“9x6” b3779 Science Research Writing

UNIT 4
How to Write the Discussion
Copyright © 2020. World Scientific Publishing UK Limited. All rights reserved.

Glasman-deal, Hilary. Science Research Writing: for Native and Non-Native Speakers of English (Second Edition),
World Scientific Publishing UK Limited, 2020. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/kth/detail.action?docID=6446571.
Created from kth on 2025-03-21 08:56:33.

b3779_Unit-04.indd 189 02-11-2020 3.05.55 PM

 “9x6”
b3779 Science Research Writing

Science Research Writing

TITLE
ABSTRACT

INTRODUCTION

METHODS
Copyright © 2020. World Scientific Publishing UK Limited. All rights reserved.

RESULTS

DISCUSSION

CONCLUSION*

*Some journals call this section CONCLUSION and others call it CONCLUSIONS but this does not seem
to reflect the number of conclusions that are drawn.
Glasman-deal, Hilary. Science Research Writing: for Native and Non-Native Speakers of English (Second Edition),
w 190
World Scientific Publishing UK Limited, 2020. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/kth/detail.action?docID=6446571.
Created from kth on 2025-03-21 08:56:33.

b3779_Unit-04.indd 190 02-11-2020 3.05.56 PM

 “9x6” b3779 Science Research Writing

How to Write the Discussion

4.1. How to Write the Discussion

As stated on page 141, the Results section will be treated separately from the
Discussion section, and the Discussion section will be treated separately from
the Conclusion. This is to ensure that you can train yourself to recognise — and
therefore create — the components that are characteristic of each section,
whether you keep them separate or combine them.

4.1.1 Wrapping the discussion in a narrative

The key to a successful Discussion section is a forward-moving, well-organised

narrative wrap (see page xiv) that leads the reader patiently, logically and
explicitly from the results to the conclusions.
Before planning the Discussion, it is helpful to begin by stepping back
from the study and considering its main value or contribution. For example:

· Has the study obtained identical or similar results to other studies but
uses a modified or new method that is better than existing methods? In
that case, the main contribution may be the method.
Copyright © 2020. World Scientific Publishing UK Limited. All rights reserved.

· Has the study obtained better (e.g. more accurate) results than
other studies? In that case, the main contribution may be the results
themselves.
· Is the study a game-changer, i.e. is it setting a new direction for research/
invalidating previous work? In that case, the main contribution of the
study may be its impact on the literature/research world.
· Has the study identified or created new or extended applications? In
that case, the main contribution may be its impact on industry/the real
world.

This sets a clear ‘destination’ that can be explicitly communicated to the

reader via the narrative, and also ensures that the take-home message of
the study will not get lost in irrelevant detail. Researchers typically spend
less than 30 minutes reading a research article, so it is essential to prioritise
and communicate the main value or contribution as unequivocally as possible.

Glasman-deal, Hilary. Science Research Writing: for Native and Non-Native Speakers of English (Second Edition),
191 v
World Scientific Publishing UK Limited, 2020. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/kth/detail.action?docID=6446571.
Created from kth on 2025-03-21 08:56:33.

b3779_Unit-04.indd 191 02-11-2020 3.05.56 PM

 “9x6”
b3779 Science Research Writing

Science Research Writing

4.2. Building Your Own Model

Although the order of individual components in the Discussion is flexible, the

components themselves are relatively straightforward, and follow the symmetrical
‘shape’ of the research article. The Introduction starts out by being fairly general
and gradually narrows towards the Method/Results, whereas the Discussion
moves away from the Method/Results towards a wider focus. Reviewing the
generic Introduction model below is therefore a good starting point.

GENERIC INTRODUCTION MODEL (FROM Unit 1)

Block 1 ESTABLISH THE IMPORTANCE OF THE TOPIC/FIELD
PROVIDE BACKGROUND FACTUAL INFORMATION
PRESENT THE GENERAL PROBLEM AREA/CURRENT
RESEARCH FOCUS
Block 2 PRESENT PREVIOUS AND/OR CURRENT RESEARCH AND
CONTRIBUTIONS: the research ‘map’
Block 3 LOCATE A GAP IN THE RESEARCH
DESCRIBE THE PROBLEM YOU WILL ADDRESS
Copyright © 2020. World Scientific Publishing UK Limited. All rights reserved.

