.1.1. Purpose of module

This module enables you to define an imported geometry component and/or default conveyor as an
outlet for particles. Any particle coming into contact with a boundary defined as a Boundary Outlet
will be removed from the simulation, similarly to the way particles are removed when they cross the
limits of the simulation domain.

Selecting this module will not override any models or settings in the Rocky UI.

4.1.2. Functionality details

The Boundary Outlet module constantly checks if particles become in contact with boundaries that
have been defined as Boundary Outlets. When a particle touches one of these boundaries, it is removed
from the simulation immediately.

4.1.3. Limitations and considerations

The functionality enabled by this module applies both to geometry components that you have imported
into Rocky, and to Rocky conveyor templates, such as Feed and Receiving Conveyors. Only Rocky Inlet
geometries will not be able to be defined as Boundary Outlets.

4.1.4. Module options

This module has no options on the Module itself. However, there are module-related parameters that
you define in other parts of the Rocky UI. (See sections below.)

4.1.4.1. Additional options enabled in the UI

This module has additional parameters you must set for your Geometries. See the section below for
details.

For the Geometries setup step, a new Modules sub-tab will appear to help you define the properties
of the geometry, as shown in Figure 4.1:Boundary Outlet module options for an individual geometry
component that you have imported. (p. 60) and explained below.

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Boundary Outlet Module

Figure 4.1: Boundary Outlet module options for an individual geometry component that you
have imported.

Boundary Outlet

• Treat Boundary as an Outlet for Particles: When enabled, this boundary will be used as an
outlet for particles; any particles that come in contact with this boundary will be removed from
the simulation. When cleared, this boundary will not be used as an outlet for particles.

Range: [Turns on or off ]

• Start Time:This defines the time you want the boundary to begin acting as an outlet for particles.

Range: [Positive values]

• Stop Time: This defines the time you want the boundary to stop acting as an outlet for particles.

Range: [Positive values]

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 Usage details

4.1.5. Setting up and using the module

1. Ensure that the geometry component or conveyor template you want to define as an Boundary
Outlet has been imported or added into the project.

2. Ensure that the module is enabled. (From the Data panel, select Modules and then from the Data
Editors panel, ensure the Boundary Outlet checkbox is enabled.)

3. From the Data panel, under Geometries, select (or multi-select) the individual geometry (or
geometries) that you want to define as an Boundary Outlet and then from the Data Editors panel,
on the Geometry | Modules tab (or the ...Conveyor | Modules tab), do the following:

a. Enable the Treat Boundary as an Outlet for Particles checkbox

b. Define the Start Time and Stop Time values you want

4. Set up and process the simulation as you normally would. During the simulation, any particle that
comes into contact with a boundary defined as an outlet for particles will be immediately removed
from the simulation.

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Chapter 5: CFD Particle Combustion Module (Beta)
Important:

Note that beta features have not been fully tested and validated. Ansys, Inc. makes no
commitment to resolve defects reported against these prototype features. However,
your feedback will help us improve the overall quality of the product. We will not
guarantee that the projects using this beta feature will run successfully when the feature
is finally released so you may, therefore, need to modify the projects.

5.1. Usage details

5.1.1. Purpose of module

The CFD-Coupled Particle Combustion module enables you to consider the reaction of coal particles
during combustion, with two parallel reactions, and .

In this problem, conduction and convection are considered in the heat transfer modeling, as the
local temperature affects the combustion rates. Radiation effects can be included through the Thermal
Radiation module. Because of these abilities, it is designed to work with Rocky's 2-Way Fluent coupling
method, and Thermal Model.

Note:

For more information about the CFD Coupling mode and the Thermal Model options
included in Rocky, refer to the Rocky User Manual.

5.1.2. About particle combustion

As illustrated in Figure 5.1: Particle combustion over time using the CFD-Coupled Particle Combustion
module. (p. 64), the fluid reacts with the solid particle. The carbon core will be combusted, and its
mass reduced, whereas the ash layer will not react.

Two reactions occur in parallel. In the first one, the oxygen from the air oxidizes the particle's carbon
content. This leads to the oxygen and carbon consumption, carbon dioxide generation and the con-
sequent particle size reduction. Similarly, in the second one, the carbon dioxide from the air reacts
with the particle's carbon content to release carbon monoxide, reducing the particle size as well.

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CFD Particle Combustion Module (Beta)

Figure 5.1: Particle combustion over time using the CFD-Coupled Particle Combustion
module.

5.1.3. Functionality details

The CFD-Coupled Particle Combustion module works by computing the particle reactions rates based
on local CFD cell-based information, such as temperature, species concentration, pressure, and flow
velocity.

As the reactions occur, the burn-off (quantity of reactive, i.e. carbon, mass consumed) is updated,
depending on how the particle mass decreases, also reflecting in its volume. This is done, preserving
the particle density constant. On the fluid side, the mass consumption/production of species is sent
to Fluent in the form of mass sink/source terms.

The heat of reaction for both reactions are considered to affect only the particle energy equation,
and therefore, no corresponding energy source terms are sent to Fluent.

5.1.4. Limitations and considerations

Due to the species transfer between Rocky and Fluent, this module will not work with 1-Way LBM,
1-Way Constant, 1-Way Fluent, nor the 2-Way Fluent Semi-Resolved CFD Coupling modes. The de-
pendencies of the module include the following:

• 2-Way Fluent CFD Coupling Mode must be enabled in Rocky.

• The Thermal Model must be enabled in Rocky.

• The module only works for oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide, so the fluid
species must be named "o2", "n2", "co2" and "co", respectively.

This module also does not support CGM.

Important:

Nitrogen needs to be set as last species in Fluent.

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 Usage details

5.1.5. Module options

The CFD-Coupled Particle Combustion module has some input parameters, split into the Species, Reac-
tions and Advanced tab in the GUI, as illustrated in Figure 5.2: CFD-Coupled Particle Combustion
module options under the Species tab. (p. 65) to Figure 5.4: CFD-Coupled Particle Combustion module
options under the Advanced Tab. (p. 66). These parameters are explained below:

Figure 5.2: CFD-Coupled Particle Combustion module options under the Species tab.

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CFD Particle Combustion Module (Beta)

Figure 5.3: CFD-Coupled Particle Combustion module under the Reactions Tab.

Figure 5.4: CFD-Coupled Particle Combustion module options under the Advanced Tab.

Oxygen:

• O2 laminar diffusivity: Oxygen laminar diffusivity.

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 Usage details

Range: [Positive values]

• O2 formation enthalpy: Oxygen formation enthalpy.

Range: [Negative values]

Note:

Refer to the Technical details (p. 75) section for more information.

Carbon Dioxide:

• CO2 laminar diffusivity: Carbon dioxide laminar diffusivity.

Range: [Positive values]

• CO2 formation enthalpy: Carbon dioxide formation enthalpy.

Range: [Negative values]

Note:

Refer to the Technical details (p. 75) section for more information.

Carbon Monoxide:

• CO laminar diffusivity: Carbon monoxide laminar diffusivity.

Range: [Positive values]

• CO formation enthalpy: Carbon monoxide formation enthalpy.

Range: [Negative values]

Note:

Refer to the Technical details (p. 75) section for more information.

R1:

• R1 pre-exponential factor [m/s.K] : Pre-exponential factor for the carbon-oxygen reaction

(R1).

Range: [Positive values]

Note:

Refer to the Technical details (p. 75) section for more information.

• R1 activation temperature [K]: Activation temperature for the carbon-oxygen reaction (R1).

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CFD Particle Combustion Module (Beta)

Range: [Positive values]

Note:

Refer to the Technical details (p. 75) section for more information.

R2:

• R2 pre-exponential factor [m/s.K] : Pre-exponential factor for the carbon-carbon dioxide re-
action (R2).

Range: [Positive values]

Note:

Refer to the Technical details (p. 75) section for more information.

• R2 activation temperature [K]: Activation temperature for the carbon-carbon dioxide reaction
(R2).

Range: [Positive values]

Note:

Refer to the Technical details (p. 75) section for more information.

Advanced:

• Reference pressure [Pa]: Fluid reference pressure set in Fluent.

Range: [Positive values]

Important:

Rocky Solver SDK cannot get the reference pressure from Fluent, so this is mistake-prone.

• Maximum allowed burn-off: Maximum burn-off values. Above this value, the particle is removed.

Range: [Positive values]

• Combustion cut-off particle size ratio: Minimum ratio between the carbon core size and the
particle total size. Below this value, the particle is no longer reactive, but is not removed from the
simulation.

Range: [0,1]

• Combustion Start Time [s]: Defines the time that combustion starts to take place.

Range: [Positive values]

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5.1.5.1. Additional Input options

In addition to the module itself, there will be additional CFD-Coupled Particle Combustion parameters
available for Inputs. See the below sections for details.

5.1.5.1.1. Particle Inlets and Volumetric inlets

For Particle Inlets and Volumetric Inlets, a new Modules sub-tab will appear to help you define
the initial carbon content of the particles, as shown in Figure 5.5: Options for a Continuous Injection
input (p. 69) and Figure 5.6: Options for a Volumetric Inlet input. (p. 70). Within the table on the
Modules sub-tab, the parameters (columns) can be set per Particle set (row), as defined below.

Figure 5.5: Options for a Continuous Injection input

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CFD Particle Combustion Module (Beta)

Figure 5.6: Options for a Volumetric Inlet input.

• Particle: For each row, lists the Particle set that is defined on the Particles sub-tab.

Range: [Automatically provided]

• Carbon content: The mass fraction of carbon that a particle initially has.

Range: [0,1]

5.1.5.1.2. Custom Inputs

For Custom Inputs, a new CFD-Coupled Particle Combustion sub-tab will appear to help you
define the carbon content of the particles, as shown in Figure 5.7: Options for a Custom Inlet in-
put. (p. 71).

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 Usage details

Figure 5.7: Options for a Custom Inlet input.

5.1.6. Postprocessing abilities

After processing the simulation, some new properties will be available for the main Particles entity
(Figure 5.8: Particles properties when the CFD-Coupled Particle Combustion is enabled. (p. 73)). You
can choose to analyze these properties in a plot or histogram window. Or you can choose to display
this property graphically in a 3D View window.

Note:

Refer also to the Graphing (Plot or Histogram) a Data Set Within Rocky topic in the Rocky
User Manual.

Note:

Refer also to the View Geometries, Particles, Points, and Fluids in 3D topic in the Rocky
User Manual.

• Carbon content: The mass fraction of carbon that a particle initially has.

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CFD Particle Combustion Module (Beta)

• Burn-off: The instantaneous burn-off, i.e., the percentage of reactive mass (carbon) already con-
sumed.

• Carbon Content: the particle mass percentage of carbon.

• Mass Increment: The particle mass increment.

• Volume Increment: The particle volume increment.

• R1 Ash Layer Resistance: the ash layer resistance for the carbon-oxygen reaction.

• R1 Heat of Reaction: the heat due to the carbon-oxygen reaction.

• R1 Mass Diffusion Resistance: the mass diffusion resistance for the carbon-oxygen reaction.

• R1 Reaction Rate: the rate in which the carbon-oxygen reaction occurs.

• R1 Surface Reaction Resistance: the surface reaction resistance for the carbon-oxygen reaction.

• R2 Ash Layer Resistance: the ash layer resistance for the carbon-carbon dioxide reaction.

• R2 Heat of Reaction: the heat due to the carbon-carbon dioxide reaction.

• R2 Mass Diffusion Resistance: the mass diffusion resistance for the carbon-carbon dioxide reaction.

• R2 Reaction Rate: the rate in which the carbon-carbon dioxide reaction occurs.

• R2 Surface Reaction Resistance: the surface reaction resistance for the carbon-carbon dioxide
reaction.

• Unreacted Core Size Ratio: the ratio between the carbon core and the particle size.

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Figure 5.8: Particles properties when the CFD-Coupled Particle Combustion is enabled.

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CFD Particle Combustion Module (Beta)

5.1.7. Setting up and using the module

Step 1: Ensure that your case files are set up correctly. Specifically, ensure the Fluent case has the
Energy equation and Species Transport activated. Ensure that the species are "o2", "co2", "co", and
"n2", which needs to be set as the last species when setting the Mixture in Fluent, as shown below.

Figure 5.9: Setting the mixture species in Fluent.

Step 2: Ensure that the module is enabled (From the Data panel, select Modules and then from the
Data Editors panel, ensure the CFD-Coupled Particle Combustion checkbox is enabled).

Step 3: From the Data panel, under Modules, select the new entry for CFD-Coupled Particle Combus-
tion.

Step 4: From the Data Editors panel, on the CFD-Coupled Particle Combustion tab, enter the values
you want.

Note:

Refer to the Module options (p. 65) section for details.

Step 5: Continue setting up the simulation as you normally would, with the following exceptions:

1. When setting up your Physics parameters, ensure that the Thermal Model is enabled.

Note:

Refer to the Rocky Enable Thermal Modeling Calculations topic in the Rocky User Manual
for details.

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 Technical details

2. When setting up your Physics parameters, ensure that the Thermal Model is enabled.

Note:

Refer to the Rocky User Manual for setup details and/or refer to the Set or Modify Fluid
and/or Air Flow Properties topic in the Rocky User Manual for details.

Step 6: Process the simulation as you normally would.

Note:

Refer to the Processing a Simulation topic in the Rocky User Manual.

Step 7: When you are ready to post-process your simulation results, you can make use of the new
parameters on the Properties tab for the main Particles entity.

Note:

Refer to the Postprocessing abilities (p. 71) section for details.

5.2. Technical details

The CFD-Coupled Particle Combustion module considers that a particle, p, made of reactive (carbon)
and non-reactive (ash) material at a temperature, , is subjected to a fluid flow (oxygen, nitrogen,
carbon dioxide, and carbon monoxide) at a certain velocity, pressure, and temperature. The combustible
particle is considered using the unreacted core model. The reactive material resides in the core,
whereas the ashes are in the surface, as illustrated by Figure 5.1: Particle combustion over time using
the CFD-Coupled Particle Combustion module. (p. 64).

The carbon from the particle reacts with the oxygen, producing carbon dioxide. In parallel to it, the
carbon from the particle reacts with carbon dioxide, producing carbon monoxide. The two reactions
can be represented by the following equations:

Each rate of change of molar concentration is given by:

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CFD Particle Combustion Module (Beta)

where and are the reaction rates (mol/s) for and , respectively.

As in Zhang et al. (2013), the reaction rates are generically given as:

in which , the effective resistance, is defined as in Wang and Shen (2021):

where:

• is the stoichiometric coefficient. As it is one for both reactions, it is suppressed for simplicity;

• is the reactant species molecular weight (kg/mol);

• is the particle surface area (m3);

• is the reactant species density (kg/m3);

• is the film resistance (m/s);

• is the surface reaction resistance (m/s);

• is the ash layer resistance (m/s).

The film resistance is given as in Zhang et al. (2013) by:

where:

• is the species laminar diffusivity;

• Sh is the Sherwood number;

• is the species laminar diffusivity;

The surface reaction resistance is given as in Zhang et al. (2013) by:

where:

• is the pre-exponential factor for ;

• is the activation temperature for ;

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 Technical details

The ash layer resistance is given as in Wang and Shen (2021) by:

where:

• is the unreacted core diameter ratio;

• is the effective ash diffusivity;

Assuming that the particle has a constant density, the unreacted core diameter ratio is:

where:

• is the carbon core diameter;

• is the carbon content;

• is the initial carbon content.

And the effective diffusivity is given by:

and imply the consumption and the generation of species, which reflects on how the particle
mass changes over time:

where is the molecular weight of carbon.

Conversely, this also happens for each fluid species, and the mass source terms are sent to Fluent.

For the energy conservation, the first law of thermodynamics is given by:

where:

• is the particle mass;

• is the specific heat;

The heat of reaction rate for , , can be obtained by:

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CFD Particle Combustion Module (Beta)

where is the carbon dioxide formation enthalpy.

The heat of reaction rate for , , can be obtained by:

where is the carbon monoxide formation enthalpy.

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Chapter 6: CFD Particle Drying Module
6.1. Usage details

6.1.1. Purpose of module

The CFD-Coupled Particle Drying module enables you to consider how the particle's moisture content
influences the rate of evaporation.

In many applications, wet granular material is allowed to dry by the action of a drying media, such
as hot air, whose main role is to remove moisture and carry it downstream. This module enables you
to specify how much moisture is in a particle at the start of the simulation, and then define both how
it dries and over what time period.

Because of these abilities, it is designed to work in combination with several Rocky CFD Coupling
modes (specifically, the 1-Way Constant, 1-Way Fluent Steady State, and 2-Way Fluent methods), the
Rocky Thermal Model, and the Coarse-Grain Model (CGM).

6.1.2. About particle drying

As illustrated in Figure 6.1: Particle drying rate over time as a function of the moisture content. (p. 79),
particles can have an initial moisture content that favors evaporation, called free moisture.

Figure 6.1: Particle drying rate over time as a function of the moisture content.

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CFD Particle Drying Module

As drying takes place, diffusion of the water vapor across the air-moisture interface is the rate-con-
trolling mechanism. Towards the end, moisture has to be transported from inside the particle to the
surface by capillary forces and the drying rate may still be constant until the critical moisture content
is reached.

At this point, the surface film of moisture has been so reduced by evaporation that further drying
causes dry spots to appear upon the surface. This stage is called the falling rate period and it proceeds
until the surface film of the liquid is entirely evaporated.

In order to keep on drying, the ability with which moisture can move through the solid as a result of
concentration gradients between the deeper parts of the particle and its surface controls the rate of
evaporation. This is known as the 2nd stage of the falling rate period. Overall, the drier the particle,
the harder it is to keep drying. When the condition to which the particle is subjected is no longer
capable of removing any additional moisture, the equilibrium moisture content is reached.

6.1.3. Functionality details

The CFD-Coupled Particle Drying module works by computing the local rate of evaporation based on
the local fluid temperature, velocity, and pressure. The rate of evaporation is then corrected depending
on the particle moisture content, in order to mimic the effect of the falling rate regime.

6.1.4. Limitations and considerations

This module will not work with 1-Way LBM nor the 2-Way Fluent Semi-Resolved CFD Coupling modes.

Species transfer between Rocky and Fluent is only considered for the water vapor when this module
is used with the 2-Way Fluent coupling mode. Therefore, when used with the other supported coupling
modes (1-Way Constant and 1-Way Fluent Steady State), humidity is considered constant and local
humidity changes are not taken into account.

The module's dependencies include the following:

• Either the 1-Way Constant, 1-Way Fluent Steady State, or 2- Way Fluent CFD Coupling Mode
must be enabled in Rocky. Also:

– In the case of 1-Way Fluent Steady State coupling, a temperature field must be available in the
Fluent case.

– In the case of 2-Way Fluent coupling, the solution for the Energy equation must be activated
in the Fluent case.

• The Thermal Model must be enabled in Rocky.

6.1.5. Module options

The CFD-Coupled Particle Drying module has several input parameters as illustrated in Figure 6.2:CFD-
Coupled Particle Drying module input parameters. (p. 81).

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 Usage details

Figure 6.2: CFD-Coupled Particle Drying module input parameters.

These parameters are explained below:

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CFD Particle Drying Module

• Solvent Molar Mass: The solvent molar mass, which should be provided in the SI unit.

Range: [Positive values]

• Solvent Mass Diffusivity (Drying Media): The solvent mass diffusivity, which should be provided
in the SI unit.

Range: [Positive values]

• Solute Density *: The density of the liquid being dried out.

Range: [Positive values]

• Solute Mass Fraction *: This defines the ratio mass of solute to the liquid solution mass. As the
liquid evaporates, the equivalent solute mass will be added to the particle mass and the particle
volume will be updated accordingly.

Range: [0,1]

• Critical Moisture Content: The particle moisture content below which evaporation transitions from
a constant to a falling rate regime.

Range: [0,1]

• Equilibrium Moisture Content: The particle moisture content at which evaporation no longer
takes place.

Range: [0,1]

• Drying Air Relative Humidity: The relative humidity of the drying air. This will be treated as a
constant scalar field.

Range: [0,1]

• Drying Start Time *: Defines the time that drying starts to take place.

Range: [Positive values]

• Drying Stop Time *: Defines the time that drying stops taking place.

Range: [Positive values greater than Drying Start Time]

• Drying Duration: Defines for how long drying will take place.

Range: [Positive values smaller than Drying Stop Time - Drying Start Time]

• Drying Period: Drying cycle period. This parameter combined with Drying Start Time, Drying
Stop Time, and Drying Duration, allows the user to define periodic drying cycles.

Range: [Positive values greater than Drying Duration]

• Mass Transfer Law: Defines the mass transfer law.

• Damping Function B Coefficient: Parameter used to adjust the damping function.

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 Usage details

Range: [Positive values]

• Damping Function Coefficient: Parameter used to adjust the damping function.

Range: [Positive values]

• Damping Function Coefficient: Parameter used to adjust the damping function.

Range: [Positive values]

• Switch to Absorption?: Allows the module to remove moisture from the surrounding media.

6.1.5.1. Additional Inputs options

In addition to the module itself, there will be additional CFD-Coupled Particle Drying parameters
available for Inputs. See the below sections for details.

For Particle Inlet Inputs and Volumetric Inlet Inputs, a new Modules sub-tab will appear to help you
define the initial moisture content of the particles, as shown in Figure 6.3: Options for a Particle Inlet
Input (left) and a Volumetric Inlet Input (right). (p. 83).

Figure 6.3: Options for a Particle Inlet Input (left) and a Volumetric Inlet Input (right).

Within the table on the Modules sub-tab, one parameter (column) can be set per Particle set (row),
as defined below:

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CFD Particle Drying Module

• Particle: For each row, lists the Particle set that is defined on the Particles sub-tab.

Range: [Automatically provided]

• Moisture Content: This defines the initial moisture content that will be applied to each particle
within the selected Particle set when it enters into the simulation.

Range: [Values zero or greater]

• Mass Increment: This defines the initial increment mass-in relation to the original mass of each
individual whole particle or fragment-that will be applied to each particle within the selected
Particle set when it enters into the simulation.

Range: [Values zero or greater]

• Volume Increment: This defines the initial increment volume-in relation to the original volume
of each individual whole particle or fragment-that will be applied to each particle within the se-
lected Particle set when it enters into the simulation.

Range: [Values zero or greater]

For Particle Custom Inlet, a new section will appear to help you define the moisture content input
properties of the particles, as shown in Figure 6.4: Options for a Particle Custom Inlet. (p. 85). The
parameters in this section are defined exactly the same as indicated in the preceding section.

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 Usage details

Figure 6.4: Options for a Particle Custom Inlet.

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CFD Particle Drying Module

6.1.6. Post-processing abilities

After processing the simulation, several new properties will be available for the main Particles entity
(Figure 6.5:Particles Properties when the CFD-Coupled Particle Drying module is enabled. (p. 87)).

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 Usage details

Figure 6.5: Particles Properties when the CFD-Coupled Particle Drying module is enabled.

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CFD Particle Drying Module

Note:

Properties generated by this module will only appear if the Upscaling is disabled.Refer to
Rocky User Manual (5.1.7. About Meshed Particles Upscaling) for more details.

You can choose to analyze these properties in a plot or histogram window.

Or, you can choose to display this property graphically in a 3D View window.

• Damping Factor: The instantaneous damping factor of the particle.

• Evaporation Heat Transfer Rate: The instantaneous evaporation heat transfer rate being experi-
enced by the particle.

• Liquid Mass: The mass of the liquid around or within a particle.

• Mass Increment: The increment mass in relation to the original mass of each individual whole
particle or fragment. This can help you to visualize the amount of mass that was absorbed by each
particle over time.

• Moisture Content: The instantaneous moisture content of the particle.

• Rate of Evaporation: The instantaneous rate of evaporation being experienced by the particle.

• Volume Increment: The increment volume in relation to the original volume of each individual
whole particle or fragment. This can help you to visualize the amount of volume that was absorbed
by each particle over time.

6.1.7. Setting up and using the module

1. If you plan to couple your Rocky project with Fluent, ensure that your case files are set up correctly.
Specifically:

• If you plan to use this module with a 2-Way Fluent simulation, ensure the Fluent case has the
Energy equation activated.

• If you plan to use this module with a 1-Way Fluent Steady State simulation, ensure the Fluent
case has a temperature field available.

2. Ensure that the module is enabled. (From the Data panel, select Modules and then from the Data
Editors panel, ensure the CFD-Coupled Particle Drying checkbox is enabled.)

3. From the Data panel, under Modules, select the new CFD-Coupled Particle Drying entry.

4. From the Data Editors panel, on the CFD-Coupled Particle Drying tab, enter the values you
want.

5. Continue setting up the simulation as you normally would, with the following exceptions:

a. When setting up your Physics parameters, ensure that the Thermal Model is enabled

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 Usage details

b. When setting up your Inputs, be sure to define the parameters on the Modules tab (for Particle
Inlet Inputs and Volumetric Inlet Inputs) or in the CFD-Coupled Particle Drying section (for
Particle Custom Inlet).

c. When setting up your CFD Coupling options, ensure you select either 1-Way Constant, 1-
Way Fluent Steady State, or 2-Way Fluent for Coupling Mode.

6. Process the simulation as you normally would.

7. When you are ready to post-process your simulation results, you topic in the Rocky User Manual.
can make use of the new parameters on the Properties tab for the main Particles entity.

For the Fluent configuration, it is important to have the Species Transport model turned on, as shown
below:

Figure 6.6: Fluent species model configuration.

Another step required for the module to work is setting the mixture-template to be formed by air +
H2O, ensuring that air is the Last Species:

Figure 6.7: Fluent species mixture-template configuration.

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CFD Particle Drying Module

6.2. Technical details

The CFD-Coupled Particle Drying module considers a particle, , at temperature, , and with a certain
moisture content, Y. As illustrated in Figure 6.8: Particle Drying - problem description. (p. 90), this
particle is subjected to a drying media at certain velocity, humidity, pressure, and temperature.

Figure 6.8: Particle Drying - problem description.

The 1st law of thermodynamics requires that:

(6.1)

If we neglect the contribution of radiation, we can see that the only missing quantity is the heat transfer
rate due to evaporation. Since this is a phase-change process, we can write it as:
(6.2)

where is rate of evaporation, and is the latent heat of evaporation at , which can be expressed
as:

(6.3)

where:

, , and are model constants.

is the critical temperature.

is the gas constant.

is the liquid molar mass.

is the ratio between the particle temperature and the critical temperature.

The conservation of mass requires that:

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 Technical details

(6.4)

with the moisture content Y defined as the ratio between the moisture mass and the particle bone-
dry mass . The rate of evaporation can be obtained from a general mass transfer
correlation:
(6.5)

where:

is the surface-averaged mass transfer coefficient.

is the particle surface area.

and are the mass density of water vapor at the particle surface and free stream, respectively.

is obtained by considering the water vapor as saturated at and whereas is obtained

at and , with representing the local relative humidity. Therefore, the drying problem
basically comes down to finding .

The saturation vapour pressure is calculated as:

(6.6)

The approach adopted in this module relies on empirical correlations based on the Sherwood number,
from which can be obtained by solving:
(6.7)

In equation [eq-sherwood] (p. 91), represents the mass diffusivity coefficient and should not be
mistaken with the particle diameter . itself is obtained from:
(6.8)

where and are the local Reynolds and Schmidt numbers, respectively.

In order to mimic the falling rate regime, we define a damping function , such that:
(6.9)
(6.10)
(6.11)

The damping function is applied to the rate of evaporation and therefore, if the particle moisture content
approaches the equilibrium moisture content, it will no longer decrease. On the other hand, if the
moisture content approaches the critical moisture content, the particle will lose moisture at a constant
rate. The CFD-Coupled Particle Drying module uses a simple correlation to obtain , as defined below.
(6.12)

where and model constants , , , and are given by:

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CFD Particle Drying Module

(6.13)

(6.14)

(6.15)

(6.16)

Figure [f-damping_b] (p. 92) presents the damping factor as a function of the moisture content for
different coefficients when . As the coefficient is increased, the damping factor behaves
in a more linear way.

Figures [f-damping_nc] (p. 93) and [f-damping_nv] (p. 94) present the damping factor as a function of
the moisture content for different and coefficients when , respectively. Higher values of
the and coefficients will yield higher moisture content for the same damping factor.

Figure 6.9: Damping factor as a function of the moisture content for different damping
function B coefficients with nc = nv = 1.0.

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 Technical details

Figure 6.10: Damping factor as a function of the moisture content for different damping
function nc coefficients with B = 0.501.

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CFD Particle Drying Module

Figure 6.11: Damping factor as a function of the moisture content for different damping
function nv coefficients with B = 0.501.

Finally, the rate of evaporation considering the damping function can be rewritten as:
(6.17)

6.2.1. CGM Support

To include CGM support, the rate of evaporation needs to be scaled according to Equation [eq-
cgm] (p. 94). The CGM version of this model calculates the rate of evaporation of the parcel as:
(6.18)

where is the CGM Scale-Factor.

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Chapter 7: Coordination Number Module
7.1. Usage details

7.1.1. Purpose of module

The Coordination Number module allows you to see the coordination number for each particle present
in the simulation. The coordination number is defined as the number of contacts per particle and it
can be especially useful for mixing simulations to evaluate the homogeneity and for powder compres-
sion simulations to evaluate the packing efficiency.

7.1.2. Example application

Figure 7.1: Example application of grains packing using the Coordination Number module. (p. 95)
shows an example of how this module can be applied. Initially, the grains inside the cylinder present
low coordination number (left) values. As the grains are compressed, the coordination numbers increase
and represent a higher packing level (right).

Figure 7.1: Example application of grains packing using the Coordination Number module.

Figure 7.2: Example application of particle mixing using the Coordination Number module. (p. 96)
shows another example of this module application. Initially, particles of two different particle groups
are placed separately inside the bowl (left), when there is low interaction between the particles and
consequently low coordination numbers. After some time of mixing, we can see higher coordination
numbers for most of the particles, indicating a mixing homogeneity (right).

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Coordination Number Module

Figure 7.2: Example application of particle mixing using the Coordination Number module.

7.1.3. Functionality details

The Coordination Number module works by computing the instantaneous coordination number, or
the number of contact points, for each particle present in the simulation. The module also calculates
the coordination number averages for each particle along the time and it gives you the option to
compute the instantaneous coordination numbers for all the combinations of particle group pairs
present in the simulation. The coordination numbers for pairs of particle groups only consider the
contacts between particles from the two groups, ignoring all other contacts.

7.1.4. Limitations and considerations

This module is not compatible with Multiple Element (flexible) particles nor with Coarse Grain Modeling
(CGM).

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7.1.5. Module options

This module has one option you can enable (Figure 7.3:Coordination Number module options. (p. 97)).
See the section below for details.

Figure 7.3: Coordination Number module options.

• Calculate inter-group CRN: When disabled, the module will calculate the instantaneous coordination
number for each particle present in the simulation and the average value for each particle. When
enabled, the module will also calculate instantaneous coordination numbers for all the combinations
of particle group pairs present in the simulation.

Range: [Turns on or off ]

7.1.6. Post-processing abilities

After processing your simulation, you can analyze the results using the same particle-related properties
that are available by default in Rocky.

In addition, some extra particle properties are available if you enabled the module to process your
simulation, as shown in Figure 7.4:Coordination Number module options. (p. 98) and explained below.

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Coordination Number Module

Figure 7.4: Coordination Number module options.

Note:

Properties generated by this module will only appear if the Upscaling is disabled.Refer to
Rocky User Manual (5.1.7. About Meshed Particles Upscaling) for more details.

• CRN | All Particle Groups: This provides the average coordination number considering all particle
groups. The contacts between the particles from all particle groups are considered for the coordin-
ation number calculation.

• CRN Average | All Particle Groups: This provides the time average coordination number consid-
ering all particle groups.

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• CRN | Particle <01> X Particle <01>: This provides the coordination number considering only the
particle group Particle <01>. In other words, only the contacts between the particles from the
particle group Particle <01> are considered for the coordination number calculation.

Note:

This property's name composition carries the same name(s) you have defined for
the particle group(s).

This property will be available only if the option Calculate inter-group CRN is en-
abled.

A new property is created for each particle group pair, so the coordination number
is calculated for all the particle group combinations.

• CRN | Particle <02> X Particle <01>: This provides the coordination number considering the
particle groups Particle <02> and Particle <01>. In other words, only the contacts between the
particles from the particle group Particle <02> and particles from the particle group Particle
<01>are considered for the coordination number calculation.

Note:

This property's name composition carries the same name(s) you have defined for
the particle group(s).

This property will be available only if the option Calculate inter-group CRN is en-
abled.

A new property is created for each particle group pair, so the coordination number
is calculated for all the particle group combinations.

7.1.7. Setting up and using the module

To use/set up the module, follow the steps described below:

1. Ensure that the module is enabled. (From the Data panel, select Modules and then from the Data
Editors panel, ensure the Coordination Number checkbox is enabled.)

2. According to your needs, enable or not the module option Calculate inter-group CRN.

3. Set up and process the simulation as you normally would.

4. When you are ready to analyze your simulation results, you may choose to make use of any
particle-related property and may also make use of the additional module-related property.

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Coordination Number Module

7.2. Technical details

The Coordination Number module provides the number of particle to particle contact points of each
particle, defined as coordination number. At each simulation timestep and for each particle, the module
determines how many particles are in contact with each particle and show the instantaneous value in
a new particle-related property. Also, a weighted average of the coordination number along the time
is calculated for each particle, considering the instantaneous coordination number values of each sim-
ulation timestep.

(7.1)

where:

is the average coordination number at the current simulation timestep.

is the average coordination number at the previous simulation timestep.

is the instantaneous coordination number at the current simulation timestep.

is the current number of simulation timesteps.

