Electrical Systems

Jong Hyeon Park

Professor

School of Mechanical Engineering

Hanyang University, Seoul, Korea

Copyright c Jong Hyeon Park, 2005-8. All rights reserved.

 Coulomb’s Law

When two particles are charged with +q1 and +q2 with distance r between them, the
force acted on the particle with q2 by charge +q1 is

q1q2
F = ke 2
· r̂ (1)
r

where r̂ denotes the unit vector pointing from q1 to q2, and ke is Coulomb’s constant:

1 9 2 2
ke = = 8.988 × 10 Nm /C , (2)
4π0

where 0 denotes the permittivity of free space (a vacuum).

Copyright c Jong Hyeon Park, 2005-8. Hanyang University

 Electric Field

Electric field vector at some point in space is

defined to be equal to the electric force acting
on a positive test charge, q0, placed at that
point, divided by q0 the magnitude of the test
charge:
F
E := (3)
q0

Copyright c Jong Hyeon Park, 2005-8. Hanyang University

 Gauss’ Law

• Gauss’ Law states:

I
0 E · dA = qenc (4)
V

where qenc is the total charge enclosed by volume V .

• Example: The electric field at distance r away from a particle charged with q can be
calculated using Gauss’ Law.
I
2 q
0 E · dA = 0E(4πr ) = q. → E=
V 4π0r 2

Copyright c Jong Hyeon Park, 2005-8. Hanyang University

 Potential
• The work done by the electric field E when a particle charged with q0 moves ds is

dW := F · ds = q0E · ds (5)

• Therefore, the potential energy U of the particle is

Z s
U = −q0 E · ds (6)

• Electric potential V is defined to be the potential energy per unit charge:

Z s
U
V := =− E · ds. (7)
q0

From this,
∂V
E=− . (8)
∂s

Copyright c Jong Hyeon Park, 2005-8. Hanyang University

 Parallel-Plate Capacitors

Suppose a pair of parallel plates facing each other have equal-sized but opposite
charges are collected.

Copyright c Jong Hyeon Park, 2005-8. Hanyang University

 Gauss’ law says:
0EA = q (9)

Z + Z +
V =− E · ds = E ds = Ed
− −

Copyright c Jong Hyeon Park, 2005-8. Hanyang University

 0 A
q= V
d
or
q = CV,
where
0 A
C=
d

Copyright c Jong Hyeon Park, 2005-8. Hanyang University

 Application: Cylindrical Capacitor

Gauss’ law says:

0E(2πrL) = q

Copyright c Jong Hyeon Park, 2005-8. Hanyang University

or
q
E=
2π0rL

Z + Z a  
q q b
V =− E · ds = − dr = ln
− b 2π0rL 2π0L a

q = CV,

where
L
C = 2π0
ln(b/a)

Copyright c Jong Hyeon Park, 2005-8. Hanyang University

• Energy stored:
Z Z Z  
d
P (t) dt := v(t)i(t) dt = v(t) C v(t) dt
dt
Z
1 2
= Cv(t) d(v(t)) = Cv (t)
2

Copyright c Jong Hyeon Park, 2005-8. Hanyang University

 Magnetic Field

Copyright c Jong Hyeon Park, 2005-8. Hanyang University

 Biot-Savart Law

When a steady current i flows through an

element of wire ds, magnetic field dB is
generated at a point that is r away from the
wire element. Biot-Savart law says:

µ0 ids × r̂
dB = (10)
4π r 2

• Note that dB⊥ds and dB⊥r̂

Copyright c Jong Hyeon Park, 2005-8. Hanyang University

 Ampere’s Law

Ampere’s Law states:

I
B · ds = µ i enc, (11)
Γ

where µ is the permeability of the media around the current flow (µ0 is the permeability of
free space), B is the flux density, and ienc is the current flow though the surface encircled
by contour Γ.