PRESENT YOUR MOTIVATION AND/OR HYPOTHESIS

IDENTIFY RESEARCH OPPORTUNITY
Block 4 DESCRIBE THE PRESENT PAPER, sometimes mentioning
aims/results/methods/conclusions, and often including
‘happy’ J words

In Block 4 of the Introduction the writer describes the present paper or

study, providing a logically-flowing interface between the Introduction and
the central sections of the paper. In the Discussion, writers often begin by
revisiting some aspect of the study such as the research aim/gap or the key
results. This sets the Discussion in motion; it enables the writer to create that
interface in reverse and move away from the central report section in a logical
flow towards the Conclusion/s.
Block 3 presents a gap in the research or describes a problem that will be
addressed in the research article. In the Discussion, the writer is expected to
say to what extent the study has responded to that gap or solved that problem.

Glasman-deal, Hilary. Science Research Writing: for Native and Non-Native Speakers of English (Second Edition),
w 192
World Scientific Publishing UK Limited, 2020. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/kth/detail.action?docID=6446571.
Created from kth on 2025-03-21 08:56:33.

b3779_Unit-04.indd 192 02-11-2020 3.05.56 PM

 “9x6” b3779 Science Research Writing

How to Write the Discussion

Block 2 presents a research map that identifies key studies and contributions.
In the Discussion the current study is positioned in relation to that research
map.
Block 1 provides an interface between the outside world and the research
article that prepares the reader to ‘cross the border’ into the article by
establishing that the topic is significant, providing background information
and/or identifying the current focus of research. The end of the Discussion
creates a similar interface, preparing the reader to exit the article and carry
the key message to the outside world and/or the research world.
The diagram below shows how the Introduction and the Discussion mirror
each other:

THE FIELD/TOPIC
EXISTING
RESEARCH/KNOWLEDGE
GAP
YOUR PAPER/STUDY
Copyright © 2020. World Scientific Publishing UK Limited. All rights reserved.

REVISIT YOUR PAPER/STUDY

YOUR RESPONSE TO GAP
MAP YOUR STUDY TO EXISTING
RESEARCH/KNOWLEDGE
YOUR CONTRIBUTION TO THE
FIELD/TOPIC

4.2.1 E
 XERCISE 1: Using your own target articles to build a
Discussion model

In this Unit you are encouraged to use the reverse-engineering approach to

build a model that represents the Discussion section in current research
articles in your field that deal with your own research topic.
With the above symmetrical diagram in mind, generate a list of potential
components by reverse engineering the Discussion sections of your target
Glasman-deal, Hilary. Science Research Writing: for Native and Non-Native Speakers of English (Second Edition),
193 v
World Scientific Publishing UK Limited, 2020. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/kth/detail.action?docID=6446571.
Created from kth on 2025-03-21 08:56:33.

b3779_Unit-04.indd 193 02-11-2020 3.05.57 PM

 “9x6”
b3779 Science Research Writing

Science Research Writing

articles. To create this list, write a brief description of the function of each
sentence in the Discussion section of at least TWO target articles. When you
have finished, read the analysis of the simplified Discussion section below, and
then compare your list with the generic model on page 208. Some components
in your list will be similar to those in the generic model; others will be specific
to the research topic you are dealing with, the current conventions of your
field, or the type of article you are writing. Integrate your list with the generic
list to produce a robust set of model components for the Discussion section in
your current research area, and adapt or update this as necessary.