Additional calculations are performed by the module to show the instantaneous coordination numbers
related to each particle group pairs, so you can know the number of contact points of each particle
from a particle group with particles from other specific particle group.

The number of particle group pairs, , is calculated by:

(7.2)

where:

is the number of particle group pairs.

is the number of particle groups present in the simulation.

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Chapter 8: Dhole, Chhabra & Eswaran Drag Law
Module
8.1. Usage details

8.1.1. Purpose of module

The Dhole, Chhabra & Eswaran Drag Law [6] (p. 377) module enables you to use a drag correlation
proposed by Dhole, Chhabra & Eswaran in CFD Coupling simulations that specifically include non-
Newtonian fluids that obey the Ostwald?de Waele (power-law) relationship. This module works by
applying the power-law model which uses two fitting constants.

Non-Newtonian fluids can be found in multiple industries such as chemical, oil and gas, food and
beverage, pharmaceutical, paints, and cosmetics. Therefore, having a model that allows the modeling
of particle flow in such fluids is crucial.

8.1.2. Limitations and considerations

This module works only if the Rocky project is CFD-coupled with one of the following modes:

• 1-Way Fluent Steady State

• 2-Way Fluent

• 1-Way Constant

This module does not work with the 2-Way Fluent Semi-Resolved nor the 1-Way LBM CFD Coupling
methods. This correlation is best suited for spherical particles in dilute flows.

Note:

The correlation implemented in this module includes a factor correction that accounts
for the non-Newtonian behavior of the fluid in the drag force, it does not account for
the particle shape nor the local volume fraction.

In addition, because drag laws must be specified per particle group in Rocky, after enabling this
module you will therefore need to select it when defining your CFD Coupling Particle Interactions
(Figure 8.1:Interactions tab options for the 1-Way Constant CFD Coupling mode when the Dhole, Ch-
habra & Eswaran Drag Law module is enabled. (p. 102)).

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Dhole, Chhabra & Eswaran Drag Law Module

Figure 8.1: Interactions tab options for the 1-Way Constant CFD Coupling mode when the Dhole,
Chhabra & Eswaran Drag Law module is enabled.

8.1.3. Module options

This module has two parameters that you can set, which are explained below and shown in Fig-
ure 8.2:Dhole, Chhabra & Eswaran Drag Law module options. (p. 103).

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 Usage details

Figure 8.2: Dhole, Chhabra & Eswaran Drag Law module options.

Dhole, Chhabra & Eswaran Drag Law module options.

• Flow Behavior Index: This defines the power-law behavior index of the non-Newtonian drag law.

Range: [Positive values.]

• Flow Consistency Index: This defines the power-law consistency index of the non-Newtonian drag
law.

Range: [Positive values.]

8.1.3.1. Additional CFD Coupling options

In addition to defining the parameters on the module itself, there is an additional option you must
set for your CFD Coupling mode. As shown in Figure 8.1:Interactions tab options for the 1-Way
Constant CFD Coupling mode when the Dhole, Chhabra & Eswaran Drag Law module is en-
abled. (p. 102), you must define for at least one Particle in your project the Drag Law as Dhole,
Chhabra & Eswaran Drag Law.

8.1.4. Post-processing abilities

After processing your simulation, you are able to analyze your results using the same particle-related properties that are a
In addition, it is possible to collect additional fluid-particle statistics for later post-processing, such as drag or pressure gra

Note:

Properties generated by this module will only appear if the Upscaling is disabled.Refer to
Rocky User Manual (5.1.7. About Meshed Particles Upscaling) for more details.

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Dhole, Chhabra & Eswaran Drag Law Module

8.1.5. Setting up and using the module

1. Ensure that the module is enabled. (From the Data panel, select Modules and then from the Data
Editors panel, ensure the Dhole, Chhabra & Eswaran Drag Law checkbox is enabled.)

Tip: If you want to collect particle-fluid statistics, ensure you also enable the CFD Coupling Particle
Statistics module, and choose what kind of statistics you want to collect. (Refer to the About Fluid-
Related Statistics for Particles topic in the Rocky User Manual for details.)

2. From the Data panel, under Modules, select the new Dhole, Chhabra & Eswaran Drag Law
entry.

3. From the Data Editors panel, on the Dhole, Chhabra & Eswaran Drag Law tab, enter the values
you want.

4. Continue setting up the simulation as you normally would, with the following exceptions:

a. When setting up your CFD Coupling options, ensure the following:

• You have selected a supported CFD Coupling mode. (Either 1-Way Constant, 1-Way Fluent
Steady State, or 2-Way Fluent).

• For the CFD Coupling mode you have enabled, on the Interactions tab for at least one
Particle, you have defined the Drag Law as Dhole, Chhabra & Eswaran Drag Law.

5. Process the simulation as you normally would.

6. When you are ready to analyze your simulation results, you may choose to make use of any
particle-related Property. Or if you chose to enable the CFD Coupling Particle Statistics module,
you may also make use of those additional fluid-particle properties.

8.2. Technical details

When using Rocky with CFD Coupling for modeling fluid-particulate systems, drag correlations are used
to compute the drag force acting on each particle, based on local fluid properties and the relative velocity
between the fluid flow and the particles.

The Dhole, Chhabra & Eswaran Drag Law module must be applied in simulations including non-Newto-
nian fluids whose behavior is adequately described by the power law, also known as Ostwald-de Waele
relationship. In this relationship, the shear stress, , relates to the shear rate, , according to [7] (p. 377):
(8.1)

where:

• is the power-law behavior index. This dimensionless parameter is defined by the user in the Dhole,
Chhabra & Eswaran Drag Law module.

• is the power-law consistency index, measured in , which is defined by the user in the Dhole,
Chhabra & Eswaran Drag Law module.

According to the power-law behavior index, fluids that obey are classified into three types:

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 Technical details

• Newtonian fluids: Power-law fluids with n=1, where the shear stress is directly proportional to the
shear rate. The majority of the common fluids have this constant viscosity across all shear rates, in-
cluding water, oils, and gases.

• Pseudoplastic, or shear-thinning fluids: Power-law fluids with n<1, whose apparent viscosity decreases
with increasing shear rates. This behavior is commonly encountered in solutions or suspensions,
particularly when polymer solutions are used. Examples of pseudoplastic fluids are blood, milk, paints,
and drilling fluids.

• Dilatant, or shear-thickening fluids: Power-law fluids with n>1, and which shows a proportional increase
in the shear stress as a function of shear rate. One example is the mixture of cornstarch and water,
which hardens upon application of high enough forces, allowing people to run across large pools
filled with the mixture. Potential applications of dilatant fluids are liquid armor and smart speed
bumps.

When considering these types of fluids, the Reynolds number definition has to be modified to account
for the power-law index and the consistency index. The modified particle Reynolds number is
defined as follows [8] (p. 377):

(8.2)

where:

• is the fluid density, measured in [kg/m3], which is defined by the user on the CFD Coupling setup.

• is the particle velocity vector, measured in [m/s].

• is the fluid velocity vector, measured in [m/s], which is defined by the user on the CFD Coupling
setup when CFD Coupling mode is 1-Way Constant.

• is the equivalent diameter of the particle, measured in [m], which is defined as the diameter of a
sphere whose volume is equal to the particle's volume.

Based on numerical simulations of the flow of a power-law fluid past a sphere, Dhole, Chhabra & Eswaran
[6] (p. 377) obtained the following correlation for the drag coefficient, :
(8.3)

This correlation for the drag coefficient is valid for the following ranges:

(8.4)

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Chapter 9: Disable Collision Outside Region Module
9.1. Usage details

9.1.1. Purpose of module

The goal of the Disable Collision Outside Region module is to reduce the computational cost of simu-
lation projects by disabling from contact calculations the particles that are outside the defined Regions
of Interests (ROIs).

The idea of the module is to apply a hybrid approach: outside the Regions of Interests particles are
tracked as body forces (such as gravity, eletrostatic and magnectic) and fluid forces (such as drag)
are computed, but no contact detection calculations involving these particles are performed, whereas
inside the ROIs the DEM model is turned on and collisions are solved.

9.1.2. Example application

Figure 9.1: Snow accretion 1-way Rocky- Fluent coupling simulation using the Disable Collision Outside
Region module. Blue particles are enabled whereas light pink particles are removed from contact
detection calculations. (p. 108) shows an example application of the Disable Collision Outside Region
on a snow accretion simulation, in which the goal is to evaluate the performance of the wipers in
keeping the windows clean and check whether the snow would block the sensor locations depending
on the storm.

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Disable Collision Outside Region Module

Figure 9.1: Snow accretion 1-way Rocky- Fluent coupling simulation using the Disable
Collision Outside Region module. Blue particles are enabled whereas light pink particles
are removed from contact detection calculations.

In this example, the performance gain is reached by disabling the contact detection for particles that
are located outside the blue box that encompasses the car. Outside the defined ROI, the snow particles
continue to move as body and fluid forces are computed but the contact detection calculations are
not performed. Near the car, inside the blue box, contact detection calculations are performed and
contact forces are accounted for when tracking the particles.

9.1.3. Functionality details

In this module, a particle is enabled once it enters one of the Regions of Interest selected as one of
the Contact Detection Zones. Otherwise, the particle is disabled and removed from the computation
of contacts.

9.1.4. Module options

After enabling the Disable Collision Outside Region module, there are two parameters you will need
to define. These parameters are explained below and shown in Figure 9.2:Disable Collision Outside
Region module options. (p. 109).

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 Usage details

Figure 9.2: Disable Collision Outside Region module options.

• Start Time: Defines the simulation time at which the module can begin disabling particles from
contact detection calculations.

Range: [Positive values.]

• Contact Detection Zones: Defines the regions in which particles will be enabled for contact detec-
tion calculations.

Range: [Automatically provided]

9.1.5. Post-processing abilities

After processing your simulation, you can analyze the results using the same particle-related properties
that are available by default in Rocky.

In addition, one extra particle property is available as shown in Figure 9.3: Additional Particle Properties
created by the Disable Collision Outside Region module. (p. 110) and explained below.

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Disable Collision Outside Region Module

Figure 9.3: Additional Particle Properties created by the Disable Collision Outside Region module.

• Disable Criterion: Criterion that classifies whether the particle is enabled or disabled from contact
calculations. If equals to 0.0, the particle is enabled and included in contact calculations performed
by the DEM solver. If equals to 1.0, the particle is disabled and excluded from such calculations.

Note:

Properties generated by this module will only appear if the Upscaling is disabled.Refer to
Rocky User Manual (5.1.7. About Meshed Particles Upscaling) for more details.

9.1.6. Setting up and using the module

1. Set up all the desired Regions of Interests that will be used as the Contact Detection Zones.

2. Ensure that the module is enabled. (From the Data panel, for setup details. select Modules and
then from the Data Editors panel, ensure the Disable Collision Outside Region checkbox is
enabled.)

3. Define the Start Time and the Contact Detection Zones. (From the Data panel, select Disable
Collision Outside Region, and then from the Data Editors panel, input the required values.)

4. Set up and process the simulation as you normally would.

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 Technical details

5. When you are ready to analyze your simulation results, you may choose to make use of any
particle-related Property and may also make use of the additional module-related property.

9.2. Technical details

The Disable Collision Outside Region module disables particles (removes them from the contact evaluation
step performed by the DEM solver) that are outside the Region of Interest. The particles continue to
move according to the forces acting on them (such as body forces and fluid forces), but no collision is
computed involving the disabled particles.

When using this module, if the particle is outside of all the Regions of Interest, its Disable criterion, ,
receives a value of 1.0, eliminating the particle from the computation of contacts. The particle is auto-
matically re-enabled once it enters one of the selected Regions of Interest.

(9.1)

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Chapter 10: Electromagnetic Coupling Module (Beta)
Important:

Note that beta features have not been fully tested and validated. Ansys, Inc. makes no
commitment to resolve defects reported against these prototype features. However,
your feedback will help us improve the overall quality of the product. We will not
guarantee that the projects using this beta feature will run successfully when the feature
is finally released so you may, therefore, need to modify the projects.

10.1. Usage details

10.1.1. Purpose of module

The Electromagnetic Coupling module enables you to add electromagnetic physics to the simulation,
such as:

• Electrostatic forces for particle-particle and particle-boundary interaction;

• Charging and discharging effects on particles due contact with boundary surfaces;

• Field forces on charged or dipole particles immersed on electric/magnetic fields.

10.1.2. Functionality details

The Electromagnetic Coupling module calculates the forces, torques, and charging effects on particles
resulting from various electromagnetic interactions. Specifically, it handles the following scenarios:

• Interaction force between point charges;

• Interaction force between point charge and a charged boundary (triangle point charge) or a con-
ductive boundary;

• Charging of particles due to collision with a boundary;

• Interaction force between dipole moment (either electric or magnetic) and a point cloud (repres-
enting an electric or magnetic field);

• Interaction torque between dipole moment (either electric or magnetic) and a point cloud (repres-
enting an electric or magnetic field).

10.1.3. Limitations and considerations

The Electromagnetic Coupling module follows certain assumptions:

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Electromagnetic Coupling Module (Beta)

• Short-Range Effect: When calculating particle-particle and particle-wall forces, only the nearby
particles and triangles surrounding a given particle will be considered. For more information, refer
to the Screening Distance Factor in Module options (p. 114)

• Point Charge: Charged particles and triangles are modeled as point charges concentrated at the
centroid of each particle or triangle.

• Dipole Moment: Dipole particles are represented by a single dipole moment, which has a constant
magnitude and orientation defined relative to the particle's reference frame. Currently, dipole
particles can interact only with electromagnetic fields, and interactions with charged particles or
other dipoles are not considered.

• 1-way approach: In this approach, the electromagnetic fields are unaffected by charged particles
or dipoles. Each particle interacts only with the closest point to its centroid. This formulation is best
suited for scenarios where the electromagnetic field can be considered nearly constant over the
particle span.

• Charging mechanism: Only collisions between particles and walls are considered for triboelectri-
fication. The charge of a particle is not influenced by neighboring charged particles, and the charge
density on the triangles remains constant throughout the simulation.

Important:

This module is not compatible with Breakage nor CGM.

10.1.4. Module options

The Electromagnetic Coupling module has some input parameters, split into the Model, Fields and
Advanced tabs in the GUI, which are explained and shown in the figures below.

Figure 10.1: Electromagnetic Coupling Module options under the Model tab.

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 Usage details

Figure 10.2: Electromagnetic Coupling Module options under the Fields tab.

Figure 10.3: Electromagnetic Coupling Module options under the Advanced tab.

Model tab:

• Medium:

– Relative Permittivity: the ratio of the medium permittivity to the vacuum permittivity.

Range: [Positive values equal or greater than 1.0]

– Relative Permeability: the ratio of the medium permeability to the vacuum permeability.

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Electromagnetic Coupling Module (Beta)

Range: [Positive values]

– Dielectric Strength: the maximum electric field that a material can withstand without breaking
down or becoming conductive. The default value is set for air.

Range: [Positive values]

• Numerics:

– Screening Distance Factor: the ratio of the interaction distance to the particle size. It defines the
maximum distance that each particle will search for interactions.

Range: [Positive values]

Fields tab:

• EM Fields:

– EM Field: selects one of the pre-imported point clouds for use in the simulation. For more details
on the Point Cloud requirements, refer to About the Point Cloud field (p. 117).

Range: [Available Point Clouds imported during the setup]

– Start Time: defines when the selected point cloud will begin to influence particle interactions in
the simulation.

Range: [Positive values]

– Stop Time: defines when the selected point cloud will stop to influence particle interactions in
the simulation.

Range: [Positive values]

Advanced tab:

• 0-way Interactions:

– Coulomb Force Particle-Particle: enables/disables charged particle-particle interaction. For more

details, refer to Coulomb Force Particle-Particle (p. 125).

Range: [Turns on or off ]

– Coulomb Force Particle-Wall: enables/disables charged particle-wall interaction and charged

particle-conducting wall interaction. For more details, refer to Coulomb Force Particle-Wall (p. 126)
and Image Charge Force (p. 127).

Range: [Turns on or off ]

– Coulomb Force Limiter: enables/disables charged particle-wall interaction limiter. Refer to Coulomb
Force Limiter (p. 127) for details. For more details, refer to Surface Triboelectrification (p. 127).

Range: [Turns on or off ]

– Surface Triboelectrification: enables/disables particle charging on wall collisions. For more details,
refer to Surface Triboelectrification (p. 127).

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Range: [Turns on or off ]

• 1-way Interactions:

– Lorentz Force: enables/disables charged particle-point cloud interaction. For more details, refer
to Lorentz Force (p. 128).

Range: [Turns on or off ]

– Electric Dipole: enables/disables electric dipole-point cloud interaction. For more details, refer to
Dipole on a Field (p. 129).

Range: [Turns on or off ]

– Magnetic Dipole: enables/disables magnetic dipole-point cloud interaction. For more details,
refer to Dipole on a Field (p. 129).

Range: [Turns on or off ]

10.1.4.1. About the Point Cloud field

To set an electromagnetic field, a Point Cloud must be imported in Ansys Rocky Software. The point
cloud is a *.txt file composed of a header and the desired scalars for each point, exported from an
external electromagnetic solver (e.g., Ansys Maxwell).

Depending on the desired physics, the required data are as follows:

• Electric field:

– Point cloud header:X Y Z Ex Ey Ez dEx_dx dEx_dy dEx_dz dEy_dx dEy_dy dEy_dz dEz_dx dEz_dy
dEz_dz

• Magnetic field:

– Point cloud header:X Y Z Bx By Bz dBx_dx dBx_dy dBx_dz dBy_dx dBy_dy dBy_dz dBz_dx
dBz_dy dBz_dz

Note:

the Field Gradient is required only for calculating the force on dipoles; it can be omitted
in simpler cases. For more details, refer to Dipole on a Field (p. 129).

10.1.4.2. Additional Input Options

In addition to the input parameters for the Electromagnetic Coupling module, other input parameters
will be available in different sections of Ansys Rocky. Please refer to the sections below for more
details.

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Electromagnetic Coupling Module (Beta)

10.1.4.2.1. Materials
A new sub-group called Electromagnetic Coupling has been added for the particle Material, as
shown in the figure below. The following section provides an explanation of the available para-
meter.

Figure 10.4: Electromagnetic Coupling Module options under Materials.

• Electromagnetic Coupling:

– Pauthenier Constant: is the material constant used to compute the saturation level, during
particle triboelectrification. For more details, refer to Surface Triboelectrification (p. 127).

Range: [1.0, 3.0]

10.1.4.2.2. Materials Interactions

A new sub-group called Electromagnetic Coupling has been added for the Materials Interactions,
as shown below. The following section provides an explanation of the available parameters.

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Figure 10.5: Electromagnetic Coupling Module options under Material Interactions.

• Electromagnetic Coupling:

– Charge Dissipation Constant: the dissipation constant , defines the discharging rate when
in contact with the boundary. When , there is no charge dissipation. For more details,
refer to Surface Triboelectrification (p. 127).

Range: [Positive values]

– Charge Generation Constant: the generation constant , defines the charging rate when in
contact with the boundary with relative motion. A value of indicates that the particle
will be positively charged, whereas results in a negative charge. For more details, refer
to Surface Triboelectrification (p. 127).

Range: [Any value]

10.1.4.2.3. Geometries
A new Modules sub-tab has been added for the Walls and Conveyor Templates, as shown below.
The following section provides an explanation of the available parameters.

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Electromagnetic Coupling Module (Beta)

Figure 10.6: Electromagnetic Coupling Module options under Geometries.

• Electromagnetic Coupling:

– Conducting Wall: when enabled, charged particles will account for interaction forces due to
the image charge effect. For more details, refer to Image Charge Force (p. 127).

Range: [Turns on or off ]

– Charge density: defines the triangle charge density used to compute particle-wall electrostatic
forces. For more details, refer to Coulomb Force Particle-Wall (p. 126).

Range: [Any value]

10.1.4.2.4. Particle Groups

A new Modules sub-tab has been added for the Particle Groups, as shown below. The following
section provides an explanation of the available parameters.

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Figure 10.7: Electromagnetic Coupling Module options under Particle Groups.

• Electromagnetic Coupling:

– Electric Dipole Moment Orientation : X: defines the x-component of the particle electric
dipole moment orientation vector .

Range: [0.0, 1.0]

– Electric Dipole Moment Orientation : Y: defines the y-component of the particle electric
dipole moment orientation vector .

Range: [0.0, 1.0]

– Electric Dipole Moment Orientation : Z: defines the z-component of the particle electric
dipole moment orientation vector .

Range: [0.0, 1.0]

– Magnetic Dipole Moment Orientation : X: defines the x-component of the particle

magnetic dipole moment orientation vector .

Range: [0.0, 1.0]

– Magnetic Dipole Moment Orientation : Y: defines the y-component of the particle

magnetic dipole moment orientation vector .

Range: [0.0, 1.0]

– Magnetic Dipole Moment Orientation : Z: defines the z-component of the particle

magnetic dipole moment orientation vector .

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Electromagnetic Coupling Module (Beta)

Range: [0.0, 1.0]

10.1.4.2.5. Particle Inlets and Volumetric Inlets

A new Modules sub-tab has been added for the Particle Inlets and Volumetric Inlets, as shown
below. The following section provides an explanation of the available parameters.

Figure 10.8: Electromagnetic Coupling Module options under Particle Inlets and Volumetric
Inlets.

• Electric Charge: defines the particle initial electric charge.

Range: [Any value]

• Remanence Magnitude: defines the magnetic dipole remanence magnitude.

Range: [Positive values]

• Electric Dipole Moment : Magnitude: defines the electric dipole moment magnitude.

Range: [Positive values]

10.1.4.2.6. Custom Inputs

Using a Custom Input, it is possible to define the following parameters for each individual particle:

• Electric Charge

• Remanence Magnitude

• Electric Dipole Moment : Magnitude

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 Usage details

The Custom Inlet Input file must include each parameter name in the header, exactly as specified
above, to correctly identify the desired parameters. For more details, refer to Particle Inlets and
Volumetric Inlets (p. 122).

10.1.5. Post-processing abilities

After processing the simulation, new properties will be available for the Particles and Walls entities.
You can choose to analyze these properties in a plot or histogram window, or display them graphically
in a 3D View window.

Note:

For additional details, you may refer to the Graphing (Plot or Histogram) a Data Set Within
Rocky topic in the Rocky User Manual and also to the View Geometries, Particles, Points,
and Fluids in 3D topic in the Rocky User Manual.

The list of available properties will depend on the active models, as described later in Technical de-
tails (p. 124).

The available properties are as follows:

• Wall Properties

– Charge Density: the amount of electric charge per unit area within a defined triangle

– Exchanged Charge: the total amount of electric charge that has been transferred across the triangle
during a time interval due to surface triboelectrification

– Force : Electric : Magnitude: the magnitude of the total electric force exerted on a triangle by a
particle charge

– Force : Electric : X/Y/Z: the components of the total electric force exerted on a triangle by a
particle charge, along the global frame of reference axis

• Particle Properties

– Electric Charge: the total electric charge of a particle

– Electric Dipole Moment : Magnitude: the magnitude of the electric dipole moment for a particle

– Electric Dipole Moment : Orientation : X/Y/Z: the components of the particle electric dipole mo-
ment orientation vector, along the global frame of reference axis

– Force : Electric : Magnitude: the magnitude of the total electric force exerted on a particle

– Force : Electric : X/Y/Z: the components of the total electric force exerted on a particle, along the
global frame of reference axis

– Force : Magnetic : Magnitude: the magnitude of the total magnetic force exerted on a particle

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Electromagnetic Coupling Module (Beta)

– Force : Magnetic : X/Y/Z: the components of the total magnetic force exerted on a particle, along
the global frame of reference axis

– Magnetic Dipole Moment : Magnitude: the magnitude of the magnetic dipole moment for a
particle

– Magnetic Dipole Moment : Orientation : X/Y/Z: the components of the particle magnetic dipole
moment orientation vector, in the global frame of reference

– Remanence : Magnitude: the residual magnetic flux density in the particle after an external
magnetic field has been removed

– Torque : Electric : Magnitude: the magnitude of the total electric torque exerted on a particle

– Torque : Electric : X/Y/Z: the components of the total electric torque exerted on a particle, along
the global frame of reference axis

– Torque : Magnetic : Magnitude: the magnitude of the total magnetic torque exerted on a particle

– Torque : Magnetic : X/Y/Z: the components of the total magnetic torque exerted on a particle,
along the global frame of reference axis

10.1.6. Setting up and using the module

• Step 1: Ensure that the module is enabled (From the Data panel, select Modules and then from
the Data Editors panel, ensure the Electromagnetic Coupling checkbox is enabled).

• Step 2: From the Data panel, under Modules, select the new entry for Electromagnetic Coupling for
the Module options, and continue setting up the simulation as you normally would.

Note:

Refer to the Module options (p. 114) section for details.

• Step 3: Process the simulation as you normally would.

• Step 4: When you are ready to post-process your simulation results, you can make use of the new
parameters on the Properties tab for the main Particles entity.

Note:

Refer to the Post-processing abilities (p. 123) section for details.

10.2. Technical details

The Electromagnetic Coupling module consists of six individual models that can be enabled or disabled
based on the input parameters defined in the simulation setup. A schematic flowchart, displayed below,

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 Technical details

outlines the requirements for enabling each of the available models. Each individual model is described
in detail in the following sections.

Figure 10.9: Electromagnetic Coupling Module flowchart.

10.2.1. The Screening Distance Concept

The Electromagnetic Coupling module resorts to Ansys Rocky Vicinities infrastructure to assemble the
list of particle neighbors that is further used to compute Coulomb-type particle-particle and particle-
wall interactions.

During the simulation initialization, the module will loop through the defined particle groups and
store the maximum particle size . The absolute screening distance is then computed from:
(10.1)

where:

• is the screening distance factor [-]

For particle-particle interactions, the screening distance is compared against the magnitude of the
vector connecting their centroids, whilst for particle-triangle interactions, connects the particle
centroid to the triangle centroid.

10.2.2. Coulomb Force Particle-Particle

The Coulomb Force Particle-Particle model calculates the electrostatic force acting between two
charged particles based on Coulomb's law [57] (p. 380). In this model, each particle is treated as a
point charge concentrated at its centroid. Depending on the sign of the charges, the electrostatic
force can be attractive (for opposite charges) or repulsive (for like charges).

The electrostatic force as defined by Coulomb's law is expressed by the following equations:

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Electromagnetic Coupling Module (Beta)

(10.2)

where:

• is the permittivity of vacuum

• is the relative permittivity

• are the particles charge

10.2.3. Coulomb Force Particle-Wall

The Coulomb Force Particle-Wall model calculates the electrostatic force acting between a charged
particle and a charged wall based on Coulomb's law [57] (p. 380). In this model, both the particle and
the boundary triangles are treated as point charges concentrated at their centroids. Depending on
the sign of the charges, the electrostatic force can be attractive (for opposite charges) or repulsive
(for like charges).

The charge of each triangle is estimated as follows:

(10.3)

where:

• is the triangle charge

• is the triangle charge density

• is the triangle area

The electrostatic force as defined by Coulomb's law is expressed by the following equations:

(10.4)

where:

• is the particle charge

• is the distance vector connecting the particle and triangle centroids

• The summation is applied on every neighboring triangle.

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 Technical details

10.2.3.1. Coulomb Force Limiter

The Coulomb Force Particle-Wall model treats each triangle as a point charge located at its centroid.
When the triangles are significantly larger than the particle , the force can be
overestimated for particles that are close to the triangle's centroid.

To mitigate this overestimation, a correction factor can be applied, based on the analytical solution
for the electric field produced by a charged disk. Assuming a point charge is positioned along the
axis of the disk at a distance from the disk's centroid, with the disk having a radius , the resulting
electric field is given by [58] (p. 380):

(10.5)

From :

(10.6)

The Coulomb Force Limiter, , is the ratio between and :

(10.7)

10.2.4. Image Charge Force

The Image Charge Force model calculates the electrostatic force acting between a charged particle
and a grounded conducting wall, according to Coulomb's law [57] (p. 380). In this model, the particle
is treated as a point charge concentrated at its centroid. It assumes that the induced charge on the
conducting plane is equivalent to a virtual point charge with the same magnitude but opposite sign,
positioned at an equal distance from the wall on the opposite side [59] (p. 380). This force is always
attractive and depends solely on the particle's charge and its distance from the wall.

The image charge force is expressed by the following equations:

(10.8)

where is the normal distance vector conecting the particle centroid to the closest triangle.

10.2.5. Surface Triboelectrification

The Surface Triboelectrification model is founded on an empirical approach introduced by [61] (p. 380),
which estimates the charge variation of a particle in contact with a surface. During a collision between
the particle and the boundary, any relative displacement can lead to charging of the particle, either
positively or negatively.

The sign of the particle's charge depends on the material properties of both the particle and the
surface, including factors such as the work function. This model encapsulates the direction of electri-

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Electromagnetic Coupling Module (Beta)

fication in the charge generation constant, . A value of indicates that the particle will be posit-
ively charged, whereas results in a negative charge. The model also considers discharge currents
that lead to charge decay, represented by the charge dissipation constant, . When , there is no
source of charge leakage.

The expression for the charge transferred during a timestep is defined as follows:
(10.9)

where is a kernel operator defined as:

(10.10)

In this model, the magnitude of the particle's charge can increase until it reaches the saturation level,
denoted as . This saturation level depends on the particle's size, material, and the surrounding
environment. The value of can be estimated using the Pauthenier equation [62] (p. 380):

(10.11)

(10.12)

where:

• is the saturation charge density

• is the particle radius

• is the Pauthenier material constant

• is the Environment Electric Breakdown

10.2.6. Lorentz Force

The Lorentz Force model calculates the forces acting on a charged particle within an electromagnetic
field, as described by the Lorentz force law [60] (p. 380). In this model, the particle is treaded as a
point charge, while the electric field, , and the magnetic field, , are represented as point clouds.
Depending on the available fields, this model computes either the electric force component, ,
the magnetic force component, , or both.

The Lorentz force is expressed by the following equation:

(10.13)
(10.14)
(10.15)

where:

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 Technical details

• is the electric field

• is the particle translational velocity

• is the magnetic field

10.2.7. Dipole on a Field

The Dipole on a Field model calculates the forces and torques acting on a electrically neutral dipole
particle within an electromagnetic field [63] (p. 380). In this model, the particle can possess an electric
dipole moment, , a magnetic dipole moment, , or both. The electric field, , and the magnetic
field, , are represented as point clouds. Depending on the available fields, this model computes the
electric force component, , and/or the magnetic force component, , if the field gradient
is non-zero, as well as the torque components, and , or both.

The dipole forces and torques are expressed by the following equations:
(10.16)

(10.17)

(10.18)

(10.19)

(10.20)

(10.21)

where:

• is the electric dipole moment

• is the magnetic dipole moment

The dipole moments are described as a function of the dipole moment orientation vector:
(10.22)

(10.23)

where

• is the particle electric dipole moment magnitude

• is the particle electric dipole moment orientation vector

• is the permeability of vacuum

• is the Relative Permeability

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Electromagnetic Coupling Module (Beta)

• is the particle remanence magnitude

• is the particle volume

• is the particle magnetic dipole moment orientation vector

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Chapter 11: Erosion Model Module
11.1. Usage details

11.1.1. Purpose of module

This module enables you to use one or more empirical erosion models to calculate the eroded mass
due to particle-boundary collisions.

Unlike the surface wear modification model implemented by default in Rocky, this module does not
change the surface of the geometry. Rather, it calculates the cumulative eroded mass associating it
to a boundary-triangle property that can later be post-processed.

Selecting this module will not override any models or settings in the Rocky UI.

11.1.2. Functionality details

This module applies one or more empirical correlations to model mass erosion on wall triangles.

11.1.3. Limitations and considerations

Due to the way surface wear modification displaces triangle vertices from walls to show wear, and
these empirical models rely on those same triangles to calculate wear, it is not recommended that
these empirical erosion models be used at the same time as surface wear modification.

Important:

Even though this module supports CGM, special care is suggested when using this
feature with the Eroded Mass Analyses module. The use of CGM requires that the
general dynamics of the simulation is not changed with/without CGM. However, this
module has rather sensitive parameters to the dynamics of the simulation (especially
contact angles), which makes it harder to keep the same dynamics with the use of
CGM.

11.1.4. Module options

This module has several parameters that you can set, as shown in Figure 11.1:Eroded Mass Analyses
module options under tab. (p. 132), Figure 11.2:Eroded Mass Analyses module options under
tab. (p. 133)and Figure 11.3:Eroded Mass Analyses module options under tab. (p. 133) and explained
below.

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Erosion Model Module

Figure 11.1: Eroded Mass Analyses module options under tab.

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 Usage details

Figure 11.2: Eroded Mass Analyses module options under tab.

Figure 11.3: Eroded Mass Analyses module options under tab.

• Start Time: This defines the time you want to begin calculating the cumulative eroded mass.

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Erosion Model Module

Range: [Positive values]

• Finnie Model: When enabled, the eroded mass will be calculated using the Finnie erosion model.

Range: [Turns on or off ]

– k: This defines a model constant.

Range: [Positive Values]

– Velocity Exponent: This defines a dimensionless velocity exponent.

Range: [Positive Values]

– Angle of Maximum Erosion: This defines the impact angle of maximum erosion.

Range: [Positive Values]

• Oka Model: When enabled, the eroded mass will be calculated using the Oka erosion model.

Range: [Turns on or off ]

– Reference Erosion Rate: This defines a reference erosion rate value.

Range: [Positive Values]

– Wall Material Vickers Hardness: This defines the wall material Vickers hardness.

Range: [Positive Values]

– n1: This defines a dimensionless model constant.

Range: [Positive Values]

– n2: This defines a dimensionless model constant.

Range: [Positive Values]

– Velocity Exponent: This defines a dimensionless velocity exponent.