Copyright c Jong Hyeon Park, 2005-8. Hanyang University

• The unit of B is Tesla (T) or Gauss (G).
• Unit conversion:
4
1 T = 10 G
• Relative permeability µr
µ = µr µ0

• Permeability in free space µ0

−7 −1 −1 −2 −1
µ0 = 4π × 10 T · m/A (=Wb·A ·m =N·A =H·m )

Copyright c Jong Hyeon Park, 2005-8. Hanyang University

 Example: Application of Ampere’s Law

Ampere’s law says:

I
µ0I
B · ds = B(2πr) = µ0I → B=
2πr

Copyright c Jong Hyeon Park, 2005-8. Hanyang University

 Alternative Form: Ampere’s Law

• Magnetomotive force
I
F = H · ds = ienc, (12)
Γ

where F is the mmf (magnetomotive force) and its unit is Ampere-turns.

• H is the magnetic field intensity and its unit is Ampere-turns/meter.
• Note that H does not depend on the media surrounding the current flow.
• B-H relationship
B = µH (13)

• Note that for ferromagnetic materials, µ is not constant, and a function of H.

Copyright c Jong Hyeon Park, 2005-8. Hanyang University

 Application: Solenoid

(e) (f)

Ampere’s law says: I

B · ds = B` = µ0(in`)
where n denotes the number of turns per unit length. Thus,

B = (µ0n) · i

Copyright c Jong Hyeon Park, 2005-8. Hanyang University

 Application: Toroid

I
µ0N
B · ds = B(2πr) = µ0iN → B= ·i
2πr

Copyright c Jong Hyeon Park, 2005-8. Hanyang University

 Magnetic Flux

• Definition: magnetic flux Φ is defined to be

Z
Φ= B · dA (14)
surface

where dA is the vector representing a small patch with its direction normal to the
surface.
• The unit of magnetic flux is Wb (Weber), which is T·m2.

Copyright c Jong Hyeon Park, 2005-8. Hanyang University

 Faraday’s Induction Law

• The voltage difference is induced at the terminals of a metal loop when the flux passing
through it changes as the magnet moves back and forth.
• Faraday’s Law states that emf (electromotive force), a potential difference, is induced
in a loop when the flux that goes through it changes,

Copyright c Jong Hyeon Park, 2005-8. Hanyang University

 dΦ
e=− (15)
dt
where e denotes the emf.
• The negative sign in the equation means that the emf is generated in such a way that
the current caused by it would generate magnetic flux opposing the change in flux Φ,
which is called Lenz’s Law.

Copyright c Jong Hyeon Park, 2005-8. Hanyang University

 Lenz’s Law

• Lenz’s law states that the emf induced in an electric circuit always acts in such a
direction that the current it drives around the circuit opposes the change in magnetic
flux which produces the emf.
• Self induction

(i) (j)

Copyright c Jong Hyeon Park, 2005-8. Hanyang University

 Flux Linkage

• When magnetic flux Φ goes through N loops as in solenoids, the emf becomes increased
N times:
dΦ
e = −N (16)
dt
• Flux linkage λ is defined as
λ := N Φ. (17)
• If the minus sign is neglected, Eq. (16) becomes

dλ
e= (18)
dt

• Note that in solenoids and toroid, magnetic flux Φ, and thus flux linkage λ is
proportional to the current.
• Inductance L is defined as
d λ
L := λ = (19)
di i

Copyright c Jong Hyeon Park, 2005-8. Hanyang University

 or
λ = Li (20)
• The emf in Eq. (18) becomes proportional to the inductance and the rate of change in
the current, i.e.,
di
e=L (21)
dt
• The unit of inductance, H (Henry), is expressed as

1 H = 1 V · s/A

• For a solenoid,
λ = N Φ = (n`)(µ0n)A · i
2
L = (µ0n `)A
• For a toroid,
µ0N 2
λ = NΦ = A·i
2πr
µ0N 2A
L=
2πr

Copyright c Jong Hyeon Park, 2005-8. Hanyang University

• Energy stored:
Z Z Z Z
d 1 2
P (t) dt := v(t)i(t) dt = L i i dt = Li di = Li (22)
dt 2

Copyright c Jong Hyeon Park, 2005-8. Hanyang University

 Ohm’s Law

• The relationship between voltage V and current i for a resistor is linear:

V
R= Ohm’s law (23)
i
.
• Unit of resistance is ohm, Ω, and

V
1 Ω=1
A

• Power: P (t) := v(t)i(t) = Ri2(t)