An assessment of post V2D sequelae in disease survivors

Discussion
1 To our knowledge, the study reported here is the largest study of
patients who have survived the viral disease V2D, and provides a key
contribution to the understanding of post-V2D health issues following
infection. 2 Our study is the first to record a wide range of post-V2D
complications, and provides clear evidence that survivors who
Copyright © 2020. World Scientific Publishing UK Limited. All rights reserved.

experience a given symptom during V2D infection often present with a

closely-related symptom within 300 days following infection. 3 This was
particularly true in relation to some specific complications, such as
hearing loss (Fig. 1). 4 A key finding was that some post-V2D health
issues appear to be age-related: infants below the age of 2 experienced
post-V2D cardiac complications far less frequently than adults
irrespective of the severity of such complications during the acute stage
(Figs. 2a and 2b). 5 This has clear implications for post-V2D-related
public health management, and suggests that when resources are
limited, cardiac screening priority could be given to adults.
6 Some questions remain; for example, anecdotal evidence
collected from patients during the study period suggested that there
was a positive correlation between viral load at the acute stage and
the severity of post-V2D health issues. 7 However, this was not addressed
formally during the study. 8 Although many studies have quantified
viral load during acute V2D17,22,27,33, a direct comparison with the

Glasman-deal, Hilary. Science Research Writing: for Native and Non-Native Speakers of English (Second Edition),
w 194
World Scientific Publishing UK Limited, 2020. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/kth/detail.action?docID=6446571.
Created from kth on 2025-03-21 08:56:33.

b3779_Unit-04.indd 194 02-11-2020 3.05.57 PM

 “9x6” b3779 Science Research Writing

How to Write the Discussion

post-viral period would provide valuable data to support such a

correlation.
9 V2D RNA is known to persist in the bodies of survivors long after
disease onset30,42, and the results of our study provide compelling
evidence that follow-up of all convalescent patients is warranted for at
least 10 months after discharge from hospital. 10 In addition, the study
provides evidence-based guidance for pragmatic public health
recommendations that include age-related follow-up and treatment of
post-V2D complications.

4.2.2 Key

In Sentence 1 To our knowledge, the study reported here is the largest

study of patients who have survived the viral disease V2D, and provides
a key contribution to the understanding of post-V2D health issues
following infection. the writer explicitly identifies the contribution of
Copyright © 2020. World Scientific Publishing UK Limited. All rights reserved.

the study in relation to the existing literature and knowledge.

Doesn’t ‘to our knowledge’ sound a bit weak? Aren’t I supposed to know
whether it is the largest study or not?
In Sentence 1, the writer includes the phrase to our knowledge in case a study
has been overlooked accidentally. Even after every effort has been made to
search all relevant journals, it is difficult to be absolutely sure that no-one has
ever done a particular type of study until now. Immediately before submission
you should check current research as thoroughly as possible, using a wide
range of keywords. The information you get from the internet will only be as
good as your skill in looking for it, and it is unprofessional to make a mistake
in a sentence like this. Research develops and is published at a very fast rate,
and during the time it takes to submit to your target journal/receive peer
review/redraft and resubmit, it is possible that similar research may have been
published. If that is the case, don’t panic. It may only be necessary to review
and clarify the similarities and differences between your study and others in
order to separate and identify the contribution yours makes to the topic.
Glasman-deal, Hilary. Science Research Writing: for Native and Non-Native Speakers of English (Second Edition),
195 v
World Scientific Publishing UK Limited, 2020. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/kth/detail.action?docID=6446571.
Created from kth on 2025-03-21 08:56:33.

b3779_Unit-04.indd 195 02-11-2020 3.05.57 PM

 “9x6”
b3779 Science Research Writing

Science Research Writing

Why begin the Discussion with this?

In the Methods and Results subsections, the writer can create a reader-
friendly entry by beginning with a general statement about the content of
that subsection. For example, in Unit 3 we saw that writers sometimes begin
the Results section with a general statement about the results. However,
although some Discussion sections do begin with a general statement about
what the Discussion will contain, this is not common. In most cases, the
Discussion begins in one of the following two ways, both of which create a
clear path to the destination or take-home message of the article:

1. Identifying the achievement, contribution or potential applications

of the study
The achievement, contribution, potential applications and impact of
the study are key factors in relation to research funding and professional
reputation, and this is driving a trend towards transparent and unambiguous
statements about impact in the Abstract and the Discussion/Conclusion.
Identifying the achievement, contribution or potential applications at the
start of the Discussion sets up a thematic framework that keeps the impact
firmly in your own mind as well as in the mind of the reader. The achievement
Copyright © 2020. World Scientific Publishing UK Limited. All rights reserved.