Range: [Positive Values]

– Diameter Exponent: This defines a dimensionless diameter exponent.

Range: [Positive Values]

– Reference Diameter: This defines the particle reference diameter.

Range: [Positive Values]

– Reference Velocity: This defines the particle reference velocity.

Range: [Positive Values]

• McLaury Model: When enabled, the eroded mass will be calculated using the McLaury erosion
model.

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 Usage details

Range: [Turns on or off ]

– A: This defines a model constant.

Range: [Positive Values]

– Velocity Exponent: This defines a dimensionless velocity exponent.

Range: [Positive Values]

– Transition Angle: This defines the transition angle value.

Range: [Positive Values]

– b: This defines a dimensionless constant value.

Range: [Negative Values]

– c: This defines a dimensionless constant value.

Range: [Positive Values]

– w: This defines a dimensionless constant value.

Range: [Positive Values]

– x: This defines a dimensionless constant value.

Range: [Positive Values]

– y: This defines a dimensionless constant value.

Range: [Positive Values]

11.1.5. Post-processing abilities

For each empirical model enabled in the module, new post-processing properties will be created.
After processing is complete, these new properties are available on the Properties tab when an indi-
vidual geometry component is selected on the Data panel under Geometries as shown in Fig-
ure 11.4: Additional Geometry Properties created by the Eroded Mass Analyses module. (p. 136).

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Erosion Model Module

Figure 11.4: Additional Geometry Properties created by the Eroded Mass Analyses module.

Note:

Properties generated by this module will only appear if the Upscaling is disabled.Refer to
Rocky User Manual (5.1.7. About Meshed Particles Upscaling) for more details.

These new Properties can help you visualize the evolution of the removed mass from each boundary
triangle due to collisions with particles, and are explained below:

• Surface Eroded Mass: Finnie Model: When Finnie Model is enabled in the Eroded Mass Analyses
module, this provides the erosion mass as calculated by the Finnie model.

• Surface Eroded Mass: McLaury Model: When McLaury Model is enabled in the Eroded Mass
Analyses module, this provides the erosion mass as calculated by the McLaury model.

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 Usage details

• Surface Eroded Mass: Oka Model: When Oka Model is enabled in the Eroded Mass Analyses
module, this provides the erosion mass as calculated by the Oka model.

• Surface Erosion Rate: Finnie Model: When Finnie Model is enabled in the Eroded Mass Analyses
module, this provides the erosion rate as calculated by the Finnie model.

• Surface Erosion Rate: McLaury Model: When McLaury Model is enabled in the Eroded Mass
Analyses module, this provides the erosion rate as calculated by the McLaury model.

• Surface Erosion Rate: Oka Model: When Oka Model is enabled in the Eroded Mass Analyses
module, this provides the erosion rate as calculated by the Oka model.

In addition to the properties, a new curve will also be created for each empirical model enabled in
the module, that can help you to evaluate the amount of eroded mass for each geometry present in
the simulation. After processing is complete, these new curves are available on the Curves tab when
an individual geometry component is selected on the Data panel under Geometries as shown in
Figure 5 Figure 11.5: Additional Geometry Curves created by the Eroded Mass Analyses module. (p. 137).

Figure 11.5: Additional Geometry Curves created by the Eroded Mass Analyses module.

11.1.6. Setting up and using the module

1. Ensure that the module is enabled. (From the Data panel, select Modules and then from the Data
Editors panel, ensure the Eroded Mass Analyses checkbox is enabled.)

2. From the Data panel, under Modules select Eroded Mass Analyses.

3. From the Data Editors panel, do the following:

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Erosion Model Module

a. From the Finnie Model tab, enable the checkbox if you want to consider this empirical model
for the calculations and enter the proper values for the model parameters.

b. From the Oka Model tab, enable the checkbox if you want to consider this empirical model
for the calculations and enter the proper values for the model parameters.

c. From the McLaury Model tab, enable the checkbox if you want to consider this empirical
model for the calculations and enter the proper values for the model parameters.

d. Enable the checkbox for each empirical model you want calculated in the simulation.

e. Define the Start Time value.

4. Set up and process your simulation as you normally would, with the following exception:

5. After processing is complete, you may post-process the erosion data you collected by doing the
following:

a. From the Data panel, under Geometries, select the geometry component for which you would
like to analyze erosion.

b. From the Data Editors panel, select the Properties tab, and then under Transient, display in
a 3D View window or plot the Erosion... property you are interested in.

11.2. Technical details

The individual erosion models implemented in this module are described below.

11.2.1. Finnie model

The Finnie model [10] (p. 377) is given by the following equations:
(11.1)

(11.2)

Where:

is the dimensionless mass, which can be defined as the ratio between the eroded mass and the
mass of the particle that collided with the boundary triangle.

is a model constant, determined by experimental test.

is the velocity exponent, generally in the range 2.3 to 2.5 [rad] for metals.

is the particle impact velocity measured in [m/s].

is the impact angle measured in [rad].

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11.2.2. McLaury model

The McLaury model [10] (p. 377) is given by the following equations:
(11.3)

(11.4)

Where:

is the dimensionless mass, which can be defined as the ratio between the eroded mass and the
mass of the particle that collided with the boundary triangle.

is a model constant, related to the material hardness.

is a dimensionless velocity exponent.

is a dimensionless model constant determined by experiment.

is a dimensionless model constant determined by experiment.

is a dimensionless model constant determined by experiment.

is calculated based on the combination of the two equations for the calculation of the angle function,
is automatically generated when ??=??lim.

is a dimensionless model constant determined by experiment.

is a dimensionless model constant determined by experiment.

is the transition angle measured in [rad].

is the particle impact velocity measured in [m/s].

is the particle impact angle of maximum erosion, measured in [rad].

11.2.3. Oka model

The Oka model [10] (p. 377) can be given by the following equations:

(11.5)

(11.6)

Where:

is the dimensionless mass, which is the ratio between the eroded mass and the mass of the particle
that collided with the boundary triangle.

reference erosion ratio at 90º impact angle.

is the dimensionless velocity exponent.

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Erosion Model Module

is the dimensionless diameter exponent.

is a dimensionless angle function constant.

is a dimensionless angle function constant.

is the particle impact velocity measured in [m/s].

is the particle reference velocity measured in [m/s].

is the particle diameter measured in [m].

is the particle reference diameter measured in [m].

is the wall material Vickers hardness measured in [GPa].

is the impact angle measured in [rad].

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Chapter 12: Frictional Heating Module
12.1. Usage details

12.1.1. Purpose of module

The Frictional Heating module enables you to consider the heat generation due to friction in particle-
particle and particle-boundary collisions. It does so by predicting the amount of heat generated on
each collision event and applying it to the colliding particles.

Selecting this module will not override any models or settings in the Rocky UI.

12.1.2. Functionality details

The Frictional Heating module works by adding a friction-dependent heat generation term on the
thermal balance equation for the particles in a simulation.

12.1.3. Limitations and considerations

This model does not currently work with geometries in motion. Please remove or disable any Motion
Frame assignments for your project?s geometries prior to processing your simulation.

In addition, this model works only in conjunction with the Rocky Thermal Model. Ensure that the
Thermal Model checkbox is enabled on the Thermal tab of the Physics entity and that all thermal-
related properties have been defined for your geometries, materials, and particle inputs before pro-
cessing your simulation.

12.1.4. Module options

This module has three parameters that you can set, as explained below and shown in Figure 12.1: Op-
tions for the Frictional Heating module. (p. 142).

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Frictional Heating Module

Figure 12.1: Options for the Frictional Heating module.

• Start Time: This defines the time you want particles to begin being influenced by the heat friction
effects.

Range: [Positive values]

• Stop Time: This defines the time you want particles to stop being influenced by the heat friction
effects.

Range: [Positive values]

• Heat Generation Coefficient: This defines the fraction of the dissipated energy due to friction that
is transformed into heat.

Range: [Values between 0-1]

12.1.5. Post-processing abilities

After processing your simulation, you are able to analyze your results using the same thermal-related
property that is available for the Rocky Thermal Model:

• Temperature (for geometries, particles, and fluids)

In addition, an extra particle property is available if you enabled the module to process your simulation,
as shown in Figure 12.2:Frictional Heating module options. (p. 143) and explained below.

• Frictional Generated Heat: This provides the amount of heat generated on the particles due to
the collisions with other particles and walls.

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 Usage details

Figure 12.2: Frictional Heating module options.

Note:

The property generated by this module will only appear if the Upscaling is disabled. Refer
to Rocky User Manual (About Meshed Particles Upscaling) for more details.

12.1.6. Setting up and using the module

1. Ensure the following:

a. The Thermal Model checkbox is enabled on the Thermal tab of the Physics entity.

b. The module is enabled. (From the Data panel, select Modules and then from the Data Editors
panel, ensure the Frictional Heating checkbox is enabled.)

2. From the Data panel, under Modules, select Frictional Heating.

3. From the Data Editors panel, define the parameters as you want.

4. Set up your simulation as you normally would, with the following exceptions:

a. When setting up your Geometries, ensure that no active geometries have Motion Frames as-
signed.

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Frictional Heating Module

b. Ensure that you define all thermal-related properties for your geometries, materials, and particle
inputs.

5. Process your simulation as you normally would.

6. When you are ready to analyze your simulation results, you may choose to make use of the fol-
lowing thermal-related Property:

• Temperature (for geometries, particles, and fluids)

• Frictional Generated Heat (for particles)

12.2. Technical details

The Frictional Heating module adds a heat generation term on the thermal energy balance equation of
a particle colliding with another particle or with a boundary. The amount of heat will be proportional
to the energy dissipation by the tangential forces on the collision event, as follows:
(12.1)

Where:

is the heat, measured in [W], that will be added to the particle per unit time.

is the heat generation coefficient [-], which is an option defined by the user in the Frictional Heating
module.

is the relative velocity vector, measured in [m/s], at the contact point.

is the contact tangential force vector, measured in [N].

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Chapter 13: Heat Generation Region Module
13.1. Usage details

13.1.1. Purpose of module

The Heat Generation Region module enables you to define one or more regions of interest in which
a specific heat source per unit area will be applied to particles within the region, in order to simulate
radiation effects.

Selecting this module will not override any models or settings in the Rocky UI.

13.1.2. Functionality details

The Heat Generation Region module applies a heat source per unit area on particles during the time
they stay inside the specified region of interest.

13.1.3. Limitations and considerations

This model works only in conjunction with the Rocky Thermal Model. Ensure that the Enable Thermal
checkbox is selected on the Thermal tab of the Physics entity and that all thermal-related properties
have been defined for your geometries, materials, and particle inputs before processing your simulation.

13.1.4. Module options

This module has several parameters that you can set, which are defined below and shown in Fig-
ure 13.1: Options for the Heat Generation Region module. (p. 146).

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Heat Generation Region Module

Figure 13.1: Options for the Heat Generation Region module.

• Start Time: This defines the time you want particles to begin being influenced by the heat gener-
ation region.

Range: [Positive values]

• Stop Time: This defines the time you want particles to stop being influenced by the heat generation
region.

Range: [Positive values]

• Region of Interest: The Region of Interest that you want to apply a heat source to the particles
that are inside it.

Range: [Any Region of Interest that has already been defined in the simulation]

• Heat Generation: Intensity of the heat source to be applied to the particles.

Range: [Real values]

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 Usage details

13.1.5. Post-processing abilities

After processing your simulation, you are able to analyze your results using the same thermal-related
property that is available for the Rocky Thermal Model:

• Temperature (for geometries, particles, and fluids)

Note:

Properties generated by this module will only appear if the Upscaling is disabled.Refer to
Rocky User Manual (5.1.7. About Meshed Particles Upscaling) for more details.

13.1.6. Setting up and using the module

1. Ensure the following:

a. The Thermal Model checkbox is enabled on the Thermal tab of the Physics entity.

b. The module is enabled. (From the Data panel, select Modules and then from the Data Editors
panel, ensure the Heat Generation Region checkbox is enabled.)

2. From the Data panel, under Modules, select Heat Generation Region.

3. From the Data Editors panel, do the following:

a. Define the Start Time and Stop Time .

b. Under Heat Generation Regions, click the Add button (green plus) to add as many rows
to the table as you want separate regions of interest to be heat generation regions.

c. For each separate row in the table, define the Heat Generation and the related Region
of Interest.

Set up your simulation as you normally would, with the following exceptions:

Tips:

• To insert a new row beneath the selected row, click the Insert button.

• To remove the selected row, click the Remove button.

• To remove all rows in the table, click the Remove All button.

4. Set up your simulation as you normally would, with the following exceptions:

a. Ensure that you define all thermal-related properties for your geometries, materials, and particle
inputs.

5. Process your simulation as you normally would.

6. When you are ready to analyze your simulation results, you may choose to make use of the fol-
lowing thermal-related Property:

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Heat Generation Region Module

• Temperature (for geometries, particles, and fluids)

13.2. Technical details

The Heat Generation Region module adds a heat generation term on the thermal energy balance equation
of a particle, which is calculated as follows:
(13.1)

Where:

is the heat transferred, measured in [W], per unit time to the particle while it is inside the defined
region.

is the projected area of the particle, measured in [m2], which is computed considering the
particle is a sphere.

is the heat source, measured in [W/m2], which is an option defined by the user in the Heat Gen-
eration Region module.

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Chapter 14: Heterogeneous Fiber Module (Beta)
Important:

Note that beta features have not been fully tested and validated. Ansys, Inc. makes no
commitment to resolve defects reported against these prototype features. However, your
feedback will help us improve the overall quality of the product. We will not guarantee that
the projects using this beta feature will run successfully when the feature is finally released
so you may, therefore, need to modify the projects.

14.1. Usage details

14.1.1. Purpose of module

This module enables you to set elastic, plastic and discrete breakage parameters for each joint of a
custom fiber. This is quite useful when the goal is to represent heterogeneous particles that can be
defined as complex fibers, such as plants.

14.1.2. Functionality details

To use this module you need to define Tag values for each element of a custom fiber on the definition
file (Figure 14.1:Tag column on the custom fiber definition file. (p. 149)).

Figure 14.1: Tag column on the custom fiber definition file.

Then, the properties for each pair of tag values are defined on the module (Figure 14.2: Pairs of Tags
table (p. 150)).

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Heterogeneous Fiber Module (Beta)

Figure 14.2: Pairs of Tags table

The information of the custom fiber definition file and the pairs of tags table is mapped to the joints
of custom fiber, as shown in Figure 14.3: Tags mapped to joints (p. 150). Thus, the elastic, plastic and
discrete breakage models can be applied per joint.

Figure 14.3: Tags mapped to joints

The module uses the Bilinear Elastoplastic model for elastic and plastic behavior of the joints and the
Tensile or Shear Stress for joint breakage model. Both already present in Rocky for homogeneous fiber
modeling.

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 Usage details

14.1.2.1. About Custom fiber file

For the module to work with the Custom fiber definition file, all the Tag values must be positive
values, as shown in Figure 14.1:Tag column on the custom fiber definition file. (p. 149).

14.1.3. Limitations and considerations

This module overwrites the original Rocky’s Elastic Ratio and the Joint Damping Ratio, shown on
the Figure 4 Figure 14.4: Elastic Ratio and Joint Damping Ratio. (p. 151), but does not support overwriting
the Element Damping ratio shown on the Figure 5 Figure 14.5: Element Damping Ratio. (p. 152).
Therefore, if element damping is needed, the same element damping ratio will be used for the whole
particle.

If the element damping is enabled in the simulation, although the Rocky’s original Elastic Ratio is
not used in the calculations of joints forces, moments and breakage criterion calculations, this para-
meter is used in the fundamental frequency calculation, which is, in its turn, used on the element
damping coefficient calculation.

Figure 14.4: Elastic Ratio and Joint Damping Ratio.

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Heterogeneous Fiber Module (Beta)

Figure 14.5: Element Damping Ratio.

14.1.4. Module options

This module has several parameters that you can set, which are defined below and shown in Fig-
ure 14.6: Options for the Heterogeneous Custom Fiber (Beta) module. (p. 152) and Figure 14.7: Options
for the Heterogeneous Custom Fiber (Beta) module. (p. 153).

Figure 14.6: Options for the Heterogeneous Custom Fiber (Beta) module.

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 Usage details

Figure 14.7: Options for the Heterogeneous Custom Fiber (Beta) module.

• Show tags on particles: Defines whether tags given in the Custom Fiber Definition File will be saved
as particle properties for post-processing.

Range: [Automatically provided.]

• First Element Tag: Sets the first tag value that defines a pair of tags.

Range: [Positive Integer Values]

• Second Element Tag: Sets the second tag value that defines a pair of tags.

Range: [Positive Integer Values]

• Elastic Ratio: Defines the Elastic Ratio of a joint formed by elements with tag values defined by
the First Element Tag and Second Element Tag values.

Range: [Positive Real Values]

• Damping Ratio: Defines the Joint Damping Ratio of a joint that is formed by elements with tag
values defined by the First Element Tag and Second Element Tag values. This value is not used
for element damping.

Range: [Positive Real Values]

• Plastic Ratio: Defines the Plastic Ratio of a joint formed by elements with tag values defined by
the First Element Tag and Second Element Tag values.

Range: [Positive Real Values]

• Torsion Angle Limit: Defines the Torsion Angle Limit of a joint formed by elements with tag values
defined by the First Element Tag and Second Element Tag values.

Range: [Positive Real Values]

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Heterogeneous Fiber Module (Beta)

• Bending Angle Limit: Defines the Bending Angle Limit of a joint formed by elements with tag values
defined by the First Element Tag and Second Element Tag values.

Range: [Positive Real Values]

• Tensile Stress Limit: Defines the Tensile Stress Limit of a joint formed by elements with tag values
defined by the First Element Tag and Second Element Tag values.

Range: [Positive Real Values]

• Shear Stress Limit: Defines the Shear Stress Limit of a joint formed by elements with tag values
defined by the First Element Tag and Second Element Tag values.

Range: [Positive Real Values]

14.1.5. Post-processing abilities

After processing your simulation, you can analyze the results using the same particle-related properties
that are available by default in Rocky.

In addition, one extra particle property is available as shown in Figure 14.8: —Additional particle
properties created by the Heterogeneous Custom Fiber (Beta) module. (p. 154) and explained below.

Figure 14.8: —Additional particle properties created by the Heterogeneous Custom Fiber (Beta)
module.

• Tag: The tag defined in the Custom Fiber Definition File. This property will only appear if the Show
tags on particles module property is enabled and if the Meshed Particles Upscaling is disabled.

Note:

Properties generated by this module will only appear if the Upscaling is disabled.Refer to
Rocky User Manual (5.1.7. About Meshed Particles Upscaling) for more details.

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 Usage details

14.1.6. Setting up and using the module

1. Create and import into Rocky a Custom Fiber definition file that meets the requirements specified
in the Functionality details section.

2. Ensure that the module is enabled. (From the Data panel, select Modules and then from the Data
Editors panel, ensure the Heterogeneous Custom Fiber (Beta) checkbox is enabled.)

3. From the Data panel, under Modules, select Heterogeneous Custom Fiber (Beta).

4. From the Data Editors panel, within the Element Pair Properties list, click on the Add button
to add all the possible pairs of tags combinations, setting up all the parameters needed.

5. Set up your simulation as you normally would.

6. Process and post-process your simulation as you normally would.

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Chapter 15: Leblicq Joint Model Module
15.1. Usage details

15.1.1. Purpose of module

The Leblicq Joint Model module is based upon the work by Leblicq et al [12] (p. 377). and is used to
define how plastic-like movements between the joints of individual elements in a flexible straight
fiber are simulated. This particular model can be useful for simulating hay or other grass-like crops.

15.1.2. About the module

The Leblicq Joint Model module (Figure 15.1: Options for the Leblicq Joint Model module. (p. 157)) requires
the use of two specialized .csv tables, which are based upon experimental data specific to the fiber
you are modeling. Therefore, it is required that you first perform certain tests on your fibers to obtain
the data required by this module.

In this version of the Leblicq Joint Model module (Figure 15.1: Options for the Leblicq Joint Model
module. (p. 157)), you must include your own Loading Stiffness and Unloading Stiffness values as
separate input files (Figure 15.2: Example paths to stiffness input files. (p. 158)).

Figure 15.1: Options for the Leblicq Joint Model module.

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Leblicq Joint Model Module

Figure 15.2: Example paths to stiffness input files.

Enabling this module adds a new Leblicq Joint Model option to the Joint Model list on the Particle
| Composition tab when a multi-element particle shape is defined (Figure 15.3: Joint Model options
for a multi-element Fiber when the Leblicq Joint Model module is enabled. (p. 159)).

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 Usage details

Figure 15.3: Joint Model options for a multi-element Fiber when the Leblicq Joint Model module
is enabled.

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Leblicq Joint Model Module

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 Usage details

15.1.3. About the input files

As shown in Figure 15.4: Example Loading Stiffness table. (p. 161) and Figure 15.5: Example Unloading
Stiffness table. (p. 161), the two input files required by this module are very specialized and require
first following the procedure described in Leblicq et al [12] (p. 377).

Figure 15.4: Example Loading Stiffness table.

Figure 15.5: Example Unloading Stiffness table.

In brief, the values in the .csv files represent the lower triangular part of a square matrix, which define
the stiffness as a function of the deformation angle and the maximum deformation angle.

In order to obtain those values, you must first perform three-point bending tests on your fiber, do
force and deformation angle measurements, and then use the procedure in the referenced paper to
obtain the resulting stiffness tables.

This experimental work is required before using this module as a set of tables is specific to a fiber of
a given shape and material.

For illustration purposes, example loading and unloading stiffness tables were provided with this
module. As shown in Figure 15.6: Folder location of the example .csv files. (p. 162), these two .csv files
are located in the same folder as the compiled Leblicq Joint Model module.

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Leblicq Joint Model Module

Figure 15.6: Folder location of the example .csv files.

15.1.4. Limitations and considerations

This model works only with Straight Fiber particle shapes composed of Multiple Elements.

15.1.5. Module options

This module has two options that you can set (Figure 15.1: Options for the Leblicq Joint Model mod-
ule. (p. 157)), as defined below:

• Loading Stiffness Input File: The full path to the .csv file that defines the loading stiffness
values.

Range: [.csv files formatted according to the Loading Stiffness procedure defined in the refer-
enced paper.]

• Unloading Stiffness Input File: The full path to the .csv file that defines the unloading stiffness
values.

Range: [.csv files formatted according to the Unloading Stiffness procedure defined in the ref-
erenced paper.]

Once the module is enabled and your input files specified, you are able to select the new Leblicq
Joint Model option from the Joint Model list on the Particle | Composition tab.

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 Technical Details

15.1.6. Setting up and using the module

1. Ensure that you have used the procedure in Leblicq et al [12] (p. 377). to obtain the resulting
Loading Stiffness and Unloading Stiffness tables and have saved them as separate .csv files.

2. Ensure that the module is enabled. (From the Data panel, select Modules and then from the Data
Editors panel, ensure the Leblicq Joint Model checkbox is enabled.)

3. From the Data panel, under Modules, select the new Leblicq Joint Model entry, and then from
the Data Editors panel, enter the two separate paths to the .csv files you want to use.

4. Set up your simulation as usual with the following exception:

When setting up your Particles, ensure that for any Particle sets to which you want the Leblicq
Joint Modelto apply, you do all of the following:

a. From the Shape list, under Fiber, choose Straight Fiber.

b. From the Composition sub-tab, enable Multiple Elements from the Composition list, and
then from the Joint Model list, select Leblicq Joint Model.

If you choose to enable this module, you must have at least one Particle set that makes use
of it. Otherwise, you should disable the module.

5. Process and post-process your simulation as usual.

15.2. Technical Details

The Leblicq Joint Model module is based upon the work by Leblicq et al [12] (p. 377).

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Chapter 16: Leeds Contact Model Module
16.1. Usage details

16.1.1. Purpose of module

This module enables you to use the Leeds Contact Model for both the Normal Force and Adhesive
Force used in the project.

The Normal Force is used to calculate the normal components of the contact forces. The Adhesive
Force defines how adhesion between materials is calculated, and will therefore affect Material-to-
Material interactions on the Materials Interactions step.

Selecting this module overrides what you have set for both Normal Force and Adhesive Force in
the Physics | Momentum tabFigure 16.1: Physics | Momentum tab options when the Leeds Contact
Model module is enabled. (p. 166)

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Leeds Contact Model Module

Figure 16.1: Physics | Momentum tab options when the Leeds Contact Model module is enabled.

16.1.2. Functionality details

The Leeds Contact Model works by employing a simplified linear contact model developed by University
of Leeds.

16.1.3. Limitations and considerations

This model is currently incompatible with Coarse Grain Modeling.

16.1.4. Module options

This module has no options that you can set (Figure 16.2: Options for the Leeds Contact Model mod-
ule. (p. 167)).

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 Usage details

Figure 16.2: Options for the Leeds Contact Model module.

However, once the module is enabled, it does provide additional options in the Materials Interactions
section of the UI, as explained below.

16.1.4.1. Additional Materials Interactions options

When this module is enabled, additional Leeds Contact Model parameters appear in the Materials
Interactions entity (Figure 16.3: Materials Interactions options when the Leeds Contact Model
module is enabled. (p. 168)).

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Leeds Contact Model Module

Figure 16.3: Materials Interactions options when the Leeds Contact Model module is enabled.

These parameters are explained below:

• Damping Ratio: This defines the amount of extra viscous dissipation added in reloading
periods, in order to suppress small oscillations when a particle is near to a still position, as
shown in Equation 16.7 (p. 171).

Range: [0, 1]

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 Technical details

• Surface Energy: This defines the work per area unit expended in separating two contacting
surfaces. In the Leeds model, it is used to calculate the pull-off force, as shown in Equa-
tion 16.2 (p. 170).

Range: [Positive values]

16.1.5. Setting up and using the module

1. Ensure that the module is enabled. (From the Data panel, select Modules and then from the Data
Editors panel, ensure the Leeds Contact Model checkbox is enabled.)

2. Set up your simulation as you normally would, with the following exceptions:

a. When setting up your Physics parameters, note the following:

• This model overrides both the Normal Force and Adhesive Force parameters on the
Physics | Momentum tab so you will be unable to set those parameters when this module
is enabled.

• This model is incompatible with Coarse Grain Modeling. (From the Physics | Coarse-Graining
tab, ensure that the Coarse Grain Modeling checkbox is cleared.)

b. When setting up Materials Interactions, ensure that for each material-material pair you are
making use of in the simulation, you define what you want for Damping Ratio and Surface
Energy.

3. Process and post-process your simulation as you normally would.

16.2. Technical details

The Leeds Contact Model is a simplified linear contact model that simulates elasto-plastic-adhesive be-
havior based upon the model developed by Pasha, from the University of Leeds [14] (p. 377),[13] (p. 377).

Figure 16.4: Schematic diagram of a typical normal force overlap response of the Leeds Contact Mod-
el. (p. 170) shows schematically a typical normal force overlap response of the Leeds Contact Model,
which is determined by the piecewise function of the normal overlap ,

(16.1)

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Leeds Contact Model Module

Figure 16.4: Schematic diagram of a typical normal force overlap response of the Leeds Contact
Model.

In Figure 16.1: Physics | Momentum tab options when the Leeds Contact Model module is enabled. (p. 166),
and are the plastic and elastic stiffnesses, as they are called in the original formulation of the
model [14] (p. 377). In Rocky, and are taken to be equal to the loading stiffness, , and the
unloading stiffness, , respectively, defined for the hysteretic linear spring model.

Moreover, in Equation 16.1 (p. 169) is the elastic pull-off force predicted by the JKR theory, which is
given by:
(16.2)
where is the effective or equivalent radius, whereas is the module parameter listed as Surface
Energy in the Rocky UI.

The overlap values that delimit the different stages in Equation 16.1 (p. 169) are given by:
(16.3)

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 Technical details

(16.4)

(16.5)

where is the maximum overlap reached during the loading, as can be seen in Figure 16.4: Schem-
atic diagram of a typical normal force overlap response of the Leeds Contact Model. (p. 170).

Additionally, the horizontal coordinate of point A, at which the adhesive force begins to exist, is given
by:
(16.6)

On the other hand, the contact is considered to break at point F, when the adhesive force reduces to
, where is the adhesive force at point E, corresponding to the overlap given by Equa-
tion 16.5 (p. 171). If before reaching point F the decreasing in the overlap is reversed and a reloading
process begins, the force will follow the same unloading path, but in the opposite direction, as indicated
by the arrows in Figure 16.4: Schematic diagram of a typical normal force overlap response of the Leeds
Contact Model. (p. 170). Moreover, if in that reloading process the overlap increases beyond , starting
at point D, the force will follow an extension of the original loading path C-D, with slope given by .

The Leeds Contact Model is closely related to the JKR model, in fact, the initial part of the force response
in the Leeds Contact Model is designed to be a linearized version of JKR, with the same pull-off force.
However, as the Leeds Contact Model is based on the hysteretic linear spring model, the main mechanism
of energy dissipation is plastic rather than viscous as in the JKR model implemented in Rocky. Still, in
some cases it can be desirable to add an extra viscous dissipation mechanism, in order to suppress low-
amplitude oscillations when particles are in a near-static state. With that purpose, a viscous force is
added in Rocky, which is activated only when a reloading period begins. This extra viscous force is added
also if a unloading begins before reaching point C. Afterwards, if the overlap gets bigger than , the
viscous force is deactivated. This force is given by:
(16.7)
where is the Damping Ratio, which is a user input in the Rocky UI. Additionally, is the equivalent
or effective mass, whereas is the time derivative of the overlap.

The normal contact force defined in the Leeds Contact Model can be considered as composed by a re-
pulsive force force plus an adhesive one. Internally in Rocky, the data structures associated to those
types of forces are different, therefore, they must be calculated separately. This separation is useful also
for the computation of some statistics in which repulsive forces and adhesive forces are accounted
separately. Then, as shown schematically in Figure 16.5: Normal force in Leeds Contact Model as a
composition of repulsive and adhesive forces. (p. 172), the normal force for the Leeds model in Rocky
is considered to be the sum of a repulsive force (in purple), which coincides with the force predicted
by the hysteretic linear spring model, and an adhesive force (in blue).

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Leeds Contact Model Module

Figure 16.5: Normal force in Leeds Contact Model as a composition of repulsive and adhesive
forces.

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Chapter 17: Liquid Absorption Model Module
17.1. Usage details

17.1.1. Purpose of module

This module enables you to use a Liquid Absorption model to consider the increase of particle
density due to liquid absorption. The particle is considered porous and the liquid will fill the pores.

Selecting this module will not override any models or settings in the Rocky UI.

17.1.2. Functionality details

The Liquid Absorption module predicts the amount of liquid absorbed and increases the particle mass
with the same quantity that is removed from the liquid film. This module's primary purpose is to
calculate the removal of liquid film around particles, and therefore requires that particles have a liquid
film applied to them within the simulation. This liquid addition can be defined during the particle
Inputs setup, or by applying another module that specifies the liquid addition.

17.1.3. Limitations and considerations

This module has no known limitations.

17.1.4. Module options

This module has three parameters that you can set, as explained below and shown in Figure 17.1: Op-
tions for the Liquid Absorption module. (p. 174).

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Liquid Absorption Model Module

Figure 17.1: Options for the Liquid Absorption module.

• Activate Mass Increment: When enabled, the liquid mass removed from the liquid film will be
added to the particle mass. When cleared, the liquid mass will still be removed but the removed
mass will not be added to the particle mass.

Range: [Turns on or off ]

• Absorption Rate Coefficient: This defines the absorption rate coefficient at which it will define
the liquid mass absorption rate of the liquid film.

Range: [Positive values]

• Start Time: This defines the time you want particles to begin being influenced by the liquid adsorp-
tion model. Because the liquid in the film will either be removed or absorbed by the particle over
time, the effective Stop Time will be different for each particle.

Range: [Positive values]

17.1.4.1. Additional options enabled in the UI

Besides the parameters you define in the individual module itself, there is an additional parameter
you must set for your Inputs. See the section below for details.

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 Usage details

For the Inputs step, a new Modules sub-tab will appear to help you define the properties of the
particles, as explained below and shown in Figure 17.2:Liquid Absorption module options for a
Continuous Injection Input. (p. 175).

Note:

This sub-tab will appear only for the Continuous Injection and Volume Fill inputs. For
Custom Inputs, there is not a Modules sub tab; rather, the Module s parameters will
appear on the main tab for Custom Inputs.

Figure 17.2: Liquid Absorption module options for a Continuous Injection Input.

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Liquid Absorption Model Module

• Particle: For each row, lists the Particle set that is defined on the Particles sub-tab for the Input.

Range: [Automatically provided]

• Liquid Mass: This defines the mass of the liquid film that will be applied to each particle within
the selected Particle set when it enters into the simulation. Important: Every particle in the set,
regardless of the particle size or volume, will contain the same amount of liquid mass and mass
increment when injected.

Range: [Values zero or greater]

• Mass Increment: This defines the mass increment that will be applied to each particle within
the selected Particle set.

Range: [Values zero or greater]

Normally, this value should be set to zero, since it will be the Liquid Absorption module itself that
will calculate the mass increment during the simulation.

17.1.5. Post-processing abilities

After processing, new Properties are available for the main Particles entity, as explained below and
shown in Figure 17.3:Particles Properties created by the Liquid Absorption module. (p. 177).

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 Usage details

Figure 17.3: Particles Properties created by the Liquid Absorption module.

Note:

Properties generated by this module will only appear if the Upscaling is disabled.Refer to
Rocky User Manual (5.1.7. About Meshed Particles Upscaling) for more details.

• Liquid Mass: This provides the mass of the liquid film around each individual whole particle or
fragment. This can help you to visualize the evolution of the particle's liquid content, as the liquid
mass will tend to decrease over time due the absorption process being simulated.