Copyright c Jong Hyeon Park, 2005-8. Hanyang University

 Resistor Color Code

Copyright c Jong Hyeon Park, 2005-8. Hanyang University

 Parallel/Serial Connections of Resistors

• For serial connections, common i:

X X X
V = Vk or Req i = Rk i → Req = Rk
k k k

• For parallel connections, common V :

X V X V 1 X 1
i= ik or = → =
k
Req k
Rk Req k
Rk

• Note
RaRb
RakRb = .
Ra + Rb

Copyright c Jong Hyeon Park, 2005-8. Hanyang University

 Kirchhoff’s Law

Copyright c Jong Hyeon Park, 2005-8. Hanyang University

 • (Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law) The voltage
drop around a loop should be zero.

X
n
Vk = 0 (24)
k=1

• (Kirchhoff’s Current Law) At a node, the

sum of all the current flow should be zero.
X
n
ik = 0 (25)
k=1

Copyright c Jong Hyeon Park, 2005-8. Hanyang University

 Impedance
• Definition
V (s)
Z(s) := (26)
I(s)

• Resistors
V (s)
v = Ri → Z(s) := =R
I(s)

• Capacitors
V (s) 1
i = C v̇ → I(s) = CsV (s) → Z(s) := =
I(s) Cs

• Inductors
V (s)
v = Li̇ → V (s) = LsI(s) → Z(s) := = Ls
I(s)

Copyright c Jong Hyeon Park, 2005-8. Hanyang University

• Example

Z = R + Ls + 1/(Cs)

Copyright c Jong Hyeon Park, 2005-8. Hanyang University

 Network Analysis

• Node Voltage Method

1. Select reference node and set Vnode = 0.
2. Define voltages of the other nodes as variables.
3. Use KCL at each node.

• Mesh Current Method

1. Define each mesh current as a variable.
2. Use KVL at each mesh.

Copyright c Jong Hyeon Park, 2005-8. Hanyang University

 Example: Node Voltage Method

Va Va − Vb
is − − =0
R1 R2
Va − Vb Vb Vb
− − =0
R2 R3 + R5 R4

Copyright c Jong Hyeon Park, 2005-8. Hanyang University

 Example: Mesh Current Method

Vs − R1(i1 − i2) = 0

−R2i2 − R1(i2 − i1) = 0

Copyright c Jong Hyeon Park, 2005-8. Hanyang University

 Analogy between Mechanical and Electrical Systems

• Power=force (F ) × velocity (v ) = voltage (V ) × current (i)

Mechanical System Electrical System Universal System

force (F ) voltage (V ) effort (e)
velocity (v ) current (i) flow (f )
F = ṗ = mv̇ V = λ̇ = Li̇ f˙ = g1(e)
Ḟ = kv i = C V̇ or V̇ = (1/C)i ė = g2(f )
m L I
1/k C C
F = bẋ V = Ri e = g3(f )
b R R

Copyright c Jong Hyeon Park, 2005-8. Hanyang University

 Alternative Analogy

• It is possible but NOT recommended to swap counter-part power variables.

Mechanical System Electrical System

force (F ) current (i)
velocity (v ) voltage (V )
F = ṗ = mv̇ i = C V̇
Ḟ = kv i̇ = (1/L)V
m C
1/k L
F = bẋ i = (1/R)V
b 1/R

Copyright c Jong Hyeon Park, 2005-8. Hanyang University

 Example: Mass-Spring-Damper vs. RLC

• Velocity (flow) is common for the mass, spring and damper.

• The current (flow) is common for L, C and R.
• The forces (efforts) generated by the spring and the damper are added to form the
force on the mass.
• The voltages (effort) of C and R are added to form the voltage on L.

Copyright c Jong Hyeon Park, 2005-8. Hanyang University

 Operation Amplifiers (OP-Amps)
• OP-Amps model

• Open-loop characteristics
+ −
Vout = AV (OL) · vin = AV (OL) · (v − v )

Copyright c Jong Hyeon Park, 2005-8. Hanyang University

• It has a very high gain.
5 7
AV (OL) ≈ 10 − 10  1

• It has a very high input impedance.