may be obvious to you and to your immediate colleagues, but it is by no

means certain that it will be obvious to all readers, particularly interdisciplinary
readers.
Another reason for identifying the impact or value of the study early in
the Discussion is that the reader may have a simple question that is governing
a fast and highly selective reading of the article, such as What exactly did this
study manage to achieve? or How does this study affect my own research?
The reader may be an interdisciplinary reader with minimal knowledge of
the technical aspects of the study, whose question is a more practical one:
What are the potential applications of these findings? Beginning the
Discussion by stating the achievement, contribution or potential applications
is a strong response to this type of information-surfing.

2. ‘Rebooting’ the reader by:

• revisiting relevant background factual information.
• revisiting the gap in the literature or the aim of the study.
• revisiting key features of results or methods.
Glasman-deal, Hilary. Science Research Writing: for Native and Non-Native Speakers of English (Second Edition),
w 196
World Scientific Publishing UK Limited, 2020. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/kth/detail.action?docID=6446571.
Created from kth on 2025-03-21 08:56:33.

b3779_Unit-04.indd 196 02-11-2020 3.05.57 PM

 “9x6” b3779 Science Research Writing

How to Write the Discussion

As discussed in the Preface, most readers don’t read the entire research article
linearly from beginning to end. Many only read the Title, Abstract and
Discussion/Conclusion, and these need to be viable as standalone, independent
communications. In addition, even if the reader has read the entire article up
to this point, it should not be assumed that they have read it with the same
focus and concentration as the writer, or that they remember everything they
have read. For these reasons, writers often re-position or reboot the reader
at the start of the Discussion section by restating relevant aspects of the study.

If I decide to ‘reboot’ the reader, how do I choose which part/s of the article
to revisit?
The success of the Discussion relies on a controlling narrative that clearly
identifies the primary value of the study, and that takes the reader logically
and effectively to the Conclusion. That narrative begins with the first sentence
of the Discussion, so thinking about the main achievement or contribution of
your study (see Section 4.1.1) may help you decide what to focus on first. For
example, if the main contribution of your study is the change or modification
you have made to an existing method, you might begin by revisiting the
difficulties associated with that existing method, or by revisiting the key features
Copyright © 2020. World Scientific Publishing UK Limited. All rights reserved.

and comparative advantages of your new method. If the main achievement

of your study is that your results are more accurate than existing results, or
reveal new information, you may begin by revisiting your results. If the main
contribution of your study is that it provides a strong response to the gap or
problem identified in the Introduction, you may begin by revisiting that gap.
Using similar sentences to those in the section you have chosen to revisit
will provide an echo for the reader and will help them recall or find that
section. As always, reverse engineer by looking at how writers in your target
journals start the Discussion section.

In Sentence 2 Our study is the first to record a wide range of post-V2D

complications, and provides clear evidence that survivors who
experience a given symptom during V2D infection often present with a
closely-related symptom within 300 days following infection. the writer
identifies the specific novel feature of the study in relation to the
existing literature, and summarises the results.

Glasman-deal, Hilary. Science Research Writing: for Native and Non-Native Speakers of English (Second Edition),
197 v
World Scientific Publishing UK Limited, 2020. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/kth/detail.action?docID=6446571.
Created from kth on 2025-03-21 08:56:33.

b3779_Unit-04.indd 197 02-11-2020 3.05.57 PM

 “9x6”
b3779 Science Research Writing

Science Research Writing

In what way might my study fit into the existing literature?

Mapping the study onto the existing literature and knowledge identifies where
your ‘product’ sits in the research ‘market’. Mapping is a central function of
the Discussion and demonstrates how the study moves the research topic
forward. For example, your method may generate results faster than previous
methods, which could affect the status of those methods and their application.
Your study may confirm results obtained in a previous study, which would
validate that study, and perhaps also its conclusions. Alternatively, your study
may contradict results obtained in a previous study, which would raise a
question about those results and potentially set a new direction for research.

How many citations should there be in the Discussion?