• Mass Increment: This provides the increment mass in relation to the original mass of each individual
whole particle or fragment. This can help you to visualize the amount of mass that was absorbed
by each particle over time.

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Liquid Absorption Model Module

17.1.6. Setting up and using the module

1. Ensure that the module is enabled. (From the Data panel, select Modules and then from the Data
Editors panel, ensure the Liquid Absorption checkbox is enabled.)

2. From the Data panel, under Modules, select Liquid Absorption.

3. From the Data Editors panel, define the parameters as you want

4. Set up your simulation as you normally would, with the following exception:

• For the Inputs step, ensure that for each Input and Particle set you define, you also define
the Liquid Mass and Mass Increment values you want.

5. Process your simulation as you normally would.

6. When you are ready to analyze your simulation results, do the following:

a. From the Data panel, select the main Particles entity.

b. From the Data Editors panel, select the Properties tab, and then display in a 3D View window
or plot any of the following Properties:

• Liquid Mass

• Mass Increment

17.2. Technical details

During a simulation timestep, the Liquid Absorption module calculates the absorbed mass of liquid by
a particle as follows:
(17.1)

Where:

• is the absorbed mass of liquid, as measured in [kg].

• is the absorption rate coefficient [1/s], which is a user-defined option in the Liquid Absorption
module.

• is the instantaneous mass of the liquid film around a particle, as measured in [kg].

• is the simulation timestep, as measured in [s].

If the Activate Mass Increment checkbox is enabled in the Liquid Absorption module, the mass of the
liquid film will be reduced by and will be added to the particle s mass. If the checkbox remains
cleared, the mass of the liquid film will still be reduced by but that will not be added to the particle's
mass.

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Chapter 18: Liquid Bridge Module
18.1. Usage details

18.1.1. Purpose of module

A liquid bridge is formed when two particles with liquid films get close enough for their films to
touch, or "bridge". This is a type of adhesion model that can be useful when studying wet particulate
processes. An example from such a process is provided in Figure 18.1: Example mixing process using
the Liquid Bridge Model (p. 179), where liquid from a wet additive (blue) is transferred to a dry power
(white) over time.

Figure 18.1: Example mixing process using the Liquid Bridge Model

If you want to include the effect of liquid films around particles in the simulation, you can choose to
enable the Liquid Bridge Model module (Figure 18.2:Liquid Bridge Model module options. (p. 180)) prior
to processing your simulation.

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Liquid Bridge Module

Figure 18.2: Liquid Bridge Model module options.

Enabling the Liquid Bridge Model module overrides the Adhesive Force model that is defined on the
Physics | Momentum tab, as shown in Figure 18.3:Liquid Bridge Model overriding the Adhesive Force
setting. (p. 181).

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 Usage details

Figure 18.3: Liquid Bridge Model overriding the Adhesive Force setting.

18.1.2. Functionality details

During processing, Rocky applies a liquid film that forms around each particle, and predicts when
particles get close enough to each other (or to a boundary) to form a liquid bridge. When liquid
bridges are formed, Rocky then calculates the capillary and viscous forces that the bridges exert over
the particles and as the simulation progresses, calculates the redistribution of liquid mass between
the particles.

Only particles in Rocky are considered to have liquid films associated with them. However, it is still
possible for a particle to create a liquid bridge with a boundary. In these cases, only the particle
contributes liquid to the bridge's formation, and liquid bridge forces are considered when computing
the interaction between particles and boundaries.

Note: The liquid mass is not included in the particle mass when solving motion equations for the
particle. For example, if a dry particle has 0.1 kg and the liquid film around it has 0.001 kg, the motion
equations for the particle will be solved considering only a mass of 0.1 kg.

18.1.3. Limitations and considerations

The Liquid Bridge module is applicable only to spherical or near-spherical particles, so it is not com-
patible with shell or fiber particles (both rigid and flexible).

Additionally, if the particle groups of the simulation have an aspect ratio smaller than 0.9 or bigger
than 1.1, the forces calculated by this module may be inaccurate.

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Liquid Bridge Module

18.1.4. Module options

Use Figure 18.2:Liquid Bridge Model module options. (p. 180) above and the parameter definitions
below to understand how to enable and configure the Liquid Bridge Model.

• Liquid Viscosity: This defines the viscosity of the liquid film around particles.

Range: [Positive values]

The default value of 0.001 Pa.s is equal to the viscosity of water.

• Liquid Density: This defines the density of the liquid film around particles.

Range: [Positive values]

The default value of 1000 kg/m3 is equal to the density of water

• Surface Tension: This defines the surface tension of the liquid film around particles.

Range: [Positive values]

The default value of 0.072 N/m is equal to the surface tension of water.

18.1.4.1. Additional options enabled in the UI

In addition to the module itself, there will be other places within the Rocky UI where additional
Liquid Bridge Model parameters will be available, including:

• Materials Interactions

• Inlets and Outlets

The additional options on the Materials Interaction tab (Figure 18.4:Liquid Bridge Model Materials
Interactions options. (p. 183)) help you define how the liquid bridge will act when it is formed
between particles, or between particles and boundaries.

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 Usage details

Figure 18.4: Liquid Bridge Model Materials Interactions options.

These parameters are explained below:

• Bridge Volume Fraction: This defines the fraction of the liquid bridge volume that the
particle pair will each contribute to when they are close enough for their liquid films to form
a bridge. Each particle will contribute to the bridge with a liquid volume equal to the Bridge
Volume Fraction times the volume of the film around it. For particle-to-boundary interaction
pairs, only the particle liquid contributes to the formation of the bridge.

Range: [0-1]

The recommended range is 0.05 - 0.10

• Contact Angle: This defines the angle between the surface of the liquid bridge and the
particle (and/or boundary) surfaces between which it formed. It is used to compute the
critical rupture distance for the liquid bridge between particles, and is also used to calculate
the capillary force.

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Liquid Bridge Module

Range: [Greater than zero but less than 90]

• Minimum Separation Ratio: This defines the smallest (minimum) separation distance below
which the capillary and viscous liquid bridge forces will remain with a constant value, which
is computed using the minimum distance. The minimum separation distance is obtained by
multiplying the Min. Separation Ratio and the radius of the bigger particle of the pair (or
just the radius of the particle when it is a particle-boundary interaction). Above this separation
distance, the liquid bridge force is computed using the real separation values. This numerical
artifact was implemented to avoid extremely high values when the separation is close to
zero.

Range: [Values above zero]

18.1.4.2. Additional Inlets options

For Particle Inlet and Volumetric Inlet, a new Modules sub-tab will appear showing a row for each
particle group to help you define the liquid film input properties of the particles, as shown in Fig-
ure 18.5: Options for a Volumetric Inlet (left) and a Particle Inlet (right). (p. 184)

Figure 18.5: Options for a Volumetric Inlet (left) and a Particle Inlet (right).

Within the table on the Modules sub-tab, one parameter (column) can be set per Particle Group
(row), as defined below:

• Particle: For each row, lists the Particle Group that is defined on the Particles sub-tab.

Range: [Automatically provided]

• Liquid Mass: This defines the liquid mass that will be applied to each particle within the
selected Particle Group when it enters into the simulation. Important: Every particle in the
set, regardless of the particle size or volume, will contain the same amount of liquid mass
when it enters into the simulation.

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 Usage details

Range: [Values zero or greater]

For Particle Custom Inlets, a new Liquid Bridge Model section will appear to help you define the
liquid film input properties of the particles, as shown in Figure 18.6: Options for a Particle Custom
Inlet. (p. 185). The only parameter in this section is Liquid Mass, which is defined exactly the same
as indicated in the preceding section.

Figure 18.6: Options for a Particle Custom Inlet.

18.1.5. Post-processing abilities

After processing the simulation, a new Liquid Mass property will be available for the main Particles
entity (Figure 18.7: Options for a Particle Custom Inlet. (p. 186)), which provides the mass of the liquid

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Liquid Bridge Module

film around a particle. This can help you to visualize the evolution of the particle's liquid content, as
the liquid can be transferred from particle to particle during each collision.

You can choose to analyze this property in a plot or histogram window.

Or, you can choose to display this property graphically in a 3D View window.

Figure 18.7: Options for a Particle Custom Inlet.

Note:

Properties generated by this module will only appear if the Upscaling is disabled.Refer to
Rocky User Manual (5.1.7. About Meshed Particles Upscaling) for more details.

18.1.6. Setting up and using the module

1. Ensure that the module is enabled. (From the Data panel, select Modules and then from the Data
Editors panel, ensure the Liquid Bridge Model checkbox is enabled.)

2. From the Data panel, under Modules, select the new Liquid Bridge Model entry.

3. From the Data Editors panel, on the Liquid Bridge Model tab, enter the values you want.

4. Continue setting up the simulation as you normally would, with the following exceptions:

a. When setting up your Materials Interactions, be sure to define the Liquid Bridge Model
values you want for each material interaction pair.

b. When setting up your Inlets and Outlets, be sure to define the parameters on the Modules
tab (for Particle Inlet and Volumetric Inlet) or in the Liquid Bridge Model section (for Particle
Custom Inlets).

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 Technical Details

5. Process the simulation as you normally would.

6. When you are ready to post-process your simulation results, you can make use of the new para-
meter on the Properties tab for the main Particles entity

18.2. Technical Details

The Liquid Bridge Model module in Rocky calculates capillary and viscous forces acting over particles
due the presence of interstitial liquid bridges. A liquid bridge is formed when wet particles become
closer to each other or to a boundary, as depicted schematically in Figures Figure 18.8: Geometry of a
liquid bridge between two particles. (p. 187) and Figure 18.9: Geometry of a liquid bridge between a
particle and a boundary. (p. 188), respectively.

Figure 18.8: Geometry of a liquid bridge between two particles.

A liquid bridge exerts an attractive capillary force over the particles, which is calculated in Rocky according
to a correlation derived by Mikami et al.[15] (p. 377). For a bridge between two particles, the magnitude
of this force is given by the expression:
(18.1)

In this expression, is the surface tension, is the geometric mean of the radio of the two
bridged particles, and is the dimensionless separation distance between the particles. Additionally,
A, B and C are coefficients that depend on the dimensionless volume of the liquid bridge, and the
contact angle, , through the following expressions:
(18.2)
(18.3)
(18.4)

The dimensionless parameters included in the expressions above are defined as follows:
(18.5)

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Liquid Bridge Module

(18.6)
where is the separation distance between the bridged particles, as depicted in Figure 18.9: Geometry
of a liquid bridge between a particle and a boundary. (p. 188), and is the volume of the liquid contained
in the bridge. Moreover, is defined as:
(18.7)
where and are the radii of the two bridged particles. For non-spherical particles, the radius of each
particle is taken one half of its sieve size.

The volume of the liquid bridge is calculated as:

(18.8)
where and are the volumes of the liquid films around the two particles, respectively, defined
as:
(18.9)

(18.10)
where and are the liquid masses and and are the densities of the liquid films around the
two particles, respectively.

Additionally, is a user-defined parameter listed as Bridge Volume Fraction in the Materials Inter-
actions section of the Rocky UI.

Mikami et al.[15] (p. 377) also provide expressions for the coefficients in Equation 18.1 (p. 187) correspond-
ing to a liquid bridge between a particle and a boundary, as the one depicted in Figure 18.9: Geometry
of a liquid bridge between a particle and a boundary. (p. 188). Those expressions are the following:
(18.11)
(18.12)
(18.13)

Figure 18.9: Geometry of a liquid bridge between a particle and a boundary.

In this specific case, both and will be equal to the radius of the particle interacting with the
boundary, . In the current Liquid Bridge Model in Rocky, boundaries do not have associated a liquid

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 Technical Details

film. Therefore, in particle-boundary bridges only particles will contribute with liquid to the formation
of the bridge. This means that the bridge volume in those cases will be given by:
(18.14)
where is the volume of the liquid film around the particle in a particle-boundary bridge interaction.

In Rocky, the amount of liquid carried by each particle is tracked though a special particle property
called Liquid Mass. This property can be visualized and post-processed after a simulation has been
completed. Additionally, users can specify the value of the initial mass of liquid carried by the particles
when they enter to the domain. At any given time during the simulation, the volumes of the liquid
films that appear on equations Equation 18.7 (p. 188) and Equation 18.14 (p. 189) will be computed using
the liquid mass of each particle and the liquid density, which is a property that users must specify.

The mass of the liquid films attached to particles can vary throughout a simulation because it can be
redistributed when a bridge interaction between particles ends. The liquid redistribution scheme imple-
mented in Rocky is quite simple. When a liquid bridge between two particles is broken, half of the mass
of liquid that was contained in the bridge is added to the liquid mass associated to each particle. On
the other hand, when a particle-boundary bridge is ruptured, all the liquid mass goes to the particle,
since boundaries are not able to retain liquid films in the current model implemented in Rocky.

The criterion for the rupture of a liquid bridge is based only on the value of the separation distance, .
When that distance exceeds a critical value , the liquid bridge will break and, therefore, the bridge
interaction will finish. Rocky uses the following expressions for the dimensionless critical distance,
provided by Mikami et al.[15] (p. 377):
(18.15)
for particle-to-particle liquid bridges, and
(18.16)
for particle-to-boundary liquid bridges.

In addition to capillary forces, the Liquid Bridge Model in Rocky includes viscous forces that oppose the
relative motion between particles or between a particle and a boundary, joined by a bridge. The expres-
sions used for those viscous forces, derived from the lubrication theory, are taken from Nase et al.
[16] (p. 377). Unlike the capillary force that acts always in the normal direction, the viscous forces have
a normal component and a tangential component. The expressions for those components are, respect-
ively:
(18.17)
(18.18)
where:

• is the liquid absolute viscosity.

Values of fluid properties, such as viscosity and density, as well as other properties such as surface
tension and contact angle, must be specified by users through the Rocky UI.

• is the equivalent radius, defined as:

(18.19)

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Liquid Bridge Module

• and are the normal and tangential components of the relative velocity, in relation to the mid
plane between the two particles or the particle and the boundary.

• is the dimensionless equivalent radius, defined as:

(18.20)

The minus sign in equations Equation 18.17 (p. 189) and Equation 18.18 (p. 189) indicates that the viscous
forces always oppose to the relative motion, as already mentioned. As a consequence, the normal viscous
force will behave as a repulsive force when particles approach each other, and as an attractive force
when they move away.

As the separation distance decreases to zero, both components of the viscous force tend to infinity.
In order to avoid stability issues caused by very large forces, Rocky uses a cut-off value for the separation
distance. This cut-off value is determined by an input parameter listed in the Rocky UI as Minimum
Separation Ratio. So, if is the value of this parameter, the cut-off value for the separation distance
will be given by:

(18.21)

Whenever a separation distance in a liquid bridge falls below , this latter value will be used in
equations Equation 18.19 (p. 189) and Equation 18.5 (p. 187) instead of the actual value, .

18.3. Coarse Grain Modeling (CGM) for Liquid Bridge

In Rocky, the CGM is a scaling force for contact forces, attractive or repulsive, is quadric.

(18.22)

Where is the CGM scale factor, the original contact force, and is the CGM scaled force.

A liquid bridge exerts an attractive capillary force over the particles, which is calculated in Rocky according
to a correlation derived by Mikami et al. For a bridge between two particles, the magnitude of this force
is given by the expression:

(18.23)

In this expression, is the surface tension, the geometric meanof the radii of the two bridged
particles, and is the dimensionless separationdistance between the particles. Additionally,A,B and C
are coefficients thatdepend on the dimensionless volume of the liquid bridge, and the contactangle,
through the following expressions:

(18.24)

The dimensionless parameters included in the expressions above are defined as follows:

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 Coarse Grain Modeling (CGM) for Liquid Bridge

(18.25)

Where is the volume of the liquid contained in the bridge. Moreover, is defined as:

(18.26)

Where and are the radii of the two bridged particles. For non-spherical particles, the radius of each
particle is taken one-half of its sieve size.

Once the CGM radius is scaled by , if one scales the by the constant A,B, and C are
equal to the original particle without scaling.

Finally, if one multiple the surface tension by the , one gets the CGM Force as:

(18.27)

Therefore, in order to make the Liquid Bridge Model compatible with CGM one just needs to cubic scale
the volume of liquid bridge , and scale the surface tension by the factor.

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Chapter 19: Liquid Drying by Heat Flux Module
19.1. Usage details

19.1.1. Purpose of module

The Liquid Drying by Heat Flux module enables you to model the liquid film evaporation due to latent
heat and the addition of the dried solute to the mass and volume of the particles.

19.1.2. Functionality details

The following assumptions are made in the model:

• The liquid contains a certain amount of solid solute that you specify, uniformly dissolved. When
the solvent evaporates, the solute is deposited on the surface of the particle.

• The liquid film evaporation occurs when the particle temperature is above the liquid boiling
point and/or receives a certain amount of heat.

• Both the particle-particle and particle-boundary conductive heat transfer and fluid-particle
convective heat transfer are taken into account.

• The liquid film is thin compared to the particle size.

• The liquid film has always the same temperature as the particle.

• The liquid film mass is small and does not add to the particle mass (no impact on the particle
motion).

• No energy is required to increase the liquid film temperature (no sensible heat exchange).

• Energy is only consumed in the evaporation of the liquid film (latent heat exchange).

• The liquid film is always at the saturation concentration.

• When a certain liquid film mass evaporates, the corresponding solute mass is uniformly depos-
ited around the particle.

• The particle's volume and mass are increased according to the amount of solute deposited.

19.1.3. Limitations and considerations

Because it involves heat transfer, this module requires that the Thermal Model be enabled within
your simulation.

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Liquid Drying by Heat Flux Module

19.1.4. Module options

This module has several model parameters that you can set, as shown in Figure 19.1: Options for the
Liquid Drying by Heat Flux module. (p. 194)

Figure 19.1: Options for the Liquid Drying by Heat Flux module.

Those parameters are defined as follows:

• Boiling Point: This defines the boiling temperature of the liquid film.

Range: [Positive values]

The default values of Boiling Point and Heat of Evaporation correspond to water

• Heat of Evaporation: This defines the amount of heat necessary to evaporate a unit mass of
liquid.

Range: [Positive values]

• Solute Density *: This defines the density of the solute dissolved in the liquid.

Range: [Positive values]

Asterisks (*) following a parameter name indicate that the parameter and value entered are
shared with other modules or UI entities that also make use of this parameter. Shared paramet-
ers may have only one value stored for it; the value you enter most recently will override any
shared values set earlier in other locations.

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 Usage details

Solute Density is shared with the Liquid Drying Zone module, if it is active in the project.

• Solute Mass Fraction *: This defines the ratio of the mass of solute to the mass of the liquid
solution. In turn, the mass of the liquid solution is the sum of the masses of the solute and
the solvent.

Range: [Values larger or equal to 0 and less than 1]

Solute Mass Fraction is shared with the Liquid Drying Zone module, if it is active in the project.

19.1.5. Additional options enabled in the UI

Besides the parameters you define in the individual module itself, there are additional parameters
you must set for your Inputs.

19.1.5.1. Additional Inputs options

For Continuous Injection Inputs and Volume Fill Inputs, a new Modules sub-tab will appear to help
you define the liquid film input properties of the particles, as shown in Figure 19.2: Options for a
Continuous Injection Input (left) and a Volume Fill Input (right). (p. 195).

Figure 19.2: Options for a Continuous Injection Input (left) and a Volume Fill Input (right).

The meaning of the parameters appearing in the columns of the table inside the Modules tab is
the following:

• Particle: For each row, lists the Particle set that is defined on the Particles sub-tab.

Range: [Automatically provided]

• Liquid Mass: This defines the liquid mass that will be applied to each particle within the
selected Particle set when it enters into the simulation. Important: Every particle in the set,
regardless of the particle size or volume, will contain the same amount of liquid mass when
it enters into the simulation.

Range: [Values zero or greater]

• Mass Increment: The initial value of the mass of solute deposited on the surface of particle.

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Liquid Drying by Heat Flux Module

Range: [Values zero or greater]

Since usually one of the objectives of using a Liquid Drying module is to determine the
amount of solute deposited on the particles during a simulation, the initial values of Mass
Increment and Volume Increment normally should be set to zero.

• Volume Increment: The initial value of the volume of solute deposited on the surface of
particle.

Range: [Values zero or greater]

19.1.5.2. Custom Inputs

For Custom Inputs, a new Liquid Drying by Heat Flux section will appear to help you define the
liquid film input properties of the particles, as shown in Figure 19.3: Options for a Custom In-
put. (p. 196).

Figure 19.3: Options for a Custom Input.

The definition of the three parameters in this section is exactly the same specified above in the
section about the other two kinds of particle inputs.

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 Usage details

19.1.6. Post-processing abilities

After processing, three new Properties are available for the main Particles entity, as shown in Fig-
ure 19.4: Particle Properties added by the Liquid Drying by Heat Flux module. (p. 198). These properties
are:

• Liquid Mass: This provides the mass of the liquid film around each individual whole particle or
fragment. This can help you to visualize the evolution of the particle's liquid content during a
simulation, as the drying process will tend to reduce this content over time.

• Mass Increment: This provides the mass of the solute accumulated over the particle's surface, due
to the gradual evaporation of the liquid film. During a simulation, both the Particle Mass and the
Particle Volume properties will be increased over time by the values of the Mass Increment and the
Volume Increment, respectively, in relation to their intrinsic values.

• Volume Increment: This provides the volume of the solute accumulated over the particle s surface,
due to the gradual evaporation of the liquid film.

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Liquid Drying by Heat Flux Module

Figure 19.4: Particle Properties added by the Liquid Drying by Heat Flux module.

Note:

Properties generated by this module will only appear if the Upscaling is disabled.Refer to
Rocky User Manual (5.1.7. About Meshed Particles Upscaling) for more details.

19.1.7. Setting up and using the module

1. Ensure that the module is enabled. (From the Data panel, select Modules and then from the Data
Editors panel, ensure the Liquid Drying by Heat Flux checkbox is enabled.)

2. From the Data panel, under Modules, select Liquid Drying by Heat Flux.

3. From the Data Editors panel, define the values you want for the parameters displayed.

4. Set up the simulation as you normally would, with the following exception:

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 Technical details

• When setting up your Inputs, be sure to define the parameters on the Modules tab (for Con-
tinuous Injection and Volume Fill Inputs) or in the Liquid Drying by Heat Flux section (for Custom
Inputs).

5. Process the simulation as you normally would.

6. When you are ready to post-process your simulation, you can make use of the new parameters
on the Properties tab for the main post-processing details. Particles entity.

19.2. Technical details

The Liquid Drying by Heat Flux model implemented in this module considers that the liquid film around
particles is in fact a liquid solution composed of a solid solute and a liquid solvent. When the solvent
evaporates, the solute is deposited on the surface of a particle, increasing its mass, volume and size.

The evaporation of the solvent occurs when the particle's temperature is above or equal to the the
boiling temperature of the solvent. The mass of the solvent evaporated during a simulation timestep
will be given by:

(19.1)

where is the heat transferred from the particle to the liquid film during the timestep, while
is the latent heat of evaporation of the solvent, whose value is specified through the module parameter
Heat of Evaporation.

The heat that the particle is able to transfer to the liquid film is composed of two sources, as expressed
in this equation:
(19.2)
where:

is the heat transfer rate to the particle . This includes both conductive heat transfer through contacts
or joints, and convective heat transfer from CFD coupling.

is the simulation timestep.

and are the mass and the specific heat of the particle, respectively.

and are, respectively, the instantaneous temperature of the particle and the boiling temper-
ature of the solvent in the liquid film. The value of this last temperature is specified through the module
parameter Boiling Point. The model does not consider any thermal resistance between the particle
and the liquid film. Therefore, the particle may reduce its temperature up to and transfer the
corresponding amount of sensible heat to the liquid film instantaneously, as expressed in equation
Equation 19.2 (p. 199).

When the mass of solvent given by Equation 19.1 (p. 199) evaporates, the corresponding mass of solute
that will be deposited on the particle's surface will be given by:
(19.3)
where is the value specified through the module parameter Solute Mass Fraction. In order to
take into account this added mass, its value will be summed to the current value of the particle's

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Liquid Drying by Heat Flux Module

property Mass Increment. At any given time, the mass of a particle will be the sum of its original mass
(the mass the particle had at the time it entered into the simulation) and the instantaneous value of
Mass Increment.

Additionally, the corresponding volume of the solute deposited on the particle's surface will be calculated
as:

(19.4)

where is the specified value of the Solute Density. This value is added to the current value of
the particle's property Volume Increment. Rocky will use the values of both the mass and volume in-
crements for updating the instantaneous values of the particle's mass, volume and size.

Finally, the mass of the liquid solution that will be removed from the liquid film as a consequence of
the solvent evaporation and the solute deposition is given by:
(19.5)

The process of evaporation described in this section will cease if the mass of the liquid film reduces to
zero or the temperature of the particle falls below .

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Chapter 20: Liquid Drying Region Module
20.1. Usage details

20.1.1. Purpose of module

The Liquid Drying Region module enables you to define one or more regions of interest in which liquid
film that particles may contain is evaporated from all particles inside it. If the liquid has dissolved a
solid phase, this solute will also be added to the particles.

20.1.2. Functionality details

The Liquid Drying Region module enables you to select one or more regions that you create from the
Regions of Interest entity on the panel. These regions are then used to remove some amount of liquid
film from all the particles within it. If the liquid films contain some dissolved solute, it can also be
added to the particle mass, which will increase its volume accordingly. These changes are based on
the drying liquid mass rate, the solute mass fraction and density, and the time frame that you define.

20.1.3. Limitations and considerations

The actual physical mechanism by which the liquid evaporation occurs is not considered in this
module. Instead, the phase change of the liquid film is specified through a constant evaporation rate
that is active whenever a particle is inside the regions of interest defined.

20.1.4. Module options

This module has several parameters that you can set, as shown in Figure 20.1: Options for the Liquid
Drying Region module. (p. 202).

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Liquid Drying Region Module

Figure 20.1: Options for the Liquid Drying Region module.

These parameters are the following:

• Drying Liquid Mass Rate: This defines the constant rate at which the mass liquid will be re-
moved from the particles inside the drying region.

Range: [Positive values]

• Solute Density: This defines the density of the solid dissolved in the liquid around particles.

Range: [Positive values]

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 Usage details

• Solute Mass Fraction: This defines the ratio of the mass of solute to the mass of the liquid
solution. In turn, the mass of the liquid solution is the sum of the masses of the solute and
the solvent.

Range: [Values larger or equal to 0 and less than 1]

• Start Time: This defines the time you want particles in the regions of interest to begin losing
liquid film.

Range: [Positive values]

• Stop Time: This defines the time you want particles in the regions of interest to stop losing
liquid film.

Range: [Positive values]

• Region of Interest: The Region of Interest in which you want liquid film evaporation to occur.

Range: [Any Region of Interest that has already been defined in the simulation]

20.1.5. Additional options enabled in the UI

Besides the parameters you define in the individual module itself, there are additional parameters
you must set for your Inputs.

20.1.5.1. Additional Inputs options

For Continuous Injection and Volume Fill Inputs, a new Modules sub-tab will appear to help you
define the liquid film input properties of the particles, as shown in Figure 20.2: Options for a Con-
tinuous Injection Input (on the left) and a Volume Fill Inputs (on the right). (p. 204).

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Liquid Drying Region Module

Figure 20.2: Options for a Continuous Injection Input (on the left) and a Volume Fill Inputs
(on the right).

Within the table on the Modules sub tab, three parameters (columns) can be set per Particle set
(row), as defined below:

• Particle: For each row, lists the Particle set that is defined on the Particles sub-tab.

Range: [Automatically provided]

• Liquid Mass: This defines the liquid mass that will be applied to each particle within the
selected Particle set when it enters into the simulation. Important: Every particle in the set,
regardless of the particle size or volume, will contain the same amount of liquid mass when
it enters into the simulation

Range: [Values zero or greater]

• Mass Increment: The initial value of the mass of solute deposited on the surface of particle.

Range: [Values zero or greater]

Since usually one of the objectives of using a Liquid Drying Region module is to determine
the amount of solute deposited on the particles during a simulation, the initial values of
Mass Increment and Volume Increment normally should be set to zero.

• Volume Increment: The initial value of the volume of solute deposited on the surface of
particle.

Range: [Values zero or greater]

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 Usage details

For Custom Inputs, a new Liquid Drying Region section will appear to help you define the liquid
film input properties of the particles, as shown in Figure 20.3: Options for a Custom Input. (p. 206).

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Liquid Drying Region Module

Figure 20.3: Options for a Custom Input.

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 Usage details

The definition of the three parameters in this section is exactly the same specified above in the
section about the other two kinds of particle inputs.

20.1.6. Post-processing abilities

After processing, three new Properties are available for the main Particles entity, as shown in Fig-
ure 20.4: Particle Properties added by the Liquid Drying Region module. (p. 208).

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Liquid Drying Region Module

Figure 20.4: Particle Properties added by the Liquid Drying Region module.

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 Usage details

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Liquid Drying Region Module

Note:

Properties generated by this module will only appear if the Upscaling is disabled.Refer to
Rocky User Manual (5.1.7. About Meshed Particles Upscaling) for more details.

These properties are:

• Liquid Mass: This provides the mass of the liquid film around each individual whole particle
or fragment. This can help you to visualize the evolution of the particle's liquid content during
a simulation, as the drying process will tend to reduce this content over time.

Asterisks (*) following a parameter name, Figure 20.3: Options for a Custom Input. (p. 206), indicate
that the parameter and value entered are shared with other modules or UI entities that also
make use of this parameter. Shared parameters may have only one value stored for it; the
value you enter most recently will override any shared values set earlier in other locations.

• Mass Increment: This provides the mass of the solute accumulated over the particle's surface,
due to the gradual evaporation of the liquid film.

During a simulation, both the Particle Mass and the Particle Volume properties will be increased
over time by the values of the Mass Increment and the Volume Increment, respectively, in relation
to their intrinsic values. In addition, the Particle Size property will also be increased as a result
of the volume increment.

• Volume Increment: This provides the volume of the solute accumulated over the particle's
surface, due to the gradual evaporation of the liquid film.

20.1.7. Setting up and using the module

1. Ensure that the module is enabled. (From the Data panel, select Modules and then from the Data
Editors panel, ensure the Liquid Drying Region checkbox is enabled.)

2. From the Data panel, under Modules, select Liquid Drying Region.

3. From the Data Editors panel, do the following:

a. Define the values you want for the parameters displayed.

b. Under Liquid Drying Regions, click the Add button (green plus) to include as many separate
rows for the number of regions as you want, and then for each separate row, define the Region
of Interest.

You may add as many rows as regions you want in the simulation, and you may also remove
rows, if necessary. These operations must be performed using the buttons on the top of the
table.

4. Set up the simulation as you normally would with the following exception:

• When setting up your Inputs, be sure to define the parameters on the Modules tab (for Con-
tinuous Injection and Volume Fill Inputs) or in the Liquid Drying Region section (for Custom In-
puts).

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 Technical details

5. Process the simulation as you normally would.

6. When you are ready to post-process your simulation, you can make use of the new parameters
on the Properties tab for the main Particles entity.

20.2. Technical details

Whenever a particle is inside one of the regions defined in the solution domain and, additionally, the
current simulation time is into the time frame defined by Start Time and Stop Time, an amount of liquid
solution will be removed from the liquid film around the particle. Considering that a liquid film actually
exists around the particle at that time. Thus, the mass of liquid solution removed from the liquid film
during a simulation timestep will be given by:
(20.1)
where is the value of the Drying Liquid Mass Rate parameter, whereas is the simulation timestep.
At the end of the timestep, will be subtracted from the current value of the particle's property Liquid
Mass.

A fraction of the liquid solution mass given by the solvent that evaporated by an unspecified mechanism.
The remaining mass will correspond to the solute dissolved into the solution. This mass will be given
by:
(20.2)
where is the value specified for the Solute Mass Fraction parameter. It is assumed that this
mass of solute will be deposited uniformly on the particle's surface when the solvent evaporates. In
order to take into account this added mass, its value will be summed to the current value of the particle's
property Mass Increment. Note that at any given time, the mass of a particle will be the sum of its
original mass (the mass the particle had at the time it entered into the simulation) and the instantaneous
value of Mass Increment.

Finally, the corresponding volume of the solute deposited on the particle s surface will be calculated
as:

(20.3)

where is the specified value of the Solute Density. This value is added to the current value of
the particle's property . Rocky will use the values of both the mass and volume increments for updating
the instantaneous values of the particle's mass, volume and size.

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Chapter 21: Liquid Sphere Injection Module
21.1. Usage details

21.1.1. Purpose of module

This module enables you to define one or more spherical regions in which any particle that enters
will receive a liquid injection. Enabling this module will not override any models or settings in the
Rocky UI.

To use this module, you first need to import through a Rocky Point Cloud (Figure 21.1: Defining a Point
Cloud in Rocky. (p. 213)) a text file containing one or more points that define a region of influence
(Figure 21.2: Example text file defining a Point Cloud. (p. 214)). The text file must be generated in ex-
ternal software that produces a list containing the spatial coordinates of a set of points.

The points within the Point Cloud will then be used by the module to define spheres of influence
(Figure 21.3: Example spheres of influence formed around the points defined in a Point Cloud. (p. 214)),
inside which any particle that enters will receive a liquid injection.

Figure 21.1: Defining a Point Cloud in Rocky.

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Liquid Sphere Injection Module

Figure 21.2: Example text file defining a Point Cloud.

Figure 21.3: Example spheres of influence formed around the points defined in a Point Cloud.

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 Usage details

21.1.2. Functionality details

The Liquid Injection Sphere Clouds module considers one or more spheres of influence centered at
each point of the associated Point Cloud. Then, during the simulation, the module adds a liquid film
to any particle that passes through a sphere of influence.