– For simple analysis,
iin = 0

• Op-amps are used in a closed-loop (negative feedback) fashion.

Copyright c Jong Hyeon Park, 2005-8. Hanyang University

 Inverting Amplifier

• Since iin = 0, iS + iF = 0
• KVL says:
−
vS − RS iS − v =0 (27)

−
vout − RF (−iS ) − v =0 (28)

Copyright c Jong Hyeon Park, 2005-8. Hanyang University

• OP-amp characteristics

−
vout = AV(OL) · (0 − v ) (29)

1
RF
vS = − RS + (RS + RF )/AV(OL) vout ≈ − vS
RF RS

• With negative feedback,

+ −
vin = v − v =0 and iin = 0

vS vout RF
iS = =− → vout =− vS
RS RF RS

Copyright c Jong Hyeon Park, 2005-8. Hanyang University

 Non-Inverting Amplifier

+ −
• Again, negative feedback is used! → vin = v − v =0

Copyright c Jong Hyeon Park, 2005-8. Hanyang University

• KVL says:

 
vS vout RF
iS = = → vout = 1+ · vS
RS RS + RF RS

Copyright c Jong Hyeon Park, 2005-8. Hanyang University

 Lorenz Force

• Force F on a charge q moving with velocity v through a region of space with magnetic
field B is given by:

F = qv × B

• For a wire carrying current i in magnetic field B,

F = i` × B

Copyright c Jong Hyeon Park, 2005-8. Hanyang University

Copyright c Jong Hyeon Park, 2005-8. Hanyang University
 DC Motor

Copyright c Jong Hyeon Park, 2005-8. Hanyang University

• KVL
d
va − Rai − La i−e=0 (30)
dt

• Energy Conversion

e = Ke ωm Ke: back emf constant (31)

Copyright c Jong Hyeon Park, 2005-8. Hanyang University

 τ = Kt ia Kt: torque constant (32)
• Mechanical System
τ = Jmω̇m + Bmωm (33)

Va(s)−(Ra+Las)I(s)−KeΩm(s) = 0, τ (s) = KtIa(s) = (Jms+Bm)Ωm(s)

Ωm(s) Kt
=
Va(s) (Ra + Las)(Jms + Bm) + KeKt

• In general, τe := La/Ra  τm := Jm/Bm → La ≈ 0.

Ωm(s) Kt/Ra
=
Va(s) Jms + (Bm + KeKt/Ra)

Copyright c Jong Hyeon Park, 2005-8. Hanyang University

• No Loss of Power

P (t) = e(t) · ia(t) = τ (t) · ωm(t) → Ke = Kt

• For load JL connected through a gear (gear ratio: η :1)

ητm = JLΩ̇L

ΩL = (1/η)Ωm

 
1
τm = JL Ω̇m
η2

• When motor inertia and load inertia are considered together,

Ωm(s) Kt/Ra
=
Va(s) Jeffs + Beff

Copyright c Jong Hyeon Park, 2005-8. Hanyang University

 1
Jeff = Jm + 2
JL
η
and
KeKt
Beff = Bm +
Ra

• Alternatively,

ΩL(s) a ΘL(s) a
= or =
Va(s) s+b Va(s) s(s + b)

Kt Kt
a= =
ηRaJeff ηRa (Jm + JL/η 2)
and
Beff Bm + KeKt/Ra
b= =
Jeff Jm + JL/η 2

Copyright c Jong Hyeon Park, 2005-8. Hanyang University

 Dynamic Braking of DC Motor

• With open circuit at terminals (ia = 0)

JL
τm = Jeffθ̈ + Bmθ̇ = 0 where Jeff = Jm +
η2

• With short circuit at terminals(va = 0)

τm = Jeffθ̈ + Bmθ̇
!
Keθ̇
τm = Ktia = Kt −
Ra

from which
 
Ke
Jeffθ̈ + Bm + θ̇ = 0
Ra

Copyright c Jong Hyeon Park, 2005-8. Hanyang University

• With a short circuit at the motor terminals, the motor will have larger damping, and
thus will stop more quickly (dynamic braking).

Copyright c Jong Hyeon Park, 2005-8. Hanyang University