Citations are essential to position your study and separate your contribution
from previous knowledge. You can get a rough idea of what is normal for a
given topic in a particular journal by simply averaging the number of citations
in the Discussion sections of your target articles. Pay attention to the function
of each citation, its location, how often that particular citation is repeated, and
how each citation supports the Discussion. Every citation should be relevant,
and its relevance should be made explicit to the reader via the narrative.
Copyright © 2020. World Scientific Publishing UK Limited. All rights reserved.

In the example below, sentences that develop the relationship between the
current study and existing research/knowledge have been ‘lifted’ off a Discussion
to show how the narrative is constructed around the citations. It is particularly
useful to look at the way the sentences start, as these phrases develop the
relationship between the current study and the existing literature and knowledge.

We first demonstrated that ___________, consistent with the literature

(2, 4, 45).
In particular, ___________ was shown to___________ (40).
Regarding this concern, Söderholm et al. (45) reported that ___________.
In contrast, O’Malley et al. (34) reported___________.
To verify this assumption, ___________was used, as previously depicted for
___________ (7, 38).
Using ___________, Lai et al. (27) demonstrated that ___________.
As a result, ___________, as determined by Rahli et al. (36).
In line with this, a recent in vivo study by Wrzosek et al. (47) clearly showed
that___________.
Likewise, the role of ___________has been proposed by Gaudier et al. (18).
Glasman-deal, Hilary. Science Research Writing: for Native and Non-Native Speakers of English (Second Edition),
w 198
World Scientific Publishing UK Limited, 2020. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/kth/detail.action?docID=6446571.
Created from kth on 2025-03-21 08:56:33.

b3779_Unit-04.indd 198 02-11-2020 3.05.57 PM

 “9x6” b3779 Science Research Writing

How to Write the Discussion

Edited extract from: Stress disrupts intestinal mucus barrier in rats

via mucin O-glycosylation shift: prevention by a probiotic
treatmentq

Discussion
IBS is a multifactorial disease, frequently associated with psychological
distress and characterized by altered gastrointestinal motor function,
viscerosensitivity, and, more recently, low-grade inflammation and
impaired intestinal barrier function. Noteworthy, a positive correlation
between increased intestinal permeability and visceral pain has been
shown in IBS patients (2). Since stressful life events contribute to the
IBS symptom exacerbation, the most commonly animal models
reproducing “IBS-like” symptoms result from the use of central nervous
system-directed stressors (33). In this study, WAS was used as a reliable
model of chronic psychological stress. We first demonstrated that a
4-day WAS induced intestinal epithelial barrier impairment, consistent
with the literature (2, 4, 45). In particular, for WAS, colonic permeability
increase was shown to occur from the third day of a 5-day stress
Copyright © 2020. World Scientific Publishing UK Limited. All rights reserved.

application (40). […] information regarding the effects of chronic stress

on mucus barrier, a major actor ensuring intestinal barrier integrity,
remains scarce in IBS-like models. Regarding this concern, Söderholm
et al. (45) reported that a 10-day WAS decreased the number of
mucus-containing goblet cells in the ileum and colon and increased
bacterial adhesion. A reduction in the goblet cell number was also
depicted in the duodenum of maternally deprived rats (15). In contrast,
O’Malley et al. (34) reported an increased colonic mucus secretion
and number of goblet cells in maternally deprived rats.
[…] Larsson et al. (29) depicted in active phase UC patients an
altered Muc2 O-glycosylation profile, which was correlated with
inflammation severity. Such profile was characterized by changes in
the rate of glycanic structures and decreased overall sulfation (29).
More recently, the same group showed that mucus of patients with
active UC was penetrable ex vivo to 2-μm-sized fluorescent beads (24),
suggesting that biochemical changes in mucins impact mucus
“penetrability,” resulting in a loss of barrier integrity. In this framework,

Glasman-deal, Hilary. Science Research Writing: for Native and Non-Native Speakers of English (Second Edition),
199 v
World Scientific Publishing UK Limited, 2020. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/kth/detail.action?docID=6446571.
Created from kth on 2025-03-21 08:56:33.