Depending upon the particle path and the location of the spheres of influence, a single particle can
pass through several spheres and therefore receive several injections of liquid during the simulation.

21.1.3. Limitations and considerations

This module has no known limitations.

21.1.4. Module options

This module has several parameters that you can set. These are shown in Figure 21.4:Liquid Injection
Sphere Clouds module options. (p. 215) and defined below.

Figure 21.4: Liquid Injection Sphere Clouds module options.

• Influence Ratio: This parameter is defined as the ratio between the radius of each sphere of influence
that is centered at each point within the Point Cloud, and the particle diameter.

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Liquid Sphere Injection Module

Range: [Positive values]

• Injection Clouds:

• Point Cloud: This defines the pre-imported Point Cloud upon which this set of spheres of influence
will be created.

Range: [List automatically provided]

• Liquid Injection Flux Density: This defines the liquid injection per unit area and unit time that
you want applied to any particles that enter a sphere of influence based upon the selected Point
Cloud.

Range: [Positive values]

• Start Time: This defines the time you want particles to begin receiving liquid injection from the
spheres of influence for the selected Point Cloud.

Range: [Positive values]

• Stop Time: This defines the time you want particles to stop receiving liquid injection from the
spheres of influence for the selected Point Cloud.

Range: [Positive values]

21.1.4.1. Additional options enabled in the UI

Besides the parameters you define in the individual module itself, there is an additional parameter
you must set for your Inputs. See the section below for details.

For the Inputs step, a new Modules sub-tab will appear to help you define a module-related
property for the particles upon injection, as shown in Figure 21.5:Liquid Injection Sphere Clouds
module options for a Continuous Injection Input. (p. 217) and defined below.

Note:

This sub-tab will appear only for the Continuous Injection and Volume Fill inputs. For
Custom Inputs, there is not a Modules sub-tab; rather, the Module's parameters will
appear on the main tab for Custom Inputs.

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 Usage details

Figure 21.5: Liquid Injection Sphere Clouds module options for a Continuous Injection Input.

• Particle: For each row, lists the Particle set that is defined on the Particles sub-tab for the Input.

Range: [Automatically provided]

• Liquid Mass: This defines the liquid mass that will be applied to each particle within the selected
Particle set when it enters into the simulation. Important: Every particle in the set, regardless of
the particle size or volume, will contain the same amount of liquid mass when injected.

Range: [Values zero or greater]

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Liquid Sphere Injection Module

21.1.5. Post-processing abilities

After processing, a new property (Figure 21.6: Particles property created by Liquid Injection Sphere
Clouds module. (p. 218)) is available for the main Particles entity.

Figure 21.6: Particles property created by Liquid Injection Sphere Clouds module.

Note:

Properties generated by this module will only appear if the Upscaling is disabled.Refer to
Rocky User Manual (5.1.7. About Meshed Particles Upscaling) for more details.

This new property is explained below:

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 Technical details

• Liquid Mass: This provides the mass of the liquid film around each individual whole particle
or fragment. This can help you to visualize the evolution of the particle's liquid content as the
particles move in and out of the spheres of influence.

21.1.6. Setting up and using the module

1. Using third party software, create and import into Rocky one or more Point Cloud *.txt files that
define the X, Y, Z coordinates of the center point of each sphere of influence you want included
in the Point Cloud set. Tip: The Scalar column is required but has no purpose for this particular
module.

2. Ensure that the module is enabled. (From the Data panel, select Modules and then from the Data
Editors panel, ensure the Liquid Injection Sphere Clouds checkbox is enabled.)

3. From the Data panel, under Modules, select Liquid Injection Sphere Clouds.

4. From the Data Editors panel, do the following:

a. Define the Influence Ratio.

b. Under Injection Clouds, do the following:

i. Click the Add button (green plus) to include a new Injection Cloud row.

ii. Within the new row, select a Point Cloud you imported in #1, and then define the Liquid
Injection Flux Density, Start Time, and Stop Time parameters for that Point Cloud set.

c. Repeat step #4b for each individual Point Cloud you want considered by the module.

5. Set up your simulation as you normally would, with the following exception:

• For the Inputs step, ensure that for each Input and Particle set you define, you also define
the Liquid Mass value you want.

6. Process your simulation as you normally would.

7. When you are ready to analyze your simulation, do the following:

a. From the Data panel, select the main Particles entity.

b. From the Data Editors panel, select the Properties tab, and then display in a 3D View window
or plot the Liquid Mass property.

21.2. Technical details

The Liquid Injection Sphere Clouds module uses a Point Cloud to define one or more spherical regions
inside which particles will receive a mass of liquid. The liquid mass, , that each particle receives when
inside a spherical region is calculated as:
(21.1)

Where:

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Liquid Sphere Injection Module

is the liquid mass, measured in , that is added to the particle during a simulation timestep
when it is inside a sphere of influence.

is the liquid injection flux density, , which is an option defined by the user in the Liquid
Injection Sphere Clouds module.

is the projected area of the particle, measured in [m2], which no matter the shape of the
particle, is computed assuming a sphere with equivalent volume.

is the simulation timestep measured in [s].

is the distance between the centroid of a particle and the closest point in the associated Point Cloud,
measured in [m].

is the particle diameter, measured in [m], which no matter the shape of the particle, is always equal
to the particle sieve size.

is the influence ratio, which is a dimensionless parameter defined by the user in the Liquid Injection
Sphere Clouds module.

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Chapter 22: Liquid Injection Region Module
22.1. Usage details

22.1.1. Purpose of module

The Liquid Injection Region module enables you to define one or more regions of interest in which liquid
film is added to all particles inside it.

22.1.2. Functionality details

The Liquid Injection Region module enables you to select one or more regions that you create from
the Regions of Interest entity on the Data panel. These regions are then used to add a liquid film
to all the particles within it based upon the injection mass rate and time frame that you define.

22.1.3. Module options

The module parameters that you can set are shown in Figure 22.1: Options for the Liquid Injection
Region module. (p. 222).

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Liquid Injection Region Module

Figure 22.1: Options for the Liquid Injection Region module.

These parameters are defined as follows:

• Start Time: This defines the time you want particles in the regions of interest to begin receiving
liquid film.

Range: [Positive values]

• Stop Time: This defines the time you want particles in the regions of interest to stop receiving
liquid film.

Range: [Positive values]

• Region of Interest: The Region of Interest in which you want liquid film injection application
to occur.

Range: [Any Region of Interest that has already been defined in the simulation]

• Liquid Injection Mass Rate: This defines the constant rate at which mass of liquid film is applied
to the particles in this region.

Range: [Positive values]

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 Usage details

22.1.4. Additional options enabled in the UI

Besides the parameters you define in the individual module itself, there are additional parameters
you must set for your Inputs.

22.1.4.1. Additional Inputs options

For Continuous Injection Inputs and Volume Fill Inputs, a new Modules sub-tab will appear to help
you define the liquid film input properties of the particles, as shown in Figure 22.2: Options for a
Continuous Injection Input (on the left) and a Volume Fill Input (on the right). (p. 223).

Figure 22.2: Options for a Continuous Injection Input (on the left) and a Volume Fill Input (on
the right).

Within the table on the Modules sub-tab, one parameter (column) can be set per Particle set (row),
as defined below:

• Particle: For each row, lists the Particle set that is defined on the Particles sub-tab.

Range: [Automatically provided]

• Liquid Mass: This defines the liquid mass that will be applied to each particle within the
selected Particle set when it enters into the simulation. Important: Every particle in the set,
regardless of the particle size or volume, will contain the same amount of liquid mass when
it enters into the simulation.

Range: [Values zero or greater]

For Custom Inputs, a new Liquid Injection Region section will appear to help you define the liquid
film input properties of the particles, as shown in Figure 22.3: Options for a Custom Input. (p. 225).
The only parameter in this section is Liquid Mass, which is defined exactly the same as indicated

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Liquid Injection Region Module

in the preceding section. Asterisks (*) following a parameter name indicate that the parameter and
value entered are shared with other modules or UI entities that also make use of this parameter.
Shared parameters may have only one value stored for it; the value you enter most recently will
override any shared values set earlier in other locations.

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 Usage details

Figure 22.3: Options for a Custom Input.

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Liquid Injection Region Module

22.1.5. Post-processing abilities

As shown in Figure 22.4: Particle Properties added by the Liquid Injection Region module. (p. 227), after
processing, a new is available for the main entity, which is:

• Liquid Mass: This provides the mass of the liquid film around each individual whole particle
or fragment. This can help you to visualize the evolution of the particle's liquid content during
a simulation.

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 Usage details

Figure 22.4: Particle Properties added by the Liquid Injection Region module.

Note:

Properties generated by this module will only appear if the Upscaling is disabled.Refer to
Rocky User Manual (5.1.7. About Meshed Particles Upscaling) for more details.

22.1.6. Setting up and using the module

1. Ensure that the module is enabled. (From the Data panel, select Modules and then from the Data
Editors panel, ensure the Liquid Injection Region checkbox is enabled.)

2. From the Data panel, under Modules, select Liquid Injection Region.

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Liquid Injection Region Module

3. From the Data Editors panel, do the following:

a. Define the values you want for the parameters displayed.

b. Under Liquid Injection Regions, click the Add button (green plus) to include as many separate
rows for the number of regions as you want, and then for each separate row, select the Region
of Interest and define the Liquid Injection Mass Rate. You may add as many rows as you
want in the simulation, and you may also remove rows, if necessary. These operations must
be performed using the buttons on the top of the table.

4. Set up the simulation as you normally would, with the following exception:

• When setting up your Inputs, be sure you define the parameters on the Modules tab (for
Continuous Injection Inputs and Volume Fill Inputs) or in the Liquid Injection Region section
(for Custom Inputs).

5. Process the simulation as you normally would.

6. When you are ready to post-process your simulation, you can make use of the new parameters
on the Properties tab for the main Particles entity.

22.2. Technical details

If at any point during the time frame defined by Start Time and Stop Time a set of particles are inside
one of the regions specified, each one of those particles will receive the same amount of liquid during
a simulation timestep. That amount of liquid will be given by:
(22.1)

where:

is the value of Liquid Injection Mass Rate defined for the region, in the table associated to Liquid
Injection Regions.

is the simulation timestep.

is the instantaneous number of particles inside the considered region.

If the regions defined in the project have overlapping portions, then particles located inside those
overlaps will receive liquid simultaneously from more than one region.

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Chapter 23: Thornton-Ning Normal Force Module
23.1. Usage details

23.1.1. Purpose of module

This module enables you to use the Thornton-Ning Normal Force for the Normal Forces used in the
project. In Rocky, the Normal Force is used to calculate the normal components of the contact forces,
and will therefore affect particle-particle and particle-boundary interactions. Selecting this module
overrides what you have set for Normal Force in the Physics | Momentum tab, as shown below.

Figure 23.1: Physics | Momentum tab options when the Thornton-Ning Normal Force module
is enabled.

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Thornton-Ning Normal Force Module

23.1.2. Functionality details

This module enables to consider an elasto-plastic repulsive effect in the Normal Force model used
during the simulation. The Thornton-Ning Normal Force model was implemented according to
[64] (p. 380).

23.1.3. Limitations and considerations

This model is currently incompatible with Coarse-Graining Modeling.

23.1.4. Module options

This module has no options that you can set, as shown below.

Figure 23.2: Options for the Thornton-Ning Normal Force module.

However, once the module is enabled, it does provide additional options in the Materials Interactions
section of the UI, as explained below.

23.1.4.1. Additional Materials Interactions options

When this module is enabled, an additional Thornton-Ning Normal Force parameter appears in
the Materials Interactions tab, as shown below.

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 Usage details

Figure 23.3: Materials Interactions options when the Thornton-Ning Normal Force module is
enabled.

where:

• Yield Ratio: This defines the ratio between the yield contact overlap and equivalent diameter,
which is used to determine the transition between the elastic and plastic regimes in contact
loading/unloading phases.

Range: [0,1]

23.1.5. Setting up and using the module

1. Ensure that the module is enabled. (From the Data panel, select Modules and then from the Data
Editors panel, ensure the Thornton-Ning Normal Force checkbox is enabled.) There are no options
to set on the module itself.

2. Set up the simulation as you normally would, with the following exceptions:

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Thornton-Ning Normal Force Module

a. When setting up your Physics parameters, note this model overrides the Normal Force setting on
the Momentum sub-tab, so you will be unable to set that parameter when this module is enabled.

b. When setting up your Materials | Materials Interactions, ensure that for each material-material
pair you are making use of in the simulation, you define what you want for the parameter in the
Thornton-Ning Normal Force section.

3. Process and postprocess your simulation as you normally would.

23.2. Technical details

This module implements the Thorton-Ning Normal Force Model following the original paper [64] (p. 380)
and assumptions for the yield ratio from [65] (p. 380).

(23.1)

where:

• is the contact normal stiffness;

• is the contact normal overlap;

• is the yield normal contact overlap;

• is the critical yield normal force;

• is the critical yield pressure;

• is the effective radius;

The yield normal contact overlap is defined thourgh the Yield Ratio input parameter [65] (p. 380):
(23.2)

where:

• is the Yield Ratio input parameter;

The elastic behavior is modeled using Hertz model:

(23.3)

(23.4)

(23.5)

(23.6)

where:

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 Technical details

• is the reduced Young's Modulus;

• is the Poisson's Ratio of material i;

• is the Young's Modulus of material i;

• is the particle size;

The plastic behavior is described by a force-displacement relationship defined by the yield normal
contact overlap and the critical yield normal force :
(23.7)

(23.8)

(23.9)

(23.10)

where:

• is the contact radius when yield occurs;

During the unloading phase, the decompression force can be purely elastic (Hertz model) or elastic
with plastic stiffness, depending on the maximum overlap reached by the contact and the yield normal
contact overlap [64] (p. 380):

(23.11)

where:

• is the maximum overlap reached by the contact;

For unloadings which the maximum overlap is under the yield point, the contact force is purely elastic
and follows the same equation as defined for loading. When the maximum overlap is beyond the yield
point, the contact force is defined by a modified Hertz model with a plastic stiffness :
(23.12)

(23.13)

where:

• is the plastic effective radius;

• is the residual plastic overlap;

The plastic effective radius is derived based on the maximum loading force [64] (p. 380):

(23.14)

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Thornton-Ning Normal Force Module

where:

• is the maximum loading force;

The residual plastic overlap is calculated based on Herz force model using the plastic effective
radius for the maximum compression force and the maximum overlap [64] (p. 380):

(23.15)

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Chapter 24: Nonlinear Hysteretic Normal Force
Module
24.1. Usage details

24.1.1. Purpose of module

This module enables you to use the Nonlinear Hysteretic Normal Force model for the Normal Forces
used in the project.

In Rocky, the Normal Force is used to calculate the normal components of the contact forces, and will
therefore affect particle-particle and particle-boundary interactions.

Selecting this module overrides what you have set for Normal Force in the Physics | Momentum
tab, as shown in Figure 24.1:Physics | Momentum tab options when the Nonlinear Hysteretic Normal
Force module is enabled. (p. 236).

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Nonlinear Hysteretic Normal Force Module

Figure 24.1: Physics | Momentum tab options when the Nonlinear Hysteretic Normal Force module
is enabled.

24.1.2. Functionality details

This module enables the use of Nonlinear Hysteresis as the Normal Force model used during the
simulation. The Nonlinear Hysteretic Normal Force model was implemented per request from Purdue
University.

24.1.3. Limitations and considerations

<Coming soon...>

24.1.4. Module options

This module has no options that you can set (Figure 24.2: Options on the Nonlinear Hysteretic Normal
Force module. (p. 237)).

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 Usage details

Figure 24.2: Options on the Nonlinear Hysteretic Normal Force module.

However, once the module is enabled, it does provide additional options in the Materials Interactions
setup section of the UI, as explained below.

24.1.4.1. Additional Materials Interactions options

When this module is enabled, additional Nonlinear Hysteretic Normal Force parameters appear
in the Materials Interactions entity (Figure 24.3:Materials Interactions options when the Nonlinear
Hysteretic Normal Force module is enabled. (p. 238)).

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Nonlinear Hysteretic Normal Force Module

Figure 24.3: Materials Interactions options when the Nonlinear Hysteretic Normal Force module
is enabled.

These parameters are explained below:

• C1: This defines the <coming soon...>.

Range: [<Coming soon...>]

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 Technical details

• C2: This defines the <coming soon...>.

Range: [<Coming soon...>]

• C3: This defines the <coming soon...>.

Range: [<Coming soon...>]

24.1.5. Setting up and using the module

1. Ensure that the module is enabled. (From the Data panel, select Modules and then from the Data
Editors panel, ensure the Nonlinear Hysteretic Normal Force checkbox is enabled.)

There are no options to set on the module itself.

2. Set up the simulation as you normally would, with the following exceptions:

a. When setting up your Physics parameters, note this model overrides the Normal Force setting
on the Momentum sub-tab, so you will be unable to set that parameter when this module is
enabled.

b. When setting up your Materials Interactions, ensure that for each material-material pair you
are making use of in the simulation, you define what you want for the three parameters in
the Nonlinear Hysteretic Normal Force section.

3. Process and post-process your simulation as you normally would.

24.2. Technical details

The Nonlinear Hysteretic Normal Force model description and theory can be found in:

• Y. Bommireddy, A. Agarwal, V. Yettella, V. Tomar, and M. Gonzalez, [21] (p. 378)

• A. Agarwal and M. Gonzalez, [20] (p. 378)

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Chapter 25: SPH Non-Newtonian Models (Beta)
Important:

Note that beta features have not been fully tested and validated. Ansys, Inc. makes no
commitment to resolve defects reported against these prototype features. However,
your feedback will help us improve the overall quality of the product. We will not
guarantee that the projects using this beta feature will run successfully when the feature
is finally released so you may, therefore, need to modify the projects.

25.1. Usage details

25.1.1. Purpose of module

The SPH Non-Newtonian Models (Beta) module adds to Rocky the ability of simulating the flow of fluids
whose rheology is described three well-known constitutive equations for non-newtonian fluids. They
are: the Power Law, the Bingham Plastic, and the Herschel-Bulkley models.

25.1.2. Example application

An application of the SPH Non-Newtonian models (Beta) module is demonstrated in Figure 25.1: Example
application of the SPH Non-Newtonian (Beta) module in a food modelling scenario. (p. 242), where a
tomato sauce flow behavior in a bottle is modelled using a non-Newtonian viscosity model.

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SPH Non-Newtonian Models (Beta)

Figure 25.1: Example application of the SPH Non-Newtonian (Beta) module in a food modelling
scenario.

25.1.3. Functionality details

The SPH Non-Newtonian Models (Beta) module, based on the work of [53] (p. 380), enables you to
simulate the behavior of non-Newtonian fluids by replacing the default viscosity model with one of
the three non-Newtonian viscosity models available.

25.1.4. Limitations and considerations

While the SPH Non-Newtonian Models (Beta) module adds three non-Newtonian viscosity models, there
are some limitations that should be taken into consideration.

• The current module (like any other fluid model available in the literature) is not able to simulate a
real solid behavior below the yield stress, so mathematical manipulations are required to increase
the viscosity of the fluid to model a solid-like behavior.

• The implemented models do not consider more complex non-newtonian characteristics such as
elasticity and time-dependency of the properties.

25.1.5. Module options

This module has several parameters that you can set, as shown in Figure 25.2:SPH Non-Newtonian
Models (Beta) module options. (p. 243).

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 Usage details

Figure 25.2: SPH Non-Newtonian Models (Beta) module options.

These parameters are explained below:

• Non-Newtonian Model: List of the three available non-Newtonian viscosity models: Power Law,
Bingham Plastic and Herschel-Bulkley.

Range: [Automatically provided]

• Power Law and Herschel-Bulkley Parameters: The required input parameters for the models
Power Law and Herschel-Bulkley.

– Consistency Index: This defines the consistency index used in the consitutive equation.

Range: [Positive values]

– Behavior Index: This defines the behavior index used in the consitutive equation.

Range: [Positive values]

• Bingham Plastic Parameters: The required input parameter for the Bingham Plastic model.

– Plastic Viscosity: This defines the plastic viscosity used in the consitutive equation.

Range: [Positive values]

• Bingham Plastic and Herschel-Bulkley Parameters: The required input parameters for the models
Bingham Plastic and Herschel-Bulkley.

– Yield Stress: This defines the yield stress limit used in the consitutive equation.

Range: [Positive values]

– Viscosity Factor: This defines a viscosity factor used in the consitutive equation.

Range: [Positive values]

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SPH Non-Newtonian Models (Beta)

25.1.6. Setting up and using the module

1. Ensure that the module is enabled. Go to the Data panel, select Modules, and make sure the SPH
Non-Newtonian Models (Beta) checkbox is enabled in the Data Editors panel.

2. Select SPH Non-Newtonian Models (Beta) from the Data panel under Modules.

3. Define the required inputs in the Data Editors panel:

a. Choose one of the three available models in the Non-Newtonian Model list.

b. Depending on the model you have chosen, set the desired parameters in the Power Law and
Herschel-Bulkley Parameters, Bingham Plastic Parameters and Bingham Plastic and Her-
schel-Bulkley Parameters sections.

4. Proceed with setting up the project as you normally would.

25.2. Technical details

Three well-known constitutive equations for non-newtonian fluids are implemented in the SPH Non-
Newtonian Models (Beta) module, following the numerical approach described in the work of [53] (p. 380)
and illustrated in Figure 25.3: Non-newtonian models flow curves. (p. 244). They are: the Power Law, the
Bingham Plastic, and the Herschel-Bulkley models.

Figure 25.3: Non-newtonian models flow curves.

These models can also be written as a generalized Newtonian fluid, which is defined as a fluid for which
the shear stress depends on the shear rate at a given time, but not depends on the deformation history
as in other non-Newtonian fluids. The constitutive law for this type of fluids is usually written as:

(25.1)

where is the shear stress tensor, is the shear rate tensor and is the so-called apparent or effective
viscosity, which is a function of the shear rate. The symbol in Equation 25.1 (p. 244) denotes the
Frobenius norm, defined for a second-order tensor as:

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 Technical details

(25.2)

The shear rate is a symmetric tensor related to the velocity gradient by means of:

(25.3)

where is the velocity gradient tensor and is its transpose.

The specific constitutive equation for the Power Law model is given by:

(25.4)

where and are model parameters listed in the module UI as Consistency Index and Behavior Index
, respectively. The behavior index is a dimensionless parameter, while the S.I. units of the consistency
index are . However, due to the impossibility of representing these units within the module UI,
both parameters will appear as dimensionless there.

The constitutive equation for the Bingham Plastic model is usually formulated as:

(25.5)

in which is the Yield Stress value, below which the modeled material behaves like a solid. On the
other hand, , usually known as Plastic Viscosity, is the slope of the stress-shear rate line beyond the
yield point, at which the material begins to flow. Instead of using Equation 25.5 (p. 245), the following
approximate alternative representation suggested in [53] (p. 380) is used in the module:

(25.6)

where is an additional parameter listed in the module UI as Viscosity Factor. Instead of treating the
material as a solid if the stress is below the yield point, which is very difficult using a SPH formulation,
it is represented alternatively as very viscous fluid, with a viscosity value given by . The shear rate
at the yield point for this approach is given by:

(25.7)

The Herschel-Bulkley model is a generalization of the Bingham Plastic model, that introduces an exponent
as an additional parameter for representing the stress-shear rate relation beyond the yield point in a
similar way to the Power Law. In the same way as in the Bingham Plastic model, the behavior of the
material below the yield point is modeled as a very viscous fluid in the module. Thus, the expression
used for the Herschel-Bulkley model used the module has the following form:

(25.8)

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SPH Non-Newtonian Models (Beta)

where and are the Consistency Index and the Behavior Index , respectively, while is the Yield
Stress and is the Viscosity Factor . All those parameters have the same meaning already mentioned
when describing the preceding models. For the Herschel-Bulkley model, the value of the shear rate at
the yield point that guarantees the continuity of the stress-shear rate curve at that point is:

(25.9)

The module calculates the viscous stresses defined according to one of the preceding models, the one
selected on the Non-Newtonian Model dropdown list. Those stresses cause accelerations on the SPH
elements, that are also calculated by the module. The acceleration values are then passed to the SPH
solver, which applies them to the elements in the simulation. The acceleration of an element caused
by the viscous stresses is approximated by means of the expression:

(25.10)

where the sum involves all neighbor elements on the kernel support region of particle , is the
mass of the elements, is their density, and is the gradient of the kernel function. In this expres-
sion, and are the stress tensor values calculated considering the selected non-Newtonian model,
for elements and , respectively.

All the numerical approximations involved in the calculation of viscous accelerations are explicit,
therefore, the whole simulation will be subjected to a stability constraint related to those approximations.
This constraint can be more severe than the one found for Newtonian flow simulations, due to the fact
that the apparent viscosity can achieve very large values. More specifically, the SPH timestep must sat-
isfy the following condition for the simulation to be stable:

(25.11)

where is the fluid density value, is the initial spacing between SPH elements. With an estimation
of the upper bound for the apparent viscosity during a simulation it would be possible to determine
an stable timestep using Equation 25.11 (p. 246). During initialization, the module will use a coarse es-
timation of such upper bound and will adjust the simulation timestep if the value obtained with Equa-
tion 25.11 (p. 246) is smaller than the value estimated internally by the solver. However, since only in
the case of the Bingham Plastic model it is possible to estimate with confidence an upper bound for
the apparent viscosity, instabilities may still arise when using the other models, depending on the pre-
scribed parameter values. In such cases, users may need to reduce the simulation timestep manually.

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Chapter 26: Heat Conduction Model Module
26.1. Usage details

26.1.1. Purpose of module

This module enables you to use a nonlinear extension of the internal Heat Conduction Model and
Thermal Integration Model that comes by default in Rocky. In this implementation, both the thermal
conductivity and the specific heat are considered functions of the temperature.

26.1.2. Functionality details

The Nonlinear Thermal Contact Model module works by replacing the default thermal model in Rocky
by a similar one that accounts for the temperature dependence on thermal properties. Rather than
using the built-in values for thermal conductivity and specific heat, this module enables you to define
via lookup tables different values for these thermal properties at different temperatures, and the
module then interpolates the resulting values.

26.1.3. Limitations and considerations

This module works only if the Thermal Model checkbox is enabled on the Rocky UI, and is not com-
patible with multi-element (flexible) particles.

For each material that will be used in the simulation, you will need to fill both lookup tables (Specific
Heat and Thermal Conductivity) with one or more rows.

In addition, because this module relies on the same code structure used by the Heat Conduction
Model and the Thermal Integration Model included in Rocky, enabling this module will therefore
override these selections on the Physics | Thermal tab (Figure 26.1:Physics | Thermal tab options
when the Nonlinear Thermal Contact Model module is enabled. (p. 248)).

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Heat Conduction Model Module

Figure 26.1: Physics | Thermal tab options when the Nonlinear Thermal Contact Model module
is enabled.

26.1.4. Module options

There are no options to define on the module itself (Figure 26.2:Nonlinear Thermal Contact Model
module options. (p. 248)).

Figure 26.2: Nonlinear Thermal Contact Model module options.

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 Usage details

26.1.4.1. Additional options enabled in the UI

There are module-related parameters that you must set for each of your individual Materials. See
the section below for details.

When you select a material component under Materials, two new tables will appear to help you
define the specific heat and thermal conductivity properties of the material at different temperatures,
as shown in Figure 26.3:Nonlinear Thermal Contact Model module options for an individual material
component. (p. 250). You must add at least one row per table. If you choose to add 2 or more rows,
the values that you enter can be in any order you wish.

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Heat Conduction Model Module

Figure 26.3: Nonlinear Thermal Contact Model module options for an individual material
component.

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 Usage details

These parameters are explained below:

• Specific Heat Table:

– Temperature: This defines the temperature of reference related to the specific heat property.
Range: [Positive values]

– Specific Heat: This defines the specific heat property to be interpolated. Range: [Positive values]

• Thermal Conductivity Table:

– Temperature: This defines the temperature of reference related to the thermal conductivity property.
Range: [Positive values]

– Thermal Conductivity: This defines the thermal conductivity property to be interpolated.

Range: [Positive values]

26.1.5. Post-processing abilities

After processing your simulation, you are able to analyze your results using the same thermal-related
property that is available for the Rocky Thermal Model:

• Temperature (for geometries, particles, and fluids)

26.1.6. Setting up and using the module

1. Ensure the following:

a. The Thermal Model checkbox is enabled on the Thermal tab of the Physics entity

b. The module is enabled. (From the Data panel, select Modules and then from the Data Editors
panel, ensure the Nonlinear Thermal Contact Model checkbox is enabled.)

2. Set up your simulation as you normally would, with the following exceptions:

• For the Materials step, for each material that you want to use in your simulation, select it, and
then from the Data Editors panel, do the following:

a. For both the Specific Heat Table and the Thermal Conductivity Table, click the Add button
(green plus) to add as many rows to the tables as you want to have points for interpolation.

Note: You must add at least one row in each table.

b. For each separate row in the table, define the Temperature and your related property value.

Tips:

– To insert another row at the bottom of the table, click the Add button.

– To remove the selected row, click the Remove button.

– To remove all rows in the table, click the Remove All button.

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Heat Conduction Model Module

• Ensure that you define all thermal-related properties for your geometries and particle inputs.

3. Process your simulation as you normally would.

4. When you are ready to analyze your simulation results, you may choose to make use of the fol-
lowing thermal-related Property:

• Temperature (for geometries, particles, and fluids)

26.2. Technical details

The Nonlinear Thermal Contact Model module uses a nonlinear extension of the internal Heat Conduction
Model and Thermal Integration Model that comes by default in Rocky. This module uses lookup tables
to interpolate, using a piece-wise scheme as shown in Figure 26.4: Illustration of a piece-wise
scheme. (p. 252), thermal property values at different temperatures; these new values are then used in
the equations of Rocky's built-in thermal model.

Figure 26.4: Illustration of a piece-wise scheme.

The piece-wise scheme will search for the backward and forward points based on the particle's current
temperature; both specific heat and thermal conductivity properties will be calculated following a linear
ramp between the two consecutive points:

(26.1)

where:

• is the interpolated value of the particle s specific heat or thermal conductivity corresponding
to the temperature , measured in [J/kg.K] or [W/m.K], depending on the property.

• are the property values (specific heat or thermal conductivity) at the points that
limit the interval inside which the temperature is located, measured in [J/kg.K] or [W/m.K], depending
on the property.

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 Technical details

• is the particle temperature [K].

• are the temperatures that limit the interval inside which the temperature is located, measured
in [K].

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Chapter 27: Normal and Tangential Energy
Dissipation Module
27.1. Usage details

27.1.1. Purpose of module

The Normal and Tangential Energy Dissipation module re-implements and then splits into its normal
and tangential components energy dissipation Curves and Properties that are currently provided in
Rocky only as combined values. The Curves and Properties that this module is based upon are as
follows:

• The same Particle Curve calculations you get in Rocky when the Energy Dissipation option is en-
abled on the Inter-group Collision Statistics module (Figure 27.1: Inter-group Collisions Statistics
module Curves upon which the Normal and Tangential Energy Dissipation module is based. (p. 255))

• Similar Particle Property calculations you get in Rocky when the Power option is enabled on the
Inter-particle Collision Statistics module, only instead of power, it calculates energy (Fig-
ure 27.2: Inter-particle Collision Statistics module Property upon which the Normal and Tangential
Energy Dissipation module is based. (p. 256)).

Figure 27.1: Inter-group Collisions Statistics module Curves upon which the Normal and
Tangential Energy Dissipation module is based.

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Normal and Tangential Energy Dissipation Module

Figure 27.2: Inter-particle Collision Statistics module Property upon which the Normal and
Tangential Energy Dissipation module is based.

Neither of these two embedded Collisions Statistics modules need to be enabled in order for the
Normal and Tangential Energy Dissipation module to work. Note: An embedded Module comes by
default installed with the Rocky product. This kind of Module is documented in the User Manual and
Technical manuals.

27.1.2. Functionality details

As in the embedded Collision Statistics modules, in the Normal and Tangential Energy Dissipation
module, the dissipation energy is calculated computing the work of contact forces for all collisions
during the simulation. But in this case, the work of normal and tangential components of contact
forces is calculated separately.

27.1.3. Limitations and considerations

Unlike the embedded Collision Statistics modules, the Normal and Tangential Energy Dissipation module
does not compute energy dissipated by Adhesive Forces nor Rolling Resistance Torques.

27.1.4. Module options

This module has no parameters, as shown in Figure 27.3:Normal and Tangential Energy Dissipation
module options. (p. 257). There are also no additional settings to make anywhere else in the Rocky
UI.

Once the Normal and Tangential Energy Dissipation module is enabled, the data for Inter-particle and
Inter-group energy dissipation will be collected during simulation processing.

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 Usage details

Figure 27.3: Normal and Tangential Energy Dissipation module options.

27.1.5. Post-processing abilities

After processing, a new set of Curves for Inter-group dissipated energy and new Properties for Inter-
particle dissipated energy are available. Refer to the sections below for further details.

Note:

Properties generated by this module will only appear if the Upscaling is disabled.Refer
to Rocky User Manual (5.1.7. About Meshed Particles Upscaling) for more details.

27.1.5.1. Post-processing Curves

Several new Curves are available for the main Particles entity (Figure 27.4: Particles Curves created
by the Normal and Tangential Energy Dissipation module. (p. 258)). These Curves are created for each
particle-particle pair (Particle Group X Particle Group) and particle-geometry pair (Particle Group X
Geometry).

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Normal and Tangential Energy Dissipation Module

Figure 27.4: Particles Curves created by the Normal and Tangential Energy Dissipation module.