b3779_Unit-04.indd 199 02-11-2020 3.05.57 PM

 “9x6”
b3779 Science Research Writing

Science Research Writing

we hypothesized that structural O-glycan alterations induced by stress

may in turn change the physical properties of intestinal mucus. To verify
this assumption, AFM was used, as previously depicted for the
characterization of conformational and hydrodynamic properties of
individual mucin polymers (7, 38). […] At the nanoscale, mucus has
been described as a heterogeneous mesh network of mucin fibers (41,
44). Using engineered nonmucoadhesive nanoparticles, Lai et al. (27)
demonstrated that the mesh structure of human cervicovaginal mucus
was more open (average pore size 340 ± 70 nm, range ∼50–1800 nm)
than the 15- to 100-nm pore size expected. […] As a result, the mucus
network may exhibit higher pore size and increased permeability
since, for a given porosity (in the range 0–0.7), the permeability of a
fibrous network is directly proportional to the square of the fiber
diameter, as determined by Rahli et al. (36) for porous media made
up of randomly packed monodisperse fibers.
[…] Direct or indirect regulation of glycosylation enzymes may be
a possible candidate. In line with this, a recent in vivo study by Wrzosek
et al. (47) clearly showed that commensal bacteria, such as
Copyright © 2020. World Scientific Publishing UK Limited. All rights reserved.

Bacteroidetes thetaiotaomicron, could directly influence goblet cell

development and enhance expression of genes encoding host
enzymes involved in mucin glycosylation, like sialyltransferase st3gal4.
In an in vitro study, Freitas et al. (17) deciphered the ability of a heat
soluble factor from B. thetaiotaomicron to modulate specifically the
galactosylation pattern of HT29-MTX cells, through a mechanism
involving posttranslational induction of glycosyltransferase activities.
Likewise, the role of other bacterial metabolites, and particularly
butyrate, as factors directly acting on mucin glycosylation has been
proposed by Gaudier et al. (18). […]

Glasman-deal, Hilary. Science Research Writing: for Native and Non-Native Speakers of English (Second Edition),
w 200
World Scientific Publishing UK Limited, 2020. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/kth/detail.action?docID=6446571.
Created from kth on 2025-03-21 08:56:33.

b3779_Unit-04.indd 200 02-11-2020 3.05.58 PM

 “9x6” b3779 Science Research Writing

How to Write the Discussion

Can I cite a study in the Discussion that I have not mentioned

earlier?
This depends on how relevant the citation is to your Discussion. Citations
that mention the interpretations of data in another study or applications
discussed in another study are highly relevant to the Discussion, and as such
could be mentioned there for the first time.

How do I know which tense to use?

Reverse engineering a recent target text will generate useful data about verb
tense in the Discussion. For example, the number of sentences in the Present
Simple tense that provide background factual information will give you
a good idea of how common — and therefore how necessary — such
information is for the type of study you are doing and the readership you are
targeting.

Why is Sentence 2 in the Present Simple tense?

Verb tense is often a matter of choice, in which case it reflects what the
writer wants to communicate rather than referring to when an event
occurred. In Unit 1 (Section 1.5.1 Verb tense choices) it was noted that
Copyright © 2020. World Scientific Publishing UK Limited. All rights reserved.

tense choice can communicate the writer’s confidence in the permanent

value or permanent truth of a statement. For example, if we were to rewrite
Sentence 2 above in the Past Simple tense (…clear evidence that survivors
who experienced a given symptom during V2D infection often presented
with a closely-related symptom following infection.) the sentence would
just describe what the authors found in their study. Using the Past Simple
tense implies that the results are linked to that study rather than being
presented as permanent, independent truths. By contrast, choosing the
Present Simple tense (…clear evidence that survivors who experience a
given symptom during V2D infection often present with a closely-related
symptom following infection.) empowers the statement, and reflects the
writer’s belief that the findings are reliable enough to constitute a permanent,
independent truth.