The new Curves are explained below:

• Energy: Dissipation: Normal: Provides the total energy dissipated by the normal component of
contact forces for all collisions recorded for the indicated pair (particle-particle or particle-geometry)
that occurred during an interval between two consecutive output times.

• Energy: Dissipation: Tangential: Provides the total energy dissipated by the tangential component
of contact forces for all collisions recorded for the indicated pair (particle-particle or particle-
geometry) that occurred during an interval between two consecutive output times.

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 Usage details

27.1.5.2. Post-processing Properties

In addition, two new Properties for Inter-particle dissipated energy are available for the main Particles
entity (Figure 27.5: Particles properties created by the Normal and Tangential Energy Dissipation
module. (p. 259)).

Figure 27.5: Particles properties created by the Normal and Tangential Energy Dissipation
module.

The new Properties are explained below:

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Normal and Tangential Energy Dissipation Module

• Energy : Dissipation : Normal: Provides the total energy dissipated by the normal component
of contact forces for all collisions recorded for each individual whole particle or fragment that oc-
curred during an interval between two consecutive output times.

• Energy : Dissipation : Tangential: Provides the total energy dissipated by the tangential com-
ponent of contact forces for all collisions recorded for each individual whole particle or fragment
that occurred during an interval between two consecutive output times.

27.1.6. Setting up and using the module

1. Ensure the module is enabled. (From the Data panel, select Modules and then from the Data
Editors panel, ensure the Normal and Tangential Energy Dissipation checkbox is enabled.)

2. Set up your simulation as you normally would, keeping in mind the following:

• When setting up your Physics parameters, remember that this module will not take into account
the effects from Adhesive Forces and Rolling Resistance Torque. (In other words, if on the
Physics | Momentum tab, you choose to define an Adhesive Force and/or a Rolling Resistance
Model, this module will ignore those factors when generating its results.)

3. Process your simulation as you normally would.

4. When you are ready to analyze your simulation results, do the following:

a. From the Data panel, select the main Particles entity

b. Do either or both of the following:

• From the Data Editors panel, select the Properties tab, and then display in a 3D View
window or plot the and/or the Energy : Dissipation : Normal and/or the Energy : Dissipa-
tion : Tangential property.

• From the Data Editors panel, select the Curves tab, and then plot the Energy : Dissipation
: Normal and/or the Energy : Dissipation : Tangential Curves for the particleparticle or
particle-group pair you want to analyze.

27.2. Technical details

The primary source of energy dissipation during a collision is related to the inelastic nature of the
contact force. The dissipation work, , done by this force during a collision, , is calculated as:
(27.1)

where:

• is the total contact force.

• is the instantaneous relative velocity at the contact point.

The total contact force is given by the expression:

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 Technical details

(27.2)

where:

• is the normal unit vector of the contact.

• and are, respectively, the normal and tangential components of the contact force, which are
calculated forboth the Normal Force and Tangential Force contact models that you select on the
Physics | Momentum tab (Figure 27.6: Normal Force and Tangential Force Contact Models. (p. 261))
for your Rocky project.

Figure 27.6: Normal Force and Tangential Force Contact Models.

Combining equations [eq-work] (p. 260) and [eq-contact_force] (p. 261) yields:
(27.3)

This way, the dissipation work done by the normal and tangential components of the contact force are,
respectively:

(27.4)

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Normal and Tangential Energy Dissipation Module

(27.5)

Equations [eq:work_normal] (p. 261) and [eq:work_tangential] (p. 262) calculate the works of the normal
and tangential components of the contact force in a collision between two particles. In order to calculate
energy dissipated by each particle, the dissipated work of the collision must be split between particles
using a splitting factor, which is inversely proportional to the particle/geometry stiffness. Thus, the works
and split between particle, A, and particle/geometry, B, are given by the following expressions:
(27.6)

(27.7)

(27.8)

(27.9)

where is the Splitting factor, which is defined as:

(27.10)

where and are the stiffnesses attributed to particle A and particle/geometry B, respectively.

The rationale behind this practice is that the energy dissipated during a collision by each one of the
colliding entities will be proportional to its own deformation, which, in turn, will be inversely propor-
tional to its stiffness.

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Chapter 28: 1-Way CFD Field Coupling Module
28.1. Usage details

28.1.1. Purpose of module

The 1-Way CFD Field Coupling module enables you to consider, in a 1-Way CFD Coupling method, a
fluid velocity field from an external CFD solver that is imported into Rocky as a Point Cloud. Enabling
this module will not override any models or settings in the Rocky UI.

To use this module, you first need to import a fluid velocity field through a Rocky Point Cloud (Fig-
ure 28.1: Defining a Point Cloud in Rocky. (p. 263)). The structure of this text file is explained in the
next section.

Figure 28.1: Defining a Point Cloud in Rocky.

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1-Way CFD Field Coupling Module

Figure 28.2: Example text file defining a fluid velocity field point cloud.

28.1.1.1. About the Fluid Velocity Field Point Cloud

To define the Point Cloud field, an external CFD solver (e.g., Ansys CFX) should be used to export
fluid flow information regarding spatial coordinates and the respective velocities to a text file. The
resulting .txt file you create must contain the following variables:

• X, Y, Z point coordinates.

• u, v, w values defining the fluid velocity field vector, .

This text file must then be imported during the process of creating a Point Cloud.

28.1.2. Functionality details

The 1-Way CFD Field Coupling module works by employing-during the entire simulation time-the
Schiller & Naumann drag correlation, which provides the drag coefficient, , in order to calculate
the constant drag forces on all particles within the external fluid velocity field.

28.1.3. Limitations and considerations

This module is recommended for simulations with spherical particles with .

This module works only with an imported Point Cloud that meets the exact specifications defined in
the About the Fluid Velocity Field Point Cloud (p. 264) section.

Although it is possible to load multiple Point Clouds into Rocky, this module can make use of only
one Point Cloud.

The external imported fluid velocity field will be active throughout the whole simulation time.

28.1.4. Module options

This module has some parameters that you can set, which are defined below and shown in Fig-
ure 28.3: Options for the 1-Way CFD Field Coupling module. (p. 265).

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 Usage details

Figure 28.3: Options for the 1-Way CFD Field Coupling module.

• Fluid Density: This defines the fluid density that you want to apply to the imported fluid velocity
field.

Range: [Positive values]

• Fluid Dynamic Viscosity: This defines the fluid dynamic viscosity that you want to apply to the
imported fluid velocity field.

Range: [Positive values]

• Point Cloud: This defines the pre-imported point cloud to be used.

Range: [Automatically provided]

28.1.5. Setting up and using the module

1. Create and import into Rocky a Point Cloud that meets the requirements specified in the About
the Fluid Velocity Field Point Cloud (p. 264) section.

2. Ensure that the module is enabled. (From the Data panel, select Modules and then from the Data
Editors panel, ensure the 1-Way CFD Field Coupling checkbox is enabled.)

3. From the Data panel, under Modules, select 1-Way CFD Field Coupling.

4. From the Data Editors panel, do the following:

a. Define the Fluid Density.

b. Define the Fluid Dynamic Viscosity.

c. Under Point Cloud, select the Point Cloud you imported earlier in step #1.

5. Set up and process your simulation as you normally would.

During the simulation, each particle is subjected to the drag force from the nearest point from the imported poin

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1-Way CFD Field Coupling Module

28.2. Technical details

In the 1-Way CFD Field Coupling module, the drag forces, , acting on the particles are calculated using
the definition of the drag coefficient, [23] (p. 378), and can be defined as follows:
(28.1)

where:

• is the relative velocity between the particle and fluid.

• is the projected particle area in the flow direction.

• is the fluid density.

In this module, the drag coefficient, , is calculated using the modified version of the Schiller & Naumann
correlation, which is valid for spherical particles and is given by the following equation
[24] (p. 378)[22] (p. 378):
(28.2)

where the relative particle Reynolds number, , is defined using the particle diameter and the relative
particle-fluid velocity according to [10] (p. 377):

(28.3)

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Chapter 29: Overlap-Based Breakage Model Module
29.1. Usage details

29.1.1. Purpose of module

The Overlap-Based Breakage Model module enables you to use a custom, instantaneous breakage
model and a custom fragments size distribution model to account for the physical effects of compres-
sion upon particle breakage.

These models are especially useful for simulating machines that fragment particles due to compression,
like jaw, gyratory, or roll crushers. The contact overlap is used as a measurement of the particle de-
formation.

Once the module is enabled, you must use it when setting up your Particle sets to define both the
Model parameters (defined from the Particle's Breakage | Critera tab) and the Distribution model
parameters (defined from the Particle's Breakage | Fragments tab) as shown in Figure 29.1:Breakage
| Criteria tab options (left) and Breakage | Fragments tab options (right) for the Particle set when the
Overlap-Based Breakage Model module is enabled. (p. 267).

Figure 29.1: Breakage | Criteria tab options (left) and Breakage | Fragments tab options (right)
for the Particle set when the Overlap-Based Breakage Model module is enabled.

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Overlap-Based Breakage Model Module

29.1.2. Functionality details

The Overlap-Based Breakage Model module includes the following two models that are based upon
the work by Unland & Szczelina [28] (p. 378):

• A custom instantaneous Breakage Model that analyzes particle's deformation in order to determine
if a particle must break.

• A custom Fragments Distribution Model based on a truncated logarithmic normal distribution.

29.1.3. Limitations and considerations

This module works only with the same particle shapes that are compatible with other instantaneous
breakage models included with Rocky. This includes rigid particles composed of only a Single Element,
specifically only sharp-cornered Solid shapes, such as Polyhedron, Briquette, Faceted Cylinder, and
non-concave Custom Polyhedron (imported) particle shapes.

In addition, because this module relies on the same code structure used by the Breakage Model and
by the Fragments Distribution Model included by default in Rocky, after enabling this module you will
therefore need to select it when defining your particle breakage criteria.

29.1.4. Module options

There are no options to define on the module itself (Figure 29.2:Overlap-Based Breakage Model module
options. (p. 268)).

Figure 29.2: Overlap-Based Breakage Model module options.

However, there are additional module-related parameters that you must set for each Particle set. Refer
to the next section for details.

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 Usage details

29.1.5. Additional module options for Particle sets

For the Particle sets step, a new Modules sub-tab will appear to help you define the module-related
properties of the set, as shown in Figure 29.3:Overlap-Based Breakage Model module options for a
Particle set. (p. 270) and explained below.

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Overlap-Based Breakage Model Module

Figure 29.3: Overlap-Based Breakage Model module options for a Particle set.

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 Usage details

• [Breakage] Kf0 - Kf4: These five settings are coefficients of a 4th order polynomial that describes
the breakage probability as a function of the particle's relative deformation, both expressed as a
percentage.

Range

• [d0] Ks0 - Ks1: These two settings define the coefficients of a linear polynomial that gives the
maximum relative size of the fragments as a function of the particle's relative deformation at the
moment of breakage, for relative deformations smaller than 5%.

Range: [Any value]

• [d50] Km0 - Km1: These two settings define the coefficients of a linear polynomial that specifies
the relative median size of the fragment distribution as a function of the particl's relative deformation
at the moment of breakage.

Range: [Any value]

• [sigma] Ksl0 - Ksl1: These two settings define the coefficients of a linear polynomial that defines
the standard deviation of the fragment size distribution as a function of the particle's relative de-
formation at the breakage moment, when this relative deformation is larger than 5%.

Range: [Any value]

• [sigma] Kss0 - Kss2: These three settings define the coefficients of a quadratic polynomial that
defines the standard deviation of the fragment size distribution as a function of the particle's relative
deformation at the breakage moment, when this relative deformation is smaller than 5%.

Range: [Any value]

29.1.6. Post-processing abilities

After processing your simulation, you are able to analyze your results using the same breakage-related
Particles Curves that are available for default instantaneous Breakage models within Rocky.

Besides that, new Properties are available for the main Particles entity, as shown in Figure 29.4: Particles
Properties created by the Overlap-Based Breakage Model module. (p. 272) and explained below.

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Overlap-Based Breakage Model Module

Figure 29.4: Particles Properties created by the Overlap-Based Breakage Model module.

Note:

Properties generated by this module will only appear if the Upscaling is disabled.Refer to

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 Technical details

Rocky User Manual (5.1.7. About Meshed Particles Upscaling) for more details.

• Maximum Overlap With Particles: For a given particle, this provides the maximum overlap value
between all particle-particle contacts in which the particle is involved at the output time. It is used
for model calculation purposes.

• Maximum Overlap With <Geometry Component>: For a given particle, this provides the maximum
overlap value between the particle and the indicated geometry, at the current output time. It is
used for model calculation purposes.

There will be a separate Property entry for each particle-geometry pair in the simulation.

29.1.7. Setting up and using the module

1. Ensure that the module is enabled. (From the Data panel, select Modules and then from the Data
Editors panel, ensure the Overlap-Based Breakage Model checkbox is enabled.)

2. Set up the simulation as you normally would, with the following exception:

a. When setting up each Particle set, ensure the following:

• On the Particle | Breakage | Criteria tab for at least one Particle set, you have defined the
Model as Overlap-Based Breakage Model.

• On the Particle | Breakage | Fragments tab for at least one Particle set, you have defined
the Distribution model as Overlap-Based Breakage Model.

• On the Particle | Modules tab, you have entered the values you want.

3. Process the simulation as you normally would.

4. When you are ready to analyze your simulation results, do one or more of the following:

• Make use of the default breakage Curves and/or Properties for Particles.

• Make use of the additional module-related Properties for Particles listed below:

– Maximum Overlap With Particles

– Maximum Overlap With <Geometry Component>

29.2. Technical details

In the Overlap-Based Breakage Model module, the breakage probability for a given deformation
percentage is calculated using a polynomial fit [28] (p. 378):

(29.1)

(29.2)

where:

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Overlap-Based Breakage Model Module

• are coefficients for the breakage probability polynomial. These dimensionless parameters
are defined by the user for Particle sets when the Overlap-Based Breakage Model module is enabled.

• is the equivalent diameter of the particle, which is defined as the diameter of a sphere whose
volume is equal to the particle's volume.

• and are the maximum normal deformations of a particle with regards to the particle-
geometry and particle-particle contacts, respectively. These maximum normal deformations are the
highest values of normal deformation among all particle-geometry and particle-particle contacts that
a particle is part of at a given time.

The normal deformation is defined as follows:

(29.3)

where:

• and are the normal deformations of a particle with regards to the particle-geometry and
particle-particle contacts, respectively.

• is the contact normal overlap.

• and are the stiffnesses of the particle and its contacting particle, respectively, on a particle-
particle contact.

A particle will break if at any moment the value of computed with equation [eq:eq1] (p. 273) is
larger than the strength of the particle. When that condition is met and the particle breaks, the fragments
are generated following a truncated logarithmic normal distribution of the particle diameter, :

(29.4)

(29.5)

(29.6)

(29.7)

(29.8)

(29.9)

where:

• is the maximum size allowed for the fragment size distribution.

• is the median size of the fragment distribution.

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 Technical details

• is the standard deviation of the log normal distribution of fragment sizes.

• are coefficients for the relative maximum fragment size polynomial. These dimensionless
parameters are defined by the user for Particle sets when the Overlap-Based Breakage Model module
is enabled.

• are coefficients for the relative median fragment size polynomial. These dimensionless
parameters are defined by the user for Particle sets when the Overlap-Based Breakage Model module
is enabled.

• are coefficients for the upper part of the standard deviation polynomial. These dimensionless
parameters are defined by the user for Particle sets when the Overlap-Based Breakage Model module
is enabled.

• are coefficients for the lower part of the standard deviation polynomial. These dimensionless
parameters are defined by the user for Particle sets when the Overlap-Based Breakage Model module
is enabled.

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Chapter 30: Parametric Gidaspow, Bezburuah & Ding
Module
30.1. Usage details

30.1.1. Purpose of module

The Parametric Gidaspow, Bezburuah & Ding module enables you to use a parametric version of the
Gidaspow, Bezburuah & Ding Drag Law for predicting the interactions between particles and fluids
when CFD Coupling 2-Way Fluent is enabled. This model is parameterized by adding three parameters
to the calculation of the drag coefficient.

30.1.2. Functionality details

The Parametric Gidaspow, Bezburuah & Ding module works by extending the default Gidaspow,
Bezburuah & Ding Drag Law by way of three additional parameters that are used for calibration pur-
poses.

These three parameters can be adjusted in order to allow a fine tuning of the drag coefficient. It can
help you to correlate the simulation results with experimental data you have available.

While using this module you can also enable the CFD Coupling Particle Statistics module to evaluate
the drag force for each particle present in your simulation.

30.1.3. Limitations and considerations

This module works only if the Rocky project is CFD-coupled with 2-Way Fluent method.

After enabling this module, the parametric Gidaspow, Bezburuah & Ding Drag Law will be available
for selection among the other drag laws embedded in Rocky-Fluent coupling. Therefore, for using
this model to calculate the drag law for a particular group of particles, you need to select it when
defining your CFD Coupling Particle Interactions for this group (Figure 30.1:Interactions tab options
for the 2-Way Fluent Unresolved Coupling mode when the Parametric Gidaspow, Bezburuah & Ding
module is enabled. (p. 278)).

It is important to emphasize that by enabling this module, you must define the parametric Gidaspow,
Bezburuah & Ding Drag Law for at least one particle group in your project.

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Parametric Gidaspow, Bezburuah & Ding Module

Figure 30.1: Interactions tab options for the 2-Way Fluent Unresolved Coupling mode when the
Parametric Gidaspow, Bezburuah & Ding module is enabled.

30.1.4. Module options

This module has three parameters that you can set, which are explained below and shown in Fig-
ure 30.2:Parametric Gidaspow, Bezburuah & Ding module options. (p. 279).

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 Usage details

Figure 30.2: Parametric Gidaspow, Bezburuah & Ding module options.

• parameter 1: This parameter defines the fluid volume fraction power coefficient of the parametric
Gidaspow, Bezburuah & Ding Drag Law for solid volume fractions less than 20%.

Range: [Positive values.]

• parameter 2: This parameter defines the viscous energy losses coefficient of the parametric Gi-
daspow, Bezburuah & Ding Drag Law for solid volume fractions greater than 20%.

Range: [Positive values.]

• parameter 3: This parameter defines the kinetic energy losses coefficient of the parametric Gidaspow,
Bezburuah & Ding Drag Law for solid volume fractions greater than 20%.

Range: [Positive values.]

30.1.5. Setting up and using the module

1. Ensure that your Fluent case files are set up correctly.

2. Ensure that the module is enabled. (From the Data panel, select Modules and then from the Data
Editors panel, ensure the Parametric Gidaspow, Bezburuah & Ding checkbox is enabled.)

3. From the Data panel, under Modules, select the new Parametric Gidaspow, Bezburuah & Ding
entry.

4. From the Data Editors panel, on the Parametric Gidaspow, Bezburuah & Ding tab, enter the
values you want for the three parameters.

5. Continue setting up the simulation as you normally would.

6. When setting up your CFD Coupling options, ensure the following:

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Parametric Gidaspow, Bezburuah & Ding Module

• You have selected the 2-Way Fluent CFD Coupling method.

• On the Interactions tab for at least one Particle, you have defined the Drag Law as Parametric
Gidaspow, Bezburuah & Ding.

7. Process the simulation as you normally would.

30.2. Technical details

Unless specifically stated otherwise for the unresolved coupling, the drag force acting on the particles
$\forceVector_\subDrag$ is calculated using the definition of the drag coefficient [23] (p. 378):
(30.1)

where is the relative velocity between particle and fluid and is the projected particle area in
the flow direction.

Various drag correlations based on particle shape (spherical and non-spherical) and particle concentration
(dilute or dense flows) are available within the Rocky package for the calculation of the drag coefficient.
For a dense flow of particles, Gidaspow, Bezburuah & Ding[33] (p. 378) have developed a simple connec-
tion between other two drag correlations (Wen & Yu [34] (p. 378) and Ergun[31] (p. 378)) to represent
the complete range of fluid volume fraction in a single drag law, by simply applying each law
over its valid range. The Gidaspow, Bezburuah & Ding correlation is then given by:

(30.2)

where:

• is the fluid volume fraction.

• is the solid volume fraction.

• is the Reynolds number.

• is the particle's sphericity.

The particle's sphericity is defined as the ratio between the actual particle surface area and the surface
area of a sphere having the same volume as the particle.

The parameterization provided by this module consists of the introduction of three parameters that
can be modified by the user to achieve a better correlation with experimental data. The parameterized
form of the Gidaspow, Bezburuah & Ding correlation is then given by:

(30.3)

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 Technical details

where:

• P1 is the parameter to define the fluid volume fraction power coefficient for solid volume fractions
less than 20%.

• P2 is the parameter to define the viscous energy losses coefficient for solid volume fractions greater
than 20%.

• P3 is the parameter to define the kinetic energy losses coefficient for solid volume fractions greater
than 20%.

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Chapter 31: Parametric Ranz & Marshall Law Module
31.1. Usage details

31.1.1. Purpose of module

The Parametric Ranz & Marshall Law module enables you to use a parametric version of the Ranz &
Marshall Convective Heat Transfer correlation included by default in Rocky for interactions between
spherical particles and fluids when CFD Coupling is enabled. This model is made parametric by adding
two free parameters to the calculation of the Nusselt number.

31.1.2. Functionality details

The Parametric Ranz & Marshall Law module works by extending the default Ranz & Marshall Convective
Heat Transfer Law by way of two additional parameters that are used for calibration purposes.

31.1.3. Limitations and considerations

This module works only if the Rocky project has met the following criteria:

• The Thermal Model is enabled.

• The project is CFD-coupled with one of the following modes: 1-Way Fluent Steady State, 2-Way
Fluent, or 1-Way Constant.

• Note: While you are able to use this module with any particle type, the correlation enabled by this
module is valid mainly for spherical particles.

This module does not work with the 2-Way Fluent Semi-Resolved nor the 1-Way LBM CFD Coupling
methods.

In addition, because this module relies on the same code structure used by the Convective Heat
Transfer Law included by default in Rocky, after enabling this module you will therefore need to select
it when defining your CFD Coupling Particle Interactions (Figure 31.1:Interactions tab options for the
1-Way Constant CFD Coupling mode when the Parametric Ranz & Marshall Law module is en-
abled. (p. 284)).

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Parametric Ranz & Marshall Law Module

Figure 31.1: Interactions tab options for the 1-Way Constant CFD Coupling mode when the
Parametric Ranz & Marshall Law module is enabled.

31.1.4. Module options

This module has two parameters that you can set, which are explained below and shown in Fig-
ure 31.2:Parametric Ranz & Marshall Law module options. (p. 285).

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 Usage details

Figure 31.2: Parametric Ranz & Marshall Law module options.

• a - b: These two settings define the coefficients of the parametric Ranz & Marshall Convective Heat
Transfer Law.

Range: [Positive values.]

31.1.4.1. Additional CFD Coupling options

In addition to defining the parameters on the module itself, there is an additional option you must
set for your CFD Coupling mode. As shown in Figure 31.1:Interactions tab options for the 1-Way
Constant CFD Coupling mode when the Parametric Ranz & Marshall Law module is enabled. (p. 284),
you must define for at least one Particle in your project the Convective Heat Transfer Law as Para-
metric Ranz & Marshall Law.

31.1.5. Post-processing abilities

After processing your simulation, you are able to analyze your results using the same thermal-related
property that is available for the Rocky Thermal Model:

• Temperature (for geometries, particles, and fluids)

Note:

Properties generated by this module will only appear if the Upscaling is disabled.Refer to
Rocky User Manual (5.1.7. About Meshed Particles Upscaling) for more details.

31.1.6. Setting up and using the module

1. If you plan to couple your Rocky project with Fluent, ensure that your case files are set up correctly.
Specifically:

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Parametric Ranz & Marshall Law Module

• If you plan to use this module with a 2-Way Fluent simulation, ensure the Fluent case has the
Energy equation activated.

• If you plan to use this module with a 1-Way Fluent Steady State simulation, ensure the Fluent
case has a temperature field available.

2. Ensure that the module is enabled. (From the Data panel, select Modules and then from the Data
Editors panel, ensure the Parametric Ranz & Marshall Law checkbox is enabled.)

3. From the Data panel, under Modules, select the new Parametric Ranz & Marshall Law entry.

4. From the Data Editors panel, on the Parametric Ranz & Marshall Law tab, enter the values you
want.

5. Continue setting up the simulation as you normally would, with the following exceptions:

a. When setting up your Physics parameters, ensure that the Thermal Model is enabled

b. When setting up your CFD Coupling options, ensure the following:

• You have selected a supported CFD Coupling mode. (Either 1-Way Constant, 1-Way Fluent
Steady State, or 2-Way Fluent).

• For the CFD Coupling mode you have enabled, on the Interactions tab for at least one
Particle, you have defined the Convective Heat Transfer Law as Parametric Ranz & Mar-
shall Law.

6. Process the simulation as you normally would.

7. When you are ready to analyze your simulation results, you may choose to make use of the fol-
lowing thermal-related Property:

• Temperature (for geometries, particles, and fluids)

31.2. Technical details

The Parametric Ranz & Marshall Law module uses a parametric version of the internal Ranz & Marshall
Convective Heat Transfer Law that comes by default in Rocky.

This model is made parametric by adding two free parameters to the calculation of the Nusselt number,
, as described by the following equations:
(31.1)

(31.2)

(31.3)

where:

• a and b are the coefficients of the Parametric Ranz & Marshall Convective Heat Transfer Law. These
dimensionless parameters are defined by the user in the Parametric Ranz & Marshall Law module.

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 Technical details

• is the relative particle Reynolds number, which is defined using the equivalent diameter of the
particle and the relative particle-fluid velocity.

• is the Prandtl number.

• is the fluid density, measured in [kg/m3], which is defined by the user on the CFD Coupling setup.

• is the particle velocity vector, measured in [m/s].

• is the fluid velocity vector, measured in [m/s], which is defined by the user on the CFD Coupling
setup when CFD Coupling mode is 1-Way Constant.

• is the equivalent diameter of the particle, measured in [m], which is defined as the diameter of a
sphere whose volume is equal to the particle's volume.

• is the fluid dynamic viscosity, measured in [kg/m.s], which is defined by the user on the CFD
Coupling setup.

• is the fluid specific heat, measured in [J/kg.K], which is defined by the user on the CFD Coupling
setup.

• is the fluid thermal conductivity, measured in [W/m.K], which is defined by the user on the CFD
Coupling setup.

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Chapter 32: Particle Freeze Outside Region Module
32.1. Usage details

32.1.1. Purpose of module

The Particle Freeze Outside Region module enables you to save calculation resources and drastically
speed up processing as a result by freezing the particles that are outside all the regions of interest
and then disabling them from contact calculation.

32.1.2. Example application

Figure 32.1: Disk harrow simulation using the Particle Freeze Outside Region module. Blue particles
are enabled whereas light pink particles are frozen and removed from contact detection calcula-
tions. (p. 289) shows an example application of the Particle Freeze Outside Region on a disk harrow
simulation, in which the goal is to evaluate the soil tilling according to the disks angulation and
spacing.

Figure 32.1: Disk harrow simulation using the Particle Freeze Outside Region module. Blue
particles are enabled whereas light pink particles are frozen and removed from contact
detection calculations.

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Particle Freeze Outside Region Module

The main assumption in this model is that the particles which are far from the disk harrow are steady,
and therefore freezing them will not affect the simulation results. In this case, the region of interest
is delimited by the blue cube, and translates according to the motion of the disk harrow.

The performance gain is reached by freezing and disabling the particles that are outside the regions
of interest from contact detection calculations.

32.1.3. Functionality details

In this module, a particle is enabled once it enters one of the Cubes and Cylinders that define the
regions of interest and therefore can move while collisions involving this particle are solved. Otherwise,
if the particle is outside the regions of interest, it is frozen and removed from the contacts computation.
Also, the motion equations for the frozen elements are not resolved.

The position of the Cubes and Cylinders used to delimit the region of interest is updated at every
timestep according to the translation of the geometries to which are linked to.

32.1.4. Limitations and considerations

Each of the Cubes and Cylinders used to delimit the regions of interest must be linked to a geometry's
motion frame and its position is updated according to the geometry translation. If the Cube and the
Cylinder should not move, it does not be linked to any motion frame.

32.1.5. Module options

After enabling the Particle Freeze Outside Region module, there are some parameters you need to
define. These parameters are explained below.

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Figure 32.2: Particle Freeze Outside Region module options.

• Start Time: Defines the simulation time at which the module can begin freezing and disabling
particles from contact detection calculations.

In the Active Regions, it is possible to select each Cubes and Cylinders that were created for the
Regions of interesting, in which Particle elements inside it will be frozen and disabled for contact
detection calculations.

32.1.6. Post-processing abilities

After processing your simulation, you can analyze the results using the same Particle-related properties
that are available by default in Rocky.

In addition, one extra Particle property is available as shown below.

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Particle Freeze Outside Region Module

Figure 32.3: Additional Particle properties created by the Particle Freeze Outside Region module.

• Freeze Criterion: Criterion that classifies whether the particle is frozen and disabled from contact
calculations or not. If equals to 0.0, the particle is free to move and included in contact calculations
performed by the solver. If equals to 1.0, the particle is frozen and excluded from such calculations.

32.1.7. Setting up and using the module

To use/set up the module, follow the steps described below:

1. Set up all the desired Cubes and Cylinders whose motion will be used to translate the Regions
of Interest.

2. Set up all the required Motion Frames that will be assigned to the Cubes and Cylinders.

3. Assign the Motion Frames to the corresponding Cubes and Cylinders.

4. Ensure that the module is enabled (from the Data panel, select Modules and then from the Data
Editors panel, ensure the Particle Freeze Outside Region checkbox is enabled).

5. Define the Start Time and the Regions of Interest (from the Data panel, select Particle Freeze
Outside Region, and then from the Data Editors panel, input the required values).

6. Set up and process the simulation as you normally would.

7. When you are ready to analyze your simulation results, you may choose to make use of any
particle-related property and may also make use of the additional module-related property.

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 Technical details

32.2. Technical details

The Particle Freeze Outside Region module freezes and disables particles (removes them from the contact
evaluation step performed by the DEM solver) that are outside the cubes and cones that define regions
of interest.

When using this module, if the particle is outside all the regions of interest, its Freeze Criterion, , receives
a value of 1.0, and the particle is freezed and eliminated from the contacts computation. The particle
is automatically unfrozen and re-enabled once it enters one of the regions of interested selected.

(32.1)

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Chapter 33: Particle Freeze when Settled Module
33.1. Usage details

33.1.1. Purpose of module

The goal of the Particle Freeze when Settled module is to reduce the simulation pace in cases with
large amounts of particles that settle down and do not move anymore. In simulations involving static
beds or piles that grow over time, this module enables you to avoid spending calculation resources
where they are not needed and drastically speed up processing as a result by freezing and then dis-
abling the contact detection calculations for the particles that are not actively involved in the simula-
tion.

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Particle Freeze when Settled Module

Figure 33.1: Filling of a silo using the Particle Freeze when Settled module. Grey particles are
frozen whereas blue particles are active.

33.1.2. Application example

Figure 33.1: Filling of a silo using the Particle Freeze when Settled module. Grey particles are frozen
whereas blue particles are active. (p. 296) shows an example of how this module can be applied to a
silo filling simulation that uses non-spherical particles. As particles fill the silo and settle to the bottom,
more and more particles become non-moving. The main idea of this module is to keep the number
of active particles (dark blue particles) to a minimum, which reduces the computational cost of the
simulation.

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 Usage details

The Particle Freeze when Settled module works by first determining which particles in the simulation
have settled by checking the particles and their neighbors velocities. Then, all particles defined as
settled are frozen (grey particles), which prevents them from moving, and disabled, which removes
them from the contact evaluation step performed by the DEM solver. This way, although the number
of particles increases continuously as more particles are injected, the number of particles that are
actually involved in the collision detection and calculation steps is relative small, keeping the simulation
pace to a reasonable value.

33.1.3. Functionality details

In this module, a particle is considered frozen once its velocity and the average relative velocity of
its neighbors are below the magnitude, given by the user input. If a particle is frozen, it is also disabled
from contact detection calculations, eliminating the particle from the computation of contacts.

33.1.4. Limitations and considerations

The criterion for freezing a particle is based on the Freezing Velocity, which is an user input. The
particle is assumed as settled if its velocity and the average relative velocity of its neighbors are below
the Freezing Velocity magnitude. Consequently, reducing the Freezing Velocity will tighten the
criterion for considering a particle ready to be frozen.

In this velocity checking step, all particles/triangles that are in contact with the particle i are considered
neighbors. For simulations that do not have adhesive models, these are the frictional contacts. For
simulations that involve the addition of an adhesion model, the neighbors are both the frictional and
adhesive contacts. Therefore, the number of neighbors is expected to be higher is an adhesive model
is used.

Once a particle is frozen, it cannot move anymore during the remaining simulation. Therefore the
Particle Freeze when Settled module should be used only for simulations in which it is expected that
particles remain steady after settling down.

The contact detection is disabled for a pair of frozen particles, but will continue to be performed for
a frozen-unfrozen pair of particles. This avoids issues for moving particles that reach frozen particles
in this situation, the contact is detected, the collision is solved, and the moving particle trajectory
will account for the contact forces due to this collision. However, as the moving step is disabled for
a frozen particle, the previously frozen particle will not move after the collision.

33.1.5. Module options

After enabling the Particle Freeze when Settled module, there are two parameters you will need to
define. These parameters are explained below and are shown in Figure 33.2:Particle Freeze when
Settled module options. (p. 298).

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Particle Freeze when Settled Module

Figure 33.2: Particle Freeze when Settled module options.

• Freezing Velocity: Defines the critical velocity that is used to determine which particles should be
frozen.

Range: [Positive values.]

• Start Time: Defines the simulation time at which the module can begin freezing/disabling particles.
Note: It is important to set a value above zero when Volume Fill is used as the input method.
Otherwise, particles may be frozen as soon as they enter the simulation since Volume Fill particles
have an initial momentum equal to zero.

Range: [Positive values.]

33.1.6. Post-processing abilities

After processing your simulation, you can analyze your results using the same particle-related prop-
erties that are available by default in Rocky.

In addition, three additional particle properties are available as shown in Figure 33.3: Additional Particle
Properties created by the Particle Freeze when Settled module. (p. 299) and explained below.

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 Usage details

Figure 33.3: Additional Particle Properties created by the Particle Freeze when Settled module.

Note:

Properties generated by this module will only appear if the Upscaling is disabled.Refer to
Rocky User Manual (5.1.7. About Meshed Particles Upscaling) for more details.

• Freeze Criterion: Criterion that classifies whether the particle is frozen. If it is equal to 0.0, the
particle is not frozen (can move as usual) and is included in contact calculations performed by the
DEM solver. If is equal to 1.0, the particle is frozen and cannot move, and is excluded from contact
calculations.

• Number of Neighbors: Provides the total number of neighboring particles and triangles surrounding
this particle.

• Neighbors Average Relative Velocity: Provides the average relative velocity between the particle
and its neighbors.

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Particle Freeze when Settled Module

33.1.7. Setting up and using the module

1. Ensure that the module is enabled. (From the Data panel, select Modules and then from the Data
Editors panel, ensure the Particle Freeze when Settled checkbox is enabled.)

2. Define the module parameters. (From the Data panel, select Particle Freeze when Settled, and
then from the Data Editors panel, input the required values.)

3. Set up and process the simulation as you normally would.

4. When you are ready to analyze your simulation results, you may choose to make use of any
particle-related Property and may also make use of the additional module-related properties.

33.2. Technical details

The Particle Freeze when Settled module reduces the simulation computational cost by checking which
particles are settled. For the settled particles, the Particle Freeze when Settled module freezes (prevents
them from moving), and disables them (removes them from the contact evaluation steps performed
by the DEM solver).

The crucial step of the Particle Freeze when Settled module is to decide whether one particle can be
considered settled or not. For this purpose, the Particle Freeze when Settled module checks not only the
particle translational velocity but also its neighbors velocities. In this velocity checking, all particles/tri-
angles that are in contact with the particle i are considered neighbors. For simulations that do not have
adhesive models, these are the frictional contacts. For simulations that involve the addition of an adhesion
model, the neighbors are both the frictional and adhesive contacts.

For every particle i, the magnitude of the average relative velocity between this particle and its neighbors,
, is computed as follows:

(33.1)

where:

• Np is the number of neighbor particles of the particle, i.

• Nt is the number of neighbor triangles of the particle, i.

• vi is the velocity of the particle i.

• vp is the velocity of a neighbor particle.

• vt is the velocity of a neighbor triangle.

When using this module, the particle is assumed as settled if its velocity magnitude Vi and the average
relative velocity of its neighbors are both smaller than the Freezing Velocity magnitude, Vc. Once a
particle is settled, it is frozen and its Freeze criterion, (Fi) receives a value of 1.0:

(33.2)

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 Technical details

If a particle is frozen , the particle is also eliminated from the computation of contacts.

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Chapter 34: SPH Point Cloud Air Drag (Beta)
Important:

Note that beta features have not been fully tested and validated. Ansys, Inc. makes no
commitment to resolve defects reported against these prototype features. However,
your feedback will help us improve the overall quality of the product. We will not
guarantee that the projects using this beta feature will run successfully when the feature
is finally released so you may, therefore, need to modify the projects.

34.1. Usage details

34.1.1. Purpose of module

The behavior of liquids, such as water, is often modeled as single-phase and free-surface flows.
However, the presence of surrounding air can significantly influence the behavior of liquids.

The SPH Point Cloud Air Drag (Beta) module estimates and applies the drag force caused by surround-
ing air flowing at velocity predefined in a point cloud onto a liquid flow simulated with SPH.

To use this module, you first need to import a fluid velocity field through a Rocky Point Cloud (Fig-
ure 34.1: Defining a Point Cloud in Rocky. (p. 304)). The structure of this text file is explained in the
next section.

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SPH Point Cloud Air Drag (Beta)

Figure 34.1: Defining a Point Cloud in Rocky.

Figure 34.2: Example text file defining a fluid velocity field point cloud.

34.1.1.1. About the Fluid Velocity Field Point Cloud

To define the Point Cloud field, an external CFD solver (e.g., Ansys CFX) should be used to export
fluid flow information regarding spatial coordinates and the respective velocities to a text file. The
resulting .txt file you create must contain the following variables:

• X, Y, Z point coordinates.

• x-velocity, y-velocity, z-velocity values defining the fluid velocity field vector, .

This text file must then be imported during the process of creating a Point Cloud.

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 Usage details

34.1.2. Example application

An application of the SPH Point Cloud Air Drag (Beta) module is demonstrated in Figure 34.3: Example
application of the SPH Point Cloud Air Drag (Beta) module in a gearbox. (p. 305), where a simulation
of a fluid inside a gearbox is performed using the SPH solver. In this scenario, an air-only simulation
was perfomed inside the gearbox, then the velocity field was exported to create the point cloud that
is the an input of the module, and the module was then utilized to incorporate the influence of the
air, with a predefined velocity field in the fluid.

By employing this one-way coupled model, it becomes possible to evaluate the impact of the winding
effects and directions on the fluid distribution inside the gearbox.

Figure 34.3: Example application of the SPH Point Cloud Air Drag (Beta) module in a gearbox.

34.1.3. Functionality details

The SPH Point Cloud Air Drag (Beta) module follows a simplified approach to model the effects of
air, without the need of representing it with another SPH phase. The SPH Point Cloud Air Drag (Beta)
module models the drag forces exerted by an air phase, with predefined velocity field (from the se-
lected Point Cloud), onto the free surface of the SPH fluid based on the work of [38] (p. 379). The
model accounts for the exposed surface area of each SPH element and approximates its deformation
to improve the drag force estimation.

34.1.4. Limitations and considerations

While the SPH Point Cloud Air Drag (Beta) module effectively models the effects of air without repres-
enting it as SPH elements, there are several limitations that should be taken into consideration.

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SPH Point Cloud Air Drag (Beta)

• Inability to reproduce entrapped air effects: the module cannot accurately reproduce effects associated
with entrapped air, such as rising air bubbles. These phenomena are not accounted for in the
simulation due to the absence of a fully simulated air phase.

• One-Way coupling and limited fluid-to-air interactions: since the module operates with a one-way
coupling approach, interactions where the fluid influences the air cannot be accurately modeled.
The module focuses primarily on the effect of air on the fluid, without considering the reciprocal
influence.

• Lack of turbulent behavior and lift effects: as the module does not simulate the air phase, it cannot
capture turbulent behavior or lift effects. These features, which are essential for simulating scenarios
like a flying airplane, are not accounted for in the current implementation.

34.1.5. Module options

This module has several parameters that you can set, as shown in Figure 34.4:SPH Point Cloud Air
Drag (Beta) module options. (p. 306).

Figure 34.4: SPH Point Cloud Air Drag (Beta) module options.

These parameters are explained below:

• Air Properties: The required list of properties of the air phase.

– Density: This defines the density of the air phase.

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 Usage details

Range: [Positive values]

– Viscosity: This defines the dynamic viscosity of the air phase.

Range: [Positive values]

• Activate Output: This defines the outputs of the module. Depending on the selection of the items
below, additional properties are created for each SPH element and can be used for post-processing.

– Drag Force: When enabled, the drag force exerted by the air will be added as an additional
property of the SPH elements. When cleared, the drag force due to the air phase will not be
available for post-processing.

Range: [Turns on or off ]

• Air Velocity Point Cloud: This field is for the selection of the Point Cloud for air velocities and the
time range it will be or not activated.

– Point Cloud: Defines the Point Cloud that will be used for the air velocity field.

Range: [Automatically provided]

– Start Time: Defines the time that drag forces calculations due to this module start/take into ac-
count the air velocity defined in the Point Cloud.

Range: [Positive vlues]

– Stop Time: Defines the time that drag forces calculations due to this module stop.

Range: [Positive vlues]

34.1.6. Post-processing abilities

If the Drag Force was selected in the Activate Output in the Data Editor of the SPH Point Cloud Air
Drag (Beta) module, a new property will be available for the main SPH entity, as shown in Figure 34.5: Ad-
ditional property enabled on the SPH entity when the SPH Point Cloud Air Drag (Beta) is used. (p. 308).

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SPH Point Cloud Air Drag (Beta)

Figure 34.5: Additional property enabled on the SPH entity when the SPH Point Cloud Air Drag
(Beta) is used.

You can choose to analyze this property in a plot or histogram window, or display this property
graphically in a 3D View window.

This additional property is explained below:

• Drag Force: This provides the drag force acting on each SPH element due to the interaction with
the surrounding air phase, which can help you to visualize how the liquid phase is affected by the
air phase.

34.1.7. Setting up and using the module

1. Create and import into Rocky a Point Cloud that meets the requirements specified in the About
the Fluid Velocity Field Point Cloud (p. 304) section.

2. Ensure that the module is enabled. Go to the Data panel, select Modules, and make sure the SPH
Point Cloud Air Drag (Beta) checkbox is enabled in the Data Editors panel.

3. Select SPH Point Cloud Air Drag (Beta) from the Data panel under Modules.

4. Define the required inputs in the Data Editors panel:

a. Specify the density and viscosity of the air in the Air Properties section.

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 Technical details

b. Choose whether to activate the module-related output properties in the Activate Output
section.

c. Select the Point Cloud you just imported and define the time range for its activation.

5. Proceed with setting up the project as you normally would.

6. When you are ready to analyze your simulation results, you may choose to make use of the Drag
Force property.

34.2. Technical details

The SPH Point Cloud Air Drag (Beta) module offers a simplified approach for modeling the effects of
surrounding air, with predefined velocities from a Point Cloud, on a free-surface liquid without the need
of representing it with another Smoothed Particle Hydrodynamics (SPH) phase.

The drag force acting on each SPH element is computed based on the methodology developed by
[38] (p. 379). This model not only estimates the exposed surface area of each SPH element but also ap-
proximates its deformation. By considering deformation, the model enhances the accuracy of drag force
estimation by taking into account its influence on the drag coefficient and cross-sectional area.

Figure 34.6: Flowchart illustrating the steps involved in computing the drag force for each SPH ele-
ment. (p. 310) provides an overview of the steps involved in calculating the drag force for each SPH
element. At each time step, the deformation of each SPH element is computed as described in section
Element deformation (p. 310). Based on this deformation, the drag coefficient is obtained as described
in section Drag coefficient (p. 311). Subsequently, the cross-area of the deformed SPH element and the
occlusion factor are used to compute the exposed area of each SPH element to the flow, as outlined
in section SPH exposed area (p. 312).

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SPH Point Cloud Air Drag (Beta)

Figure 34.6: Flowchart illustrating the steps involved in computing the drag force for each SPH
element.

34.2.1. Element deformation

To enhance the accuracy of drag force estimation by considering the effect of deformation, an ap-
proximate discretization method is employed to compute the deformation of each SPH element
during the simulation. The model follows the Taylor-Analogy-Breakup (TAB) model [41] (p. 379), which
describes the deformation of the SPH element as a damped harmonic oscillator.

This model assumes that the external force, the spring force and the damping force are dependent
on the phase of the droplet and the surrounding air phase. An additional constant is used to
convert the displacement to a dimensionless deformation , which ranges from 0 when the droplet
is a sphere to 1 when the droplet is a disk. The deformation evolves over time according to a
second-order differential equation (ODE):

(34.1)

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 Technical details

Here CF, Ck, Cd, and Cb are coefficients, is the relative velocity between the air and SPH element,
and are the rest densities of the air and the liquid, is the surface tension coefficient, L is the
droplet radius and is the dynamic viscosity of the liquid.

The simplified approach used by the SPH Point Cloud Air Drag (Beta) module assumes that the SPH
element is instantaneously and completely deformed based on the current relative velocity. Con-
sequently, Equation 34.1 (p. 310) simplifies to:

(34.2)

By combining the independent variables, the approximate deformation of the SPH element is computed
as:

(34.3)

The coefficient is pre-computed assuming and as suggested by [41] (p. 379)

based on experimental data and theoretical results of droplet breakup in sprays.

The radius of the droplet, L, is determined as the radius of a sphere corresponding to the volume h3
of an SPH element:
(34.4)

Since the SPH elements cannot break into smaller elements, deformations greater than 1 are not al-
lowed:
(34.5)

34.2.2. Drag coefficient

The SPH Point Cloud Air Drag (Beta) module uses an adapted version of the drag coefficient proposed
by [40] (p. 379) to calculate the drag coefficient of a droplet. The calculation is based on the approx-
imate deformation , and involves linear interpolation between the drag coefficient of a sphere
and the drag coefficient of a disk, given by:
(34.6)

Here, represents the drag coefficient of a sphere, which is calculated as:

(34.7)

where is the Reynolds number for an SPH element, computed as:

(34.8)

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SPH Point Cloud Air Drag (Beta)

To ensure that a fluid element that is part of a larger cluster of fluid elements has a drag coefficient
of 1, the final drag coefficient is interpolated between Equation 34.6 (p. 311) and 1 based on the
number of SPH neighbors n:

(34.9)

Here, represents the number of neighbors when the fluid element is fully surrounded, which
depends on the kernel type.

(34.10)

34.2.3. SPH exposed area

34.2.3.1. Deformed cross-sectional area

The drag force acting on the droplet causes it to deform from its initial spherical shape with a radius
of L to a disk-like shape with a radius of , as illustrated in Figure 34.7: Deformation of a droplet
from the spherical shape with radius L to the disk-like shape with radius (p. 312).

Figure 34.7: Deformation of a droplet from the spherical shape with radius L to the
disk-like shape with radius

To compute the correct cross-sectional area of the SPH elements, the SPH Point Cloud Air Drag
(Beta) module utilizes the approximate deformation to estimate the increase in radius of
the deformed droplet, denoted as , based on the work of [40] (p. 379):
(34.11)

The cross-sectional area of the disk-like droplet is then calculated as:

(34.12)

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 Technical details

Similar to the drag coefficient calculation, the SPH area is linearly interpolated between the square
area of the SPH element with neighbors and the area when there are no neighbors.
This is expressed by the equation:

(34.13)

34.2.3.2. Exposed area

To ensure that the drag forces only act on SPH elements exposed to the air, the SPH Point Cloud
Air Drag (Beta) module includes an additional step to identify the elements located on the liquid
surface facing the relative velocity vector .

An occlusion factor , which represents the fraction of the SPH element that is occluded, ranging
between 0 and 1, is used to calculate the occluded area as follows:
(34.14)

The SPH Point Cloud Air Drag (Beta) module employs a surface detection algorithm to compute
the occlusion factor . This algorithm checks the cosine of the angle between the direction of
fluid flow, , and the neighbor direction , as illustrated inFigure 34.7: Deformation of a droplet
from the spherical shape with radius L to the disk-like shape with radius (p. 312).

Figure 34.8: Occlusion factor computation accounting for the angle between the direction of
fluid flow, vi,?rel, and the neighbor direction xi,?j.

The occlusion value is computed according to Equation 34.15 (p. 313), and is clamped to obtain
a value of 1 if the SPH element is not occluded at all, and 0 if it is completely occluded.

(34.15)

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SPH Point Cloud Air Drag (Beta)

34.2.4. Drag force

The drag force FD,?i acting on each SPH element is computed using the following equation:
(34.16)

Here, is a vector pointing in the direction of the relative velocity difference between the air ve-
locity and the SPH element velocity .

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Chapter 35: Region Outlet Module
35.1. Usage details

35.1.1. Purpose of module

This module enables you to define a custom Region of Interest (ROI) as an outlet for particles, which
can be a cube or a cylinder; any particles entering this region will be removed from the simulation,
similarly to what happens when a particle crosses the limits of the simulation domain.

Selecting this module will not override any models or settings in the Rocky UI.

35.1.2. Functionality details

The Region Outlet module constantly checks whether a particle is inside any of the specified removal
regions. If it is, the particle is immediately removed from the simulation.

35.1.3. Limitations and considerations

This module has no known limitations.

35.1.4. Module options

This module has three parameters that you can set, as shown in Figure 35.1: Options for the Region
Outlet module. (p. 316) and explained below.

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Region Outlet Module

Figure 35.1: Options for the Region Outlet module.

• Start Time: This defines the time you want the removal region to begin acting as an outlet for
particles.

Range: [Positive values]

• Stop Time: This defines the time you want the removal region to stop acting as an outlet for
particles.

Range: [Positive values]

• Removal Regions:

– Regions Of Interest: This allows the selection of multiple Regions of Interest previously created
that will act as an outlet for particles.

Range: [Any Region of Interest that has already been defined in the simulation]

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 Usage details

35.1.5. Setting up and using the module

1. Ensure that the module is enabled. (From the Data panel, select Modules and then from the Data
Editors panel, ensure the Region Outlet checkbox is enabled.)

2. From the Data panel, under Modules, select Region Outlet.

3. From the Data Editors panel, do the following:

a. Define the Start Time and Stop Time.

b. Under Removal Regions, click the Add button (green plus) to add as many regions as you
want separate Regions of Interest.

c. For each separate row, select a Region of Interest. Tips:

• To remove the selected Region of Interest, click the Remove button.

• To remove all Regions of Interest, click the Remove All button.

4. Set up and process the simulation as you normally would. During the simulation, any particles
entering a removal region will be immediately removed from the simulation.

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Chapter 36: SPH Air Drag Module (Beta)
Important:

Note that beta features have not been fully tested and validated. Ansys, Inc. makes no
commitment to resolve defects reported against these prototype features. However, your
feedback will help us improve the overall quality of the product. We will not guarantee that
the projects using this beta feature will run successfully when the feature is finally released
so you may, therefore, need to modify the projects.

36.1. Usage details

36.1.1. Purpose of module

The behavior of liquids, such as water, is often modeled as single-phase and free-surface flows.
However, the presence of surrounding air can significantly influence the behavior of liquids.

The SPH Air Drag (Beta) module estimates and applies the drag force caused by surrounding air
flowing at constant velocity onto a liquid flow simulated with SPH.

36.1.2. Example application

An application of the SPH Air Drag (Beta) module is demonstrated in Figure 36.1: Example application
of the SPH Air Drag (Beta) module in a fire hose jet scenario. (p. 320), where a simulation of a jet of
water from a fire hose is performed using the SPH solver. In this scenario, the module is utilized to
incorporate the influence of a constant westward wind at a velocity of 40 km/hr.

By employing this one-way coupled model, it becomes possible to evaluate the impact of varying
wind velocities and directions on the cooling pattern of the surrounding container.

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SPH Air Drag Module (Beta)

Figure 36.1: Example application of the SPH Air Drag (Beta) module in a fire hose jet scenario.

36.1.3. Functionality details

The SPH Air Drag (Beta) module follows a simplified approach to model the effects of air, without the
need of representing it with another SPH phase. The SPH Air Drag (Beta) module models the drag
forces exerted by an air phase, with constant and predefined velocities, onto the free surface of the
SPH fluid based on the work of [38] (p. 379). The model accounts for the exposed surface area of each
SPH element and approximates its deformation to improve the drag force estimation.

36.1.4. Limitations and considerations

While the SPH Air Drag (Beta) module effectively models the effects of air without representing it as
SPH elements, there are several limitations that should be taken into consideration.

• Uniform air velocity throughout the domain: the air velocity is constant and uniform throughout the
domain and its effects may be sensed by all SPH elements in the entire domain.

• Inability to reproduce entrapped air effects: the module cannot accurately reproduce effects associated
with entrapped air, such as rising air bubbles. These phenomena are not accounted for in the
simulation due to the absence of a fully simulated air phase.

• One-Way coupling and limited fluid-to-air interactions: since the module operates with a one-way
coupling approach, interactions where the fluid influences the air cannot be accurately modeled.

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 Usage details

The module focuses primarily on the effect of air on the fluid, without considering the reciprocal
influence.

• Lack of turbulent behavior and lift effects: as the module does not simulate the air phase, it cannot
capture turbulent behavior or lift effects. These features, which are essential for simulating scenarios
like a flying airplane, are not accounted for in the current implementation.

36.1.5. Module options

This module has several parameters that you can set, as shown in Figure 36.2:SPH Air Drag (Beta)
module options. (p. 321).

Figure 36.2: SPH Air Drag (Beta) module options.

These parameters are explained below:

• Air Properties: The required list of properties of the air phase.

– Density: This defines the density of the air phase.

Range: [Positive values]

– Viscosity: This defines the dynamic viscosity of the air phase.

Range: [Positive values]

• Air Velocity: The constant velocity vector of the air field, the magnitude of which is made up of
the x, y, and z components respectively.

– X-Component: Air velocity component in the x-direction.

Range: [Any Value]

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SPH Air Drag Module (Beta)

– Y-Component: Air velocity component in the y-direction.

Range: [Any Value]

– Z-Component: Air velocity component in the z-direction.

Range: [Any Value]

• Activate Output: This defines the outputs of the module. Depending on the selection of the items
below, additional properties are created for each SPH element and can be used for post-processing.

– Drag Force: When enabled, the drag force exerted by the air will be added as an additional
property of the SPH elements. When cleared, the drag force due to the air phase will not be
available for post-processing.

Range: [Turns on or off ]

36.1.6. Post-processing abilities

If the Drag Force was selected in the Activate Output in the Data Editor of the SPH Air Drag (Beta)
module, a new property will be available for the main SPH entity, as shown in Figure 36.3: Additional
property enabled on the SPH entity when the SPH Air Drag (Beta) is used. (p. 322).

Figure 36.3: Additional property enabled on the SPH entity when the SPH Air Drag (Beta) is
used.

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 Technical details

You can choose to analyze this property in a plot or histogram window., or display this property
graphically in a 3D View window.

This additional property is explained below:

• Drag Force: This provides the drag force acting on each SPH element due to the interaction with
the surrounding air phase, which can help you to visualize how the liquid phase is affected by the
air phase.

36.1.7. Setting up and using the module

1. Ensure that the module is enabled. Go to the Data panel, select Modules, and make sure the SPH
Air Drag (Beta) checkbox is enabled in the Data Editors panel.

2. Select SPH Air Drag (Beta) from the Data panel under Modules.

3. Define the required inputs in the Data Editors panel:

a. Specify the density and viscosity of the air in the Air Properties section.

b. Set the velocity vector of the air in the Air Velocity section.

c. Choose whether to activate the module-related output properties in the Activate Output
section.

4. Proceed with setting up the project as you normally would.

5. When you are ready to analyze your simulation results, you may choose to make use of the Drag
Force property.

36.2. Technical details

The SPH Air Drag (Beta) module offers a simplified approach for modeling the effects of surrounding
air, with constant and predefined velocities, on a free-surface liquid without the need of representing
it with another Smoothed Particle Hydrodynamics (SPH) phase.

The drag force acting on each SPH element is computed based on the methodology developed by
[38] (p. 379). This model not only estimates the exposed surface area of each SPH element but also ap-
proximates its deformation. By considering deformation, the model enhances the accuracy of drag force
estimation by taking into account its influence on the drag coefficient and cross-sectional area.

Figure 36.4: Flowchart illustrating the steps involved in computing the drag force for each SPH ele-
ment. (p. 324) provides an overview of the steps involved in calculating the drag force for each SPH
element. At each time step, the deformation of each SPH element is computed as described in section
Element deformation (p. 324). Based on this deformation, the drag coefficient is obtained as described
in section Drag coefficient (p. 325). Subsequently, the cross-area of the deformed SPH element and the
occlusion factor are used to compute the exposed area of each SPH element to the flow, as outlined
in section SPH exposed area (p. 326).

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SPH Air Drag Module (Beta)

Figure 36.4: Flowchart illustrating the steps involved in computing the drag force for each SPH
element.

36.2.1. Element deformation

To enhance the accuracy of drag force estimation by considering the effect of deformation, an ap-
proximate discretization method is employed to compute the deformation of each SPH element
during the simulation. The model follows the Taylor-Analogy-Breakup (TAB) model [41] (p. 379), which
describes the deformation of the SPH element as a damped harmonic oscillator.

This model assumes that the external force, the spring force and the damping force are dependent
on the phase of the droplet and the surrounding air phase. An additional constant is used to
convert the displacement to a dimensionless deformation , which ranges from 0 when the droplet
is a sphere to 1 when the droplet is a disk. The deformation evolves over time according to a
second-order differential equation (ODE):

(36.1)

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 Technical details

Here CF, Ck, Cd, and Cb are coefficients, is the relative velocity of the SPH element, and are
the rest densities of the air and the liquid, is the surface tension coefficient and is the dynamic
viscosity of the liquid.

The simplified approach used by the SPH Air Drag (Beta) module assumes that the SPH element is
instantaneously and completely deformed based on the current relative velocity. Consequently,
Equation Equation 36.1 (p. 324) simplifies to:

(36.2)

By combining the independent variables, the approximate deformation of the SPH element is computed
as:

(36.3)

The coefficient is pre-computed assuming and as suggested by [41] (p. 379)

based on experimental data and theoretical results of droplet breakup in sprays.

The radius of the droplet, L, is determined as the radius of a sphere corresponding to the volume h3
of an SPH element:
(36.4)

Since the SPH elements cannot break into smaller elements, deformations greater than 1 are not al-
lowed:
(36.5)

36.2.2. Drag coefficient

The SPH Air Drag (Beta) module uses an adapted version of the drag coefficient proposed by [40] (p. 379)
to calculate the drag coefficient of a droplet. The calculation is based on the approximate deformation
, and involves linear interpolation between the drag coefficient of a sphere and the drag
coefficient of a disk, given by:
(36.6)

Here, represents the drag coefficient of a sphere, which is calculated as:

(36.7)

where is the Reynolds number for an SPH element, computed as:

(36.8)

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SPH Air Drag Module (Beta)

To ensure that a fluid element that is part of a larger cluster of fluid elements has a drag coefficient
of 1, the final drag coefficient is interpolated between Equation [eq:drag_1] (p. 325) and 1 based on
the number of SPH neighbors n:

(36.9)

Here, represents the number of neighbors when the fluid element is fully surrounded, which
depends on the kernel type.

(36.10)

36.2.3. SPH exposed area

36.2.3.1. Deformed cross-sectional area

The drag force acting on the droplet causes it to deform from its initial spherical shape with a radius
of L to a disk-like shape with a radius of , as illustrated in Figure 36.5: Deformation of a droplet
from the spherical shape with radius L to the disk-like shape with radius (p. 326).

Figure 36.5: Deformation of a droplet from the spherical shape with radius L to the
disk-like shape with radius

To compute the correct cross-sectional area of the SPH elements, the SPH Air Drag (Beta) module
utilizes the approximate deformation to estimate the increase in radius of the deformed
droplet, denoted as , based on the work of [40] (p. 379):
(36.11)

The cross-sectional area of the disk-like droplet is then calculated as:

(36.12)

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 Technical details

Similar to the drag coefficient calculation, the SPH area is linearly interpolated between the square
area of the SPH element with neighbors and the area when there are no neighbors.
This is expressed by the equation:

(36.13)

36.2.3.2. Exposed area

To ensure that the drag forces only act on SPH elements exposed to the air, the SPH Air Drag (Beta)
module includes an additional step to identify the elements located on the liquid surface facing
the relative velocity vector .

An occlusion factor , which represents the fraction of the SPH element that is occluded, ranging
between 0 and 1, is used to calculate the occluded area as follows:
(36.14)

The SPH Air Drag (Beta) module employs a surface detection algorithm to compute the occlusion
factor . This algorithm checks the cosine of the angle between the direction of fluid flow, ,
and the neighbor direction , as illustrated inFigure 36.6: Occlusion factor computation accounting
for the angle between the direction of fluid flow, vi,?rel, and the neighbor direction xi,?j. (p. 327).

Figure 36.6: Occlusion factor computation accounting for the angle between the direction of
fluid flow, vi,?rel, and the neighbor direction xi,?j.

The occlusion value is computed according to Equation [eq:occlusion2] (p. 327), and is clamped
to obtain a value of 1 if the SPH element is not occluded at all, and 0 if it is completely occluded.

(36.15)

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SPH Air Drag Module (Beta)

36.2.4. Drag force

The drag force FD,?i acting on each SPH element is computed using the following equation:
(36.16)

Here, is a vector pointing in the direction of the relative velocity difference between the air ve-
locity and the SPH element velocity .

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Chapter 37: SPH Freeze Outside Region (Beta)
Important:

Note that beta features have not been fully tested and validated. Ansys, Inc. makes no
commitment to resolve defects reported against these prototype features. However,
your feedback will help us improve the overall quality of the product. We will not
guarantee that the projects using this beta feature will run successfully when the feature
is finally released so you may, therefore, need to modify the projects.

37.1. Usage details

The SPH Freeze Outside Region module enables you to save calculation resources and drastically speed
up processing as a result by freezing the SPH elements that are outside from all the Regions of inIterest
and then disabling them from contact calculation.

Figure 37.1: Simplified wheel simulation using the SPH Freeze Outside Region module. Blue SPH
elements are enabled whereas light red elements are frozen and removed from contact detection
calculations.

In this module, a SPH element is enabled once it enters one of the Cubes and Cylinders that define the
regions of interest and therefore can move while collisions involving this SPH elements are solved.
Otherwise, if the SPH element is outside the regions of interest, it is frozen and removed from the
contacts computation. Also, the motion equations for the frozen elements are not resolved.

The position of the Cubes and Cylinders used to delimit the region of interest is updated at every
timestep according to the translation of the geometries to which are linked to.

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SPH Freeze Outside Region (Beta)

Each of the Cubes and Cylinders used to delimit the regions of interest must be linked to a geometry's
motion frame and its position is updated according to the geometry translation. If the Cube and the
Cylinder should not move, it does not be linked to any motion frame.

After enabling the SPH Freeze Outside Region module, there are some parameters you need to define.
These parameters are explained below.

Figure 37.2: Cube creation inside Region of Interest setup.

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 Usage details

Figure 37.3: Cylinder creation inside Region of Interest setup.

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SPH Freeze Outside Region (Beta)

Figure 37.4: SPH Freeze Outside Region module options.

• Start Time: Defines the simulation time at which the module can begin freezing and disabling SPH
elements from contact detection calculations.

In the Active Regions, it is possible to select each Cubes and Cylinders that were created for the Regions
of interesting, in which SPH elements inside it will be frozen and disabled for contact detection calcula-
tions.

After processing your simulation, you can analyze the results using the same SPH-related properties
that are available by default in Rocky.

In addition, one extra SPH property is available as shown below.

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 Usage details

Figure 37.5: Additional SPH properties created by the SPH Freeze Outside Region module.

• Freeze Criterion: Criterion that classifies whether the SPH element is frozen and disabled from contact
calculations or not. If equals to 0.0, the element is free to move and included in contact calculations
performed by the SPH solver. If equals to 1.0, the element is frozen and excluded from such calcula-
tions.

To use/set up the module, follow the steps described below:

1. Set up all the desired Cubes and Cylinders whose motion will be used to translate the Regions of
Interest.

2. Set up all the required Motion Frames that will be assigned to the Cubes and Cylinders.

3. Assign the Motion Frames to the corresponding Cubes and Cylinders.

4. Ensure that the module is enabled. (From the Data panel, select Modules and then from the Data
Editors panel, ensure the SPH Freeze Outside Region checkbox is enabled.)

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SPH Freeze Outside Region (Beta)

5. Define the Start Time and the Regions of Interest. (From the Data panel, select SPH Freeze Outside
Region, and then from the Data Editors panel, input the required values.)

6. Set up and process the simulation as you normally would.

7. When you are ready to analyze your simulation results, you may choose to make use of any SPH-
related property and may also make use of the additional module-related property.

37.2. Technical details

The SPH Freeze Outside Region module freezes and disables SPH elements (removes them from the
contact evaluation step performed by the SPH solver) that are outside the Cubes and Cylinders that
define the regions of interest.

When using this module, if the SPH element is outside all the regions of interest, its Freeze Criterion, ,
receives a value of 1.0, and the SPH element is freezed and eliminated from the contacts computation.
The element is automatically unfrozen and re-enabled once it enters one of the regions of interested
selected.

(37.1)

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Chapter 38: Stress-Based Multi-Contact Normal Force
Module
38.1. Usage details

38.1.1. Purpose of module

The Stress-Based Multi-Contact Normal Force module enables a modified contact normal force model
to account for multiple contacts acting simultaneously on a single particle.

38.1.2. Functionality details

The Stress-Based Multi-Contact Normal Force module employs a new contact law by utilizing the trace
of the particle stress tensor to make all contacts dependent on all other contacts of a particle. Hence,
a modified contact model regards the multiple contacts acting simultaneously on each single particle
to calculate the normal forces.

38.1.3. Limitations and considerations

The Stress-Based Multi-Contact Normal Force module is not compatible with Multiple Element (flexible)
particles.

38.1.4. Module options

There are no options to define on the module itself (Figure 38.1: Stress-Based Multi-Contact Normal
Force module options. (p. 336)).

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Stress-Based Multi-Contact Normal Force Module

Figure 38.1: Stress-Based Multi-Contact Normal Force module options.

38.1.4.1. Additional particle groups options

There is a module-related parameter that you must set for each of your Particle Groups as shown
in Figure 38.2: Stress-Based Multi-Contact Normal Force module options for a particle
group. (p. 337)and explained below.

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 Usage details

Figure 38.2: Stress-Based Multi-Contact Normal Force module options for a particle group.

• Empirical Geometric Prefactor: defines the empirical geometric prefactor (dimensionless input
parameter that accounts for the particle geometry).