Glasman-deal, Hilary. Science Research Writing: for Native and Non-Native Speakers of English (Second Edition),
201 v
World Scientific Publishing UK Limited, 2020. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/kth/detail.action?docID=6446571.
Created from kth on 2025-03-21 08:56:33.

b3779_Unit-04.indd 201 02-11-2020 3.05.58 PM

 “9x6”
b3779 Science Research Writing

Science Research Writing

Unlike most decisions regarding the conventions of academic writing in

science, choosing which tense to use for communicating results and the
implications of results cannot really be resolved by looking at target articles
for guidance. In most cases, the writer needs to make his or her own decision
about whether the data is robust enough to support a statement in the
Present Simple tense. Notice that even when the Present Simple tense is
chosen, it is possible to include some disclaimers that mitigate the writer’s
confidence in or commitment to the statement: often present with a closely-
related symptom.

In Sentences 3 and 4 This was particularly true in relation to some

specific complications, such as hearing loss (Fig. 1). A key finding was
that some post-V2D health issues appear to be age-related: infants
below the age of 2 experienced post-V2D cardiac complications far less
frequently than adults irrespective of the severity of such complications
during the acute stage (Figs. 2a and 2b). the writer revisits the results
and comments on them (particularly true…a key finding was…appear
to be…far less).
Copyright © 2020. World Scientific Publishing UK Limited. All rights reserved.

I’ve been told that the Discussion section shouldn’t repeat the results. Should
I mention the results at all? And if so, how do I mention them without
repeating them?
There is considerable overlap between the Results and Discussion sections.
For example, as we saw in Unit 3, in the Results section most writers include
a comment about what the results suggest or imply although in theory, this
belongs in the Discussion. Equally, it is difficult, if not impossible, to develop
the implications in the Discussion without referring to or repeating key results,
since they provide the evidence that underpins and validates those
implications. However, repeating or even re-wording key results is not
sufficient; the Discussion should move on from the Results. The aim of
research is not simply to obtain and describe results; it is to make sense of

Glasman-deal, Hilary. Science Research Writing: for Native and Non-Native Speakers of English (Second Edition),
w 202
World Scientific Publishing UK Limited, 2020. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/kth/detail.action?docID=6446571.
Created from kth on 2025-03-21 08:56:33.

b3779_Unit-04.indd 202 02-11-2020 3.05.58 PM

 “9x6” b3779 Science Research Writing

How to Write the Discussion

those results in the context of existing knowledge, and to say something

sensible and useful about their implications, i.e. what the results mean in
that context, and how they relate to the original question, hypothesis or
objective stated in the Introduction. Saying what your results are is the
central function of the Results section; going on to talk about or explore
what they mean is the central function of the Discussion.
Reverse engineering successfully-published texts will help you avoid a
‘should I or shouldn’t I?’ dilemma, and will focus your attention instead on
what successful writers actually do. If you examine the Discussion sections
in your target journals, you will see that virtually all Discussion sections repeat
or summarise key results in order to anchor the interpretations and
implications.

What if I’m not confident about what my results mean?

Science research never reaches an endpoint where everything is known about
a particular topic. Most science writers are careful not to make over-confident
generalisations because the next piece of research will refine and develop
the preceding one, and so on. However, it is equally important not to
underplay the implications of your work just to be on the safe side, as this
Copyright © 2020. World Scientific Publishing UK Limited. All rights reserved.

undermines and diminishes it.

It is essential that the level of certainty you attribute to the meaning of
your results can be validated on the basis of those results and existing
knowledge. Choosing the appropriate language is critical here. If the language
you use to discuss the meaning of your results does not match or reflect the
power of the results this is likely to be a point of criticism at the peer-review
stage. You can choose language that shows you are confident about what
your results mean, or you can choose language that tells the reader you are
speculating about their meaning (see Section 3.5: The Certainty Continuum,
pages 183–186).

Glasman-deal, Hilary. Science Research Writing: for Native and Non-Native Speakers of English (Second Edition),
203 v
World Scientific Publishing UK Limited, 2020. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/kth/detail.action?docID=6446571.
Created from kth on 2025-03-21 08:56:33.

b3779_Unit-04.indd 203 02-11-2020 3.05.58 PM

 “9x6”
b3779 Science Research Writing

Science Research Writing

Why are Sentences 3 and 4 in the Past Simple tense? Is that related to the
level of certainty?
As stated above, the writer chooses a verb tense that reflects the appropriate
level of confidence or certainty.