Range: [Positive values]

38.1.5. Setting up and using the module

1. Ensure that the module is enabled. (From the Data panel, select Modules and then from the Data
Editors panel, ensure the Stress-Based Multi-Contact Normal Force checkbox is enabled.)

2. Set up your simulation as you normally would, with the following exceptions:

• On the Data panel, select Particles.

• From the Data Editors panel, select each particle group that you want to use in your
simulation and then do the following:

– Select the Modules tab to define the Empirical Geometric Prefactor.

3. Process the simulation as you normally would.

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Stress-Based Multi-Contact Normal Force Module

38.2. Technical details

This module generalizes the contact law by utilizing the trace of the particle stress tensor to make all
contacts dependent on all other contacts of a particle, as proposed by[42] (p. 379). Then, a modified
contact normal force model accounts for multiple contacts simultaneously acting on a single particle.

The particle stress tensor computes the stress level on a particle exerted by its neighboring particles.
It can be calculated by averaging the sum of all contact stresses within the particle volume, making use
of a dyadic product, and it is given by:

(38.1)

where:

• Vp is the particle volume.

• Nc is the number of contacts with neighboring particles.

• Ic is the branch vector, that connects the particle centroid to the contact point.

• fc is the force vector acting at the contact.

The trace of stresses is considered by adding a new pressure term into the normal force calculation
equation. This pressure term ( ) refers to the isotropic component of the stress and it is given by:
(38.2)

where is the trace of stress applied on the particles in contact.

illustrates the additional term, dependent on the average stress between two particles in contact, which
is calculated by equation [e:eq2] (p. 338) and added to the conventional normal force model.

Figure 38.3: Illustration of a contact pair interaction with the average stress terms of particle i
(green) and particle j (red) from the neighboring particles contacts.

Finally, the normal force is calculated using the Hertzian spring-dashpot formulation. Regarding the
trace of stress tensor term, the equation for the normal force calculation is then given by:

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 Technical details

(38.3)

where:

• is the normal force.

• is the reduced Young's modulus.

• is the effective radius.

• is the overlap.

• ? is the empirical geometric prefactor (dimensionless input parameter that accounts for the particle
geometry).

The empirical geometric prefactor = 1.71 (default value) was calibrated with experimental data
from an uniaxial compression test of elastic rubber spheres between two rigid plates (Tatara,
2021[43] (p. 379)). The calibration is performed in a way to capture the maximum force exerted on
the top plate and also to follow the path during compression. The parameter depends on the ma-
terial properties, especially on the stiffness. For a given material, the calibration should be done once
and then be used for other test configurations without the need of re-calibration.

• is the Poisson's ratio.

• is the contact area at the interface of an active pair of contacts.

• is the pressure term calculated in the equation [e:eq2] (p. 338).

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Chapter 39: TBM Breakage Model Module
39.1. Usage details

39.1.1. Purpose of module

The TBM Breakage Model (also known as TAKRAF Breakage Model) module uses the specific impact
energy to evaluate whether or not a particle will break. Unlike the other two instantaneous fragment-
ation models present in Rocky by default, cumulative damage of particles is not taken into account
in the TBM Breakage Model. Rather, if at any given moment during a simulation the instantaneous
specific impact energy of a particle exceeds a particular limit, the particle will break.

This breakage specific impact energy limit is determined by Rocky based upon the parameter values
you enter for the model.

This model also requires use of the Fragment distribution type TBM Breakage Model, which is a
uniform size distribution. This means that all broken fragments generated from the TBM Breakage
Model will be the same size. In addition, the minimum number of fragments in a breakage event is
2, with a maximum number you can define via the Maximum number of fragments parameter.

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TBM Breakage Model Module

Figure 39.1: Breakage | Criteria tab options (left) and Breakage | Fragments tab options (right)
for the Particle set when the TBM Breakage Model module is enabled.

39.1.2. Functionality details

The TBM Breakage Model module includes the following two models:

• A custom instantaneous Breakage Model where calculations will be applied according to the model
developed by TAKRAF, which uses statistical data from experimental breakage tests.

• A custom Fragments Distribution Model based on a uniform distribution.

39.1.3. Limitations and considerations

This module works only with the same particle shapes that are compatible with other instantaneous
breakage models included with Rocky. This includes rigid particles composed of only a Single Element,
specifically only sharp-cornered Solid shapes, such as Polyhedron, Briquette, Faceted Cylinder, and
non-concave Custom Polyhedron (imported) particle shapes.

In addition, because this module relies on the same code structure used by the Breakage Model and
by the Fragments Distribution Model included by default in Rocky, after enabling this module you will
therefore need to select it when defining your particle breakage criteria.

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 Usage details

39.1.4. Module options

There are no options to define on the module itself (Figure 39.2:TBM Breakage Model module op-
tions. (p. 343)).

Figure 39.2: TBM Breakage Model module options.

However, there are additional module-related parameters that you must set for each Particle set. Refer
to the next section for details.

39.1.5. Additional module options for Particle sets

For the Particle sets step, a new Modules sub-tab will appear to help you define the module-related
properties of the set, as shown in Figure 39.3:TBM Breakage Model module options for a Particle
set. (p. 344).

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TBM Breakage Model Module

Figure 39.3: TBM Breakage Model module options for a Particle set.

These parameters are explained below:

Setting Description Range

Slope coefficient; Values used to locate the coordinates and Any value;
slope of the fitted line that determines the
Reference size; Positive values;

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 Usage details

Setting Description Range

Reference specific mean breakage specific energy value for a Positive values
energy given particle size.
Standard deviation; Values used to determine the lower and upper Any value;
limits for the distribution of breakage
Scatter band probability. Any value
parameter
Maximum Number of This defines the maximum number of Greater than or equal
Fragments per Event fragments that can form in any one breakage to 2
event. The minimum number of fragments will
always be 2.

39.1.6. Post-processing abilities

After processing your simulation, you are able to analyze your results using the same breakage-related
Particles Curves that are available for default instantaneous Breakage models within Rocky.

Besides that, a new Property is available for the main Particles entity, as shown in and explained below.

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TBM Breakage Model Module

Figure 39.4: Particles Property created by the TBM Breakage Model module.

Note:

Properties generated by this module will only appear if the Upscaling is disabled.Refer to
Rocky User Manual (5.1.7. About Meshed Particles Upscaling) for more details.

• Breakage Specific Energy: For a given particle, this provides the value which is compared with
the breakage specific energy limit to determine whether the particle will break.

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 Technical details

39.1.7. Setting up and using the module

1. Ensure that the module is enabled. (From the Data panel, select Modules and then from the Data
Editors panel, ensure the TBM Breakage Model checkbox is enabled.)

2. Set up the simulation as you normally would, with the following exception:

a. When setting up each Particle set, ensure the following:

• On the Particle | Breakage | Criteria tab for at least one Particle set, you have defined the
Model as TBM Breakage Model.

• On the Particle | Breakage | Fragments tab for at least one Particle set, you have defined
the Distribution model as TBM Breakage Model.

• On the Particle | Modules tab, you have entered the values you want.

3. Process the simulation as you normally would.

4. When you are ready to analyze your simulation results, do one or more of the following:

• Make use of the default breakage Curves and/or Properties for Particles.

• Make use of the additional module-related Property for Particles:

– Breakage Specific Energy

39.2. Technical details

39.2.1. Breakage criterion

The TAKRAF breakage model (TBM) differs from Rocky's built-in breakage models in the fact that cu-
mulative damage of particles is not taken into account when analyzing breakage. Instead, the criterion
for particle breakage in this model is based exclusively on the instantaneous value of the specific
impact energy. Therefore, if at any given moment during a collision the instantaneous specific impact
energy in a particle exceeds certain limit value, the particle will break.

The breakage specific energy limit, , in the TBM model is determined using statistical parameters
from experimental tests. depicts a typical log-log plot of the breakage specific energy versus the
particle size, obtained in a sequence of experimental tests. The equation of a line that best fits the
experimental points in the log-log plane can be determined by means of linear regression. This line
defines a mean value of breakage specific energy, , for a given particle size, . Then, the rela-
tionship between those two variables can be expressed simply as:
(39.1)
where and are the coordinates of a point on the fitted line, while is its slope in the log-
log plot. In the Rocky UI, and are listed as Reference Size and Reference Specific Energy,
respectively, while re is listed as Slope Coefficient.

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TBM Breakage Model Module

Figure 39.5: Breakage specific energy versus particle size.

Assuming that the experimental points obey a log-normal distribution, lower and upper limits for a
distribution of breakage probability can be established as:
(39.2)
(39.3)
where is the standard deviation of the experimental data set in relation to the fitted line, given
by:

(39.4)

in which and , for , are measured values of particle size and breakage specific
energy, respectively. For further details, please refer to Schmidt (2011) [44] (p. 379).

In addition, in Equation 39.2 (p. 348) and Equation 39.3 (p. 348) is a parameter that determines the
amplitude of the band limited by and . For example, for , the band defined will
include 95% of the measured values. In the Rocky UI, and are listed as Standard Deviation and
Scatter Band Parameter, respectively.

In Rocky, a random strength value is assigned to every particle in a simulation during the
particle generation process. The corresponding breakage specific energy, assuming a cumulative log-
normal distribution, will be given by:
(39.5)

However, in the TBM model, breakage is only allowed when . On the other hand, if ,
the particle will always break. This effect is achieved by defining the breakage specific energy as:
(39.6)

Thus, a particle will break if at any given moment the instantaneous specific impact energy in the
particle is larger than the specific breakage energy, , given by Equation 39.6 (p. 348). At a breakage

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 Technical details

event, the size of the resulting fragments will be determined by the described in the following section,
which is implemented within the same module.

39.2.2. Fragments size distribution

The approach for specifying the size of the fragments at a breakage event with TBM is the simplest
possible, since all fragments are generated with the same size. Thus, the number of fragments at each
breakage event will be determined according to:
(39.7)
where is the maximum number of fragments possible at a breakage event, which is a user
input listed in the UI as Maximum Number of Fragments per Event. As indicated by the equation
above, the minimum number of fragments is 2. Additionally, the number is calculated as:
(39.8)
where denotes the floor function, is the volume of the particle being fragmented and is
the minimum volume possible for a fragment, which is estimated as:
(39.9)
where, in turn, is the minimum size possible for the fragments. This is a parameter that users
must specify, listed in the Rocky UI as Minimum Size.

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Chapter 40: Thermal Radiation Module
40.1. Usage details

40.1.1. Purpose of module

The Thermal Radiation module enables you to consider the thermal effects of radiation while computing
the heat exchange between each particle-particle and/or particle-triangle (geometry) interaction that
occurs during the simulation.

Adding thermal radiation to a simulation allows particles at different temperatures to exchange

thermal energy (heat) even though they are not in contact. The same goes for particles receiving or
losing heat to the geometries that are at different temperatures.

Note:

Geometries, however, are not able to receive heat transfer from particles. See the Limitations
and other considerations (p. 353) section for more details.

Typically, the heat transfer due to radiation becomes significant at higher temperatures, such as 700
K or greater. Therefore, the effects of thermal radiation can play an important role in some high-heat
applications, such as industrial heating, cooling, and drying processes; as well as combustion processes
and solar radiation.

40.1.2. Example application

Figure 40.1: Heating particles inside a cylinder using the Thermal Radiation module. The
upper surface is set to a high temperature, which heats the particles at the top. The particles
then exchange heat with each other in the lower layers.

Figure 40.1: Heating particles inside a cylinder using the Thermal Radiation module. The upper surface
is set to a high temperature, which heats the particles at the top. The particles then exchange heat
with each other in the lower layers. (p. 351) shows an example of how this module can be applied. In
a cylinder and particle simulation set up with Thermal Modeling, the lid geometry at the top of the

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Thermal Radiation Module

cylinder is defined—via its assigned material—as an emissive geometry, and a high prescribed tem-
perature is applied to the lid. The group of particles within the cylinder is defined—via its assigned
material—as emissive, which enables the particles within the group to receive heat transfer via radi-
ation.

A screening distance defines the area around the lid as the radiation heat source for the affected
particles. Below the lid, a second screening distance defines the area encompassing the particles as
the location within which radiation heat can be exchanged.

As the temperatures of the top layer of particles increase due to radiation effects from the lid, those
top particles exchange heat with each other inside the cylinder by conduction and radiation. Thus,
the heat spreads from the particles at the top of the cylinder through to the particles at the bottom.

40.1.3. Functionality details

The Thermal Radiation module works by employing a model that calculates the radiation heat transfer
between each pair of emissive particle-particle and particle-triangle (geometry) interactions that are
inside the screening distances defined in the module's UI.

For each emissive particle-particle or triangle-particle pair, a radiation view factor that takes into account
their respective sizes, angular positions and the distances between each other is automatically calcu-
lated. This radiation view factor is then used to consider the fraction of the radiation leaving the
source surface that is intercepted by the target surface.

40.1.4. Thermal modeling considerations

Since the Thermal Radiation module involves heat exchange, it requires the Thermal Model to be
enabled in Rocky.

It is important to remember that by enabling the Thermal Model, heat transfer will also occur due to
conduction and if/when CFD Coupling is enabled convection in addition to the radiation effects enabled
by this module.

Depending upon what kind of thermal effects you want to simulate in Rocky, you may need to set
up your simulation differently. Below is a summary of how you may apply the three different types
of thermal modes:

• To simulate conduction only, enable the Thermal Model.

• To simulate both conduction and convection, enable the Thermal Model and then couple the
simulation with a fluid case (CFD) that has energy calculations.

• To simulate both conduction and radiation, enable the Thermal Model and the Thermal Radiation
module.

• To simulate the three types of heat transfer conduction, convection, and radiation enable the
Thermal Model and the Thermal Radiation module, and then couple the simulation with a fluid
case (CFD) that has energy calculations.

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40.1.5. Limitations and other considerations

This module is not compatible with Multiple Element (flexible) particles nor with Coarse Grain Modeling
(CGM).

This module does not take into account the occlusion effects when computing the radiation view
factors.

It is also important to note that in Rocky, geometries do not receive any heat transfer from particles.
For geometries, temperature is defined as a constant value and therefore, they may only participate
as heat sources inside the simulation. This is true for radiation effects as well as for other types of
heat transfer (conduction and convection).

When using the Feed Conveyor template to create an emissive geometry, be aware that the belt element
will not participate in the radiation calculations.

40.1.6. Module options

This module has some parameters that you can set, which are defined below and shown in Fig-
ure 40.2: Options for the Thermal Radiation module. (p. 353).

Figure 40.2: Options for the Thermal Radiation module.

• Particles Screening Distance: Defines the maximum influence distance in which the particle-particle
interactions will be accounted. Emissive particles within this location will exchange radiation heat
between them.

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Thermal Radiation Module

Range: [Positive values]

• Geometries Screening Distance: Defines the maximum influence distance in which the triangle-
particle interactions will be accounted. Each emissive geometry present in the simulation within
this location will participate as a radiation heat source for the respective particles.

Range: [Positive values]

• Start Time: Defines the time you want particles within the screening distance to begin being influ-
enced by the thermal radiation.

Range: [Positive values]

• Stop Time: Defines the time you want particles within the screening distance to stop being influ-
enced by the thermal radiation.

Range: [Positive values]

40.1.6.1. Additional options enabled in the UI

Besides the parameters you define in the module itself, there is an additional parameter you must
set for each material. See the section below for details.

40.1.6.1.1. Additional material options

When you select a material component under Materials, a new parameter will appear in the
Data Editors panel under Thermal Radiation to help you input the emissivity property of the
material, as shown in Figure 40.3:Thermal Radiation module options for an individual material
component. (p. 355).

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 Usage details

Figure 40.3: Thermal Radiation module options for an individual material component.

This parameter is explained below:

• Material Emissivity: This parameter defines the thermal emissivity that will be applied to the
selected material. When a material with emissivity greater than zero is assigned to a geometry,
that geometry becomes emissive and can act as a radiation heat source. When a material with

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Thermal Radiation Module

emissivity greater than zero is assigned to a particle group, those particles become emissive
and can receive and exchange radiation heat transfer.

Note:

Even though you are able to define this parameter for any material, only those
materials assigned to geometries or particle groups within the Geometries
Screening Distance and/or Particles Screening Distance will participate in the ra-
diation heat transfer process.

Any materials with this parameter set to 0 will have their assigned geometries
and/or particle groups ignored by radiation effects.

Range: [0 - 1]

40.1.7. Best practices for better performance and accuracy

Some best practices for setting up your Rocky project when using the Thermal Radiation module are
listed below. Following these guidelines can help you get more accurate temperature results and
improve your solver performance.

• Define the Geometries Screening Distance no lower than 2.5 times the largest triangle size of
any emissive geometry present in the simulation.

• For all emissive geometries, define the geometry Triangle Size as equal to or up to 2 times bigger
than the equivalent diameter of the smallest particle present in the simulation.

• For your geometries, avoid defining Triangle Size values smaller than the equivalent diameter of
the smallest particle present in the simulation. Triangles that are too small can reduce the solver
performance, increasing the computational cost with no substantial enhancement in the results
accuracy.

• For simulations with high particle density, avoid using a Particles Sreening Distance larger than
2 times the equivalent dimeter of the biggest particle present in simulation. Otherwise, it can
overestimate the heat transfer due to occlusions neglect, reduce the solver performance, and increase
the computational cost.

• If you have geometries or particle groups in your simulation that you do not want to be considered
as a source for thermal radiation, ensure that you assign a material to these geometries and/or
particle groups that has a Material Emissivity equal to 0. By doing so, you not only deactivate the
radiation heat transfer calculation for these items but also improve the solver performance.

By following these recommendations, the Thermal Radiation model will deliver confident results to-
gether with good solver performance.

40.1.8. Setting up and using the module

1. Ensure that the Thermal Model is enabled. (From the Data panel, select Physics and then from
the Data Editors panel, on the Thermal tab, ensure that the Thermal Model checkbox is enabled.)

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 Usage details

2. Ensure that the module is enabled. (From the Data panel, select Modules and then from the Data
Editors panel, ensure that the Thermal Radiation checkbox is enabled.)

3. From the Data panel, under Modules, select Thermal Radiation.

4. From the Data Editors panel, do the following:

a. Define the Geometries Screening Distance.

b. Define the Particles Screening Distance.

c. Define the Start Time.

d. Define the Stop Time.

5. Continue setting up the project as you normally would.

6. Prior to processing your simulation, ensure that you do the following for each emissive geometry
in your project:

a. From the Data panel, under Materials, select a material that you want to assign to an emissive
geometry, and then from the Data Editors panel define the Material Emissivity.

b. From the Data panel, under Geometries, select a geometry that you want to consider as an
emissive geometry, and then from the Data Editors panel do the following:

i. From the Geometry tab, select from the Material list the emissive material previously
defined in step 6a.

ii. From the Geometry | Geometry tab, enable the Prescribed Temperature option for
Thermal Boundary Type, and then define the emissive geometry's Temperature.

7. Moreover, ensure that you do the following for each emissive particle group in your project:

a. From the Data panel, under Materials, select a material that you want to assign to an emissive
particle group, and then from the Data Editors panel define the Material Emissivity.

b. From the Data panel, under Particles, select a particle group that you want to consider as an
emissive particle group, and then from the Data Editors panel do the following:

i. From the Particle tab, select from the Material list the emissive material previously defined
in step 7a.

8. Ensure that you defined initial temperature for the emissive particles in your project:

a. From the Data panel, under Inputs, select the particle input that you want to define the initial
temperature, and then from the Data Editors panel do the following:

i. If you selected a Continuous Injection or a Volume Fill, from the Particles tab, define the
temperature for each particle group.

ii. If you selected a Custom Input, define the Default Temperature value or define the tem-
perature values directly in the csv file you want to import.

9. Process your simulation as you normally would.

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Thermal Radiation Module

During the simulation, each emissive geometry present in the simulation within the defined Geometries
Screening Distance will participate as a radiation heat source for the respective particles. Also, emissive
particles within the defined Particles Screening Distance will exchange radiation heat between each
other.

40.2. Technical details

In the Thermal Radiation module, the radiation heat transfer is calculated only between emissive particle-
particle and emissive particle-triangle (geometry) pairs that are inside the Particle Screening Distance
and Geometries Screening Distance, respectively. An illustration of how the calculation domain is defined
by the screening distances is shown in Figure 40.4: Illustration of the calculation domain for radiation
heat transfer according to the defined screening distances. (p. 358).

Figure 40.4: Illustration of the calculation domain for radiation heat transfer according to the
defined screening distances.

In the example, the green particles and green line represent the items experiencing radiation effects,
as defined by the screening distance. The "i" in the center of this area and the wavy arrows emitting
from it represent the radiation interactions happening between participating particles and geometries.

40.2.1. Calculation assumptions

The calculations performed by the Thermal Radiation module make some assumptions about how
the particles and geometries emit and absorb radiation. When using this module, all emissive particles
and geometries in the simulation are assumed to be gray, diffuse, and opaque bodies, which are de-
scribed below:

• Gray bodies are physical entities that partially emit and absorb radiation. The level of emission and
absorption is determined by the emissivity parameters defined in the module. Emissivity is a surface
radiation property defined as the ratio of the radiation emitted by the surface to the radiation
emitted by a black body at the same temperature. A Black body, in turn, represents an idealized,
perfect absorber and emitter of radiation.

• Bodies with diffuse surfaces emit and absorb radiation equally in all directions.

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 Technical details

• Opaque bodies will not permit radiation to pass through them.

40.2.2. Calculations
In the Thermal Radiation module, the particle-particle and particle-triangle heat exchange is calculated
using the thermal radiation equation for heat transfer between two gray, diffuse and opaque surfaces,
defined as follows:[45] (p. 379)[48] (p. 379)[47] (p. 379)

(40.1)

where:

• is the source surface index, which can be either a geometry triangle or particle within the defined
screening distance.

• is the target surface index, which can be a particle within the defined screening distance.

• is the radiation heat transfer rate between the source surface, , and the target surface, .

• is equal to [W/m2K4], which is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant.

• is the temperature of the source surface.

• is the temperature of the target surface.

• is the thermal emissivity of the source surface.

Note:

This is an input parameter of the Thermal Radiation module.

• is the thermal emissivity of the target surface.

Note:

This is an input parameter of the Thermal Radiation module.

• is the area of the source surface.

• is the area of the target surface.

• is the radiation view factor, which is defined as the fraction of the radiation leaving the source
surface, , that is intercepted by the target surface, .

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Thermal Radiation Module

40.2.3. Radiation view factor

The radiation view factor for each particle-particle interaction, independent of the particle shapes, is
calculated considering the approximation of two spheres, as shown in Figure 40.5: Particle-particle
interaction. (p. 360). For non-spherical particles, the respective equivalent diameter is considered for
the view factor calculations.

The particle-particle view factor, , for any sphere sizes and spacings is defined as follows:[49] (p. 379)

(40.2)

where:

• is the source particle surface index.

• is the target particle surface index.

• is the source particle equivalent radius.

• is the target particle equivalent radius.

• is the distance between the particles centroids.

Figure 40.5: Particle-particle interaction.

The radiation view factor for each triangle-particle interaction is also independent of the target particle
shape. This factor is calculated considering the approximation of a small surface to a sphere with
equivalent diameter, as shown in Figure 40.6: Triangle-particle interaction. (p. 361). The view factor for
a small surface to a sphere is defined as follows:
(40.3)
where:

• is the target particle surface index.

• is the target particle equivalent radius.

• is the distance between the target particle centroid and the geometry triangle centroid.

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 Technical details

• is the angle between the triangle surface normal vector and the particle position vector.

Figure 40.6: Triangle-particle interaction.

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Chapter 41: Velocity-Dependent Adhesive Force
Module
41.1. Usage details

41.1.1. Purpose of module

The Velocity-Dependent Adhesive Force module enables you to use a parametric adhesive force model
that takes into account the particle's impact velocity, and which can be used to simulate phenomena
such as snow accretion. This module works by applying two fitting constants to an adhesion force
correlation.

41.1.2. Limitations and considerations

The Velocity-Dependent Adhesive Force module is best suited for spherical particles, and is not compat-
ible with Multiple Element (flexible) particles.

In addition, this module is not compatible with Coarse Grain Modeling.

Note also that enabling this module will override what you have set for Adhesive Force on the Mo-
mentum tab of the Physics entity (Figure 41.1:Physics | Momentum tab options when the Velocity-
Dependent Adhesive Force module is enabled. (p. 364)).

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Velocity-Dependent Adhesive Force Module

Figure 41.1: Physics | Momentum tab options when the Velocity-Dependent Adhesive Force module
is enabled.

41.1.3. Module options

There are no options to define on the module itself (Figure 41.2:Velocity-Dependent Adhesive Force
module options. (p. 364)).

Figure 41.2: Velocity-Dependent Adhesive Force module options.

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 Usage details

41.1.3.1. Additional materials interactions options

There are module-related parameters that you must set for each of your Materials Interactions.

When you select a pair of materials interactions, two new parameters will appear as shown in Fig-
ure 41.3:Velocity-Dependent Adhesive Force module options for a pair of materials interactions. (p. 365)
and explained below.

Figure 41.3: Velocity-Dependent Adhesive Force module options for a pair of materials
interactions.

• Diameter Exponent: This defines the diameter exponent of the parametric adhesive force
model.

Range: [Positive values.]

• Force Coefficient: This defines the force coefficient of the parametric adhesive force model.

Note:

This parameter is defined with the unit [kg/m(1+b)] (with b being the Diameter
Exponent) but as Rocky does not recognize this unit, the parameter will be shown
as dimensionless in the Rocky UI.

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Velocity-Dependent Adhesive Force Module

Range: [Positive values.]

41.1.4. Post-processing abilities

After processing your simulation, you are able to analyze your results using the same particle-related
properties that are available by default in Rocky.

In addition, if you chose to enable the Collect Contacts Data checkbox on the Contacts entity, a
new Property is available for Contacts, as shown in Figure 41.4: Contacts Properties created by the
Velocity-Dependent Adhesive Force module. (p. 366) and explained below.

Figure 41.4: Contacts Properties created by the Velocity-Dependent Adhesive Force module.

• Adhesive Force: For a given contact, this provides the adhesive force calculated by the module.

Note:

Properties generated by this module will only appear if the Upscaling is disabled.Refer to
Rocky User Manual (5.1.7. About Meshed Particles Upscaling) for more details.

41.1.5. Setting up and using the module

1. Ensure that the module is enabled. (From the Data panel, select Modules and then from the Data
Editors panel, ensure the Velocity-Dependent Adhesive Force checkbox is enabled.)

2. Set up your simulation as you normally would, with the following exceptions:

• On the Materials Interactions step, from the Data Editors panel, select each pair of materials
interactions that you want to use in your simulation, and then under Velocity-Dependent
Adhesive Force, define the parameters you want.

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• (Optional) On the Contacts step, from the Data Editors panel, enable the Collect Contacts
Data checkbox. Collecting contacts will give you access to a new Contact property generated
by this module, which is used for calculation purposes.

3. Process the simulation as you normally would.

4. When you are ready to analyze your simulation results, you may choose to make use of any
particle-related Property. Or if you chose to collect contacts data, you may also make use of that
additional module-related property.

41.2. Technical details

The Velocity-Dependent Adhesive Force module implements a parametric adhesion model in which the
adhesive force is mainly dependent on the impact velocity.

The adhesive force ( ) is defined in this model as follows:

(41.1)

(41.2)

where:

• is the force coefficient, measured in [kg/m(1+b)], which is defined by the user for each pair of mater-
ials on the Materials Interactions step when the Velocity-Dependent Adhesive Force module is enabled.

• is the diameter exponent. This dimensionless parameter is defined by the user for each pair of
materials on the Materials Interactions step when the Velocity-Dependent Adhesive Force module is
enabled.

• and are the equivalent diameters of the two contacting particles, measured in [m]. The
equivalent diameter is defined as the diameter of a sphere whose volume is equal to the particle?s
volume.

• and are the magnitudes of the normal and tangential components of the relative velocity at
the beginning of the contact, respectively, measured in [m/s].

• is the normal restitution coefficient. This dimensionless parameter is defined by the user for each
pair of materials on the Materials Interactions setup.

Note:

Both Constant and Velocity Dependent restitution model are compatible with this
module.

The tangential restitution coefficient ( ) used in equation Equation 41.1 (p. 367) is computed as:
[37] (p. 379)
(41.3)
where:

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Velocity-Dependent Adhesive Force Module

• is the dynamic friction coefficient. This dimensionless parameter is defined by the user for each
pair of materials on the Materials Interactions setup.

• is a parameter that characterizes the mass distribution within the particles. For homogeneous
spheres, this parameter takes the value 2/7, which is the value used for the implementation of this
module.

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Chapter 42: Velocity-Dependent Restitution Model
42.1. Usage details

42.1.1. Purpose of module

The Velocity-Dependent Restitution Model module enables you to use a parametric restitution model
that takes into account the impact velocity of the spherical particle. The parametric restitution model
has two constants related to the particle interaction.

42.1.2. Limitations and considerations

The Velocity-Dependent Restitution Model module is best suited for spherical particles, and is not
compatible with Multiple Element (flexible) particles.

Also note that enabling this module will override what you have set for Restitution Coefficient in
the Materials Interactions entity.

42.1.3. Module options

There are no options to define on the module itself (Figure 42.1:Velocity-Dependent Restitution Model
module options. (p. 369)).

Figure 42.1: Velocity-Dependent Restitution Model module options.

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Velocity-Dependent Restitution Model

42.1.3.1. Additional materials interactions options

There are module-related parameters that you must set for each of your Materials Interactions.

When you select a pair of materials interactions, 4 new parameters will appear as shown in Fig-
ure 42.2:Velocity-Dependent Restitution Model module options for a pair of materials interac-
tions. (p. 371) and explained below.

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 Usage details

Figure 42.2: Velocity-Dependent Restitution Model module options for a pair of materials
interactions.

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Velocity-Dependent Restitution Model

• Enable for This Materials Interaction: This enables or disables the velocity dependent restitution
model.

Note:

If Enable for This Materials Interaction is disabled, the restitution coefficient will
be constant, with value equal to Restitution Coefficient Base Value.

Range: [Enable or Disable]

• Restitution Coefficient Base Value: This defines the base value for the restitution coefficient.

Range: [Positive values.]

• Velocity Exponent: This defines the velocity exponent of the expression that calculates the ve-
locity dependent restitution.

Range: [Positive values.]

• Velocity Limit: This defines a maximum velocity value, below which the coefficient of restitution
is considered constant.

Range: [Positive values.]

42.1.4. Post-processing abilities

After processing your simulation, you are able to analyze your results using the same particle-related
properties that are available by default in Rocky.

In addition, if you chose to enable the Collect Contacts Data checkbox on the Contacts entity, a
new Property will be available for Contacts, as shown in Figure 42.3: Contacts Property created by the
Velocity-Dependent Restitution Model module. (p. 373) and explained below.

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 Usage details

Figure 42.3: Contacts Property created by the Velocity-Dependent Restitution Model module.

• Restitution Coefficient: Provides the restitution coefficient calculated by the module to a given
contact.

Note:

Properties generated by this module will only appear if the Upscaling is disabled.Refer to
Rocky User Manual (5.1.7. About Meshed Particles Upscaling) for more details.

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Velocity-Dependent Restitution Model

42.1.5. Setting up and using the module

1. Ensure that the module is enabled. (From the Data panel, select Modules and then from the Data
Editors panel, ensure the Velocity-Dependent Restitution Model checkbox is enabled.)

2. Set up your simulation as you normally would, with the following exceptions:

• On the Materials Interactions step, from the Data Editors panel, select each pair of materials
interactions that you want to use in your simulation, and then under Velocity-Dependent
Restitution Model, define the parameters you want.

• (Optional) On the Contacts step, from the Data Editors panel, enable the Collect Contacts
Data checkbox. Collecting contacts will give you access to a new Contact property generated
by this module, which is used for calculation purposes.

3. Process the simulation as you normally would.

4. When you are ready to analyze your simulation results, you may choose to make use of any
particle-related Property. Or if you chose to collect contacts data, you may also make use of that
additional module-related property.

42.2. Technical details

The expression used in this module for the dependency of the restitution coefficient on the impact
velocity is a generalization of the relations found by Wu, Li & Thornton [52] (p. 380) for the collision of
spheres with plastic deformations. That generalized expression can be written in the following form:

(42.1)

where:

• is the impact velocity, defined below in Equation 42.2 (p. 375).

• is an input parameter labeled as Restitution Coefficient Base Value in the Rocky UI.

• is a limit velocity, below which the coefficient of restitution is considered constant. This is also
an input parameter, which is listed in the Rocky UI as Velocity Limit.

• is a exponent whose value specifies how quickly the coefficient of restitution decreases when the
impact velocity grows. Figure 42.4: Coefficient of restitution as a function of impact velocity, for dif-
ferent values of the exponent K. (p. 375) shows four curves obtained from Equation 42.1 (p. 374) for
different values of the exponent . This parameter is listed as Velocity Exponent in the Rocky UI.

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 Technical details

Figure 42.4: Coefficient of restitution as a function of impact velocity, for different values of the
exponent K.

The impact velocity considered in Equation 42.1 (p. 374) is defined as the normal component of the rel-
ative velocity at the contact point, , at the time when a collision starts. That is:
(42.2)
where in the contact's normal unit vector and is the time when the collision starts, that is, the
time when the physical contact between the colliding entities begins. In turn, the relative velocity
is defined as:
(42.3)
where, for a particle-to-particle collision:

• and are the translational velocities of the colliding particles.

• and are the rotational velocities of the colliding particles.

• is the vector that joins the center of mass of the particle to the instantaneous contact point
. The definition is equivalent for the vector .

In the case of a particle-to-boundary collision, and will be, respectively, the translational and ro-
tational velocities of the boundary, whereas will be the vector that joins the rotation center of the
boundary to the contact point.

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