How do the verb tenses in these sentences affect the reader’s response?
• A key finding was that some post-V2D health issues appeared to be age-
related…
• A key finding was that some post-V2D health issues appear to be age-
related…
• A key finding is that some post-V2D health issues appear to be age-
related…

It’s a good idea to highlight the verbs in the Discussion sections of your
target articles and consider how the tense affects your response as a reader.
Does the verb tense seem to ‘match’ the power of the results?

In Sentence 5 This has clear implications for post-V2D-related public

Copyright © 2020. World Scientific Publishing UK Limited. All rights reserved.

health management, and suggests that when resources are limited,

cardiac screening priority could be given to adults. the writer mentions
a potential application arising from the results.

Isn’t it better to mention potential applications at the end of the Discussion?

The end of the paper interfaces with the research world via suggestions for
future research, and with the real world via potential applications, so it is
certainly appropriate to mention applications at the end of the paper.
However, there seems to be a growing trend to state the main contribution
or applications at the start of the Discussion. In some cases, the potential
applications are themselves the main contribution of the study or a central
theme of the Discussion, which is a good reason for stating them at the start
of the Discussion. Check your target journal frequently to see how it is
responding to current trends and developments.

Glasman-deal, Hilary. Science Research Writing: for Native and Non-Native Speakers of English (Second Edition),
w 204
World Scientific Publishing UK Limited, 2020. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/kth/detail.action?docID=6446571.
Created from kth on 2025-03-21 08:56:33.

b3779_Unit-04.indd 204 02-11-2020 3.05.58 PM

 “9x6” b3779 Science Research Writing

How to Write the Discussion

Suppose my work doesn’t have any obvious or current applications?

Although many studies don’t have obvious applications, it’s a good idea to
check in two places before you give up on the idea. First, look at the
Introductions in your target articles as well as your own Introduction, because
the Introduction often mentions in what way this type of research can be
used. Another possible source is the Discussion or Conclusion section of your
target articles, as these may include speculations about potential future
applications.
Including potential applications shows the value of your study beyond
the aims of your specific research question. However, research has many
functions — it may clarify a theory, or it may simply add the next layer of
knowledge onto a developing field, so the type of research you do may not
have a clear application at this stage, or ever.

In Sentences 6, 7 and 8 Some questions remain; for example, anecdotal

evidence collected from patients during the study period suggested that
there was a positive correlation between viral load at the acute stage
and the severity of post-V2D health issues. However, this was not
Copyright © 2020. World Scientific Publishing UK Limited. All rights reserved.

addressed formally during the study. Although many studies have

quantified viral load during acute V2D17,22,27,33, a direct comparison with
the post-viral period would provide valuable data to support such a
correlation. the writer mentions a limitation of the study (this was not
addressed formally during the study) that leads to a suggestion for
future research.

How do I decide which limitations to focus on here? Can I mention the

limitations of the study for the first time in the Discussion?
Most limitations derive from problems or issues encountered during the
study, and these are normally mentioned for the first time in the relevant
subsection. However, in this case, the anecdotal evidence was not a formal
or intentional part of the data collection procedure, nor was it presented as
a result. It is linked to a suggestion for future research, and as such it is
acceptable to mention it for the first time in the Discussion.

Glasman-deal, Hilary. Science Research Writing: for Native and Non-Native Speakers of English (Second Edition),
205 v
World Scientific Publishing UK Limited, 2020. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/kth/detail.action?docID=6446571.
Created from kth on 2025-03-21 08:56:33.

b3779_Unit-04.indd 205 02-11-2020 3.05.58 PM

 “9x6”
b3779 Science Research Writing

Science Research Writing

Another possible reason for mentioning a limitation for the first time in
the Discussion is if you are finding it difficult to commit to your conclusions
because of the need for further work. This is a limitation that can be
mentioned in the Discussion and linked to an invitation to the research
community to continue and make further progress.

Why should I try to fix the direction of future work — why not let researchers
decide for themselves?
Good studies are rarely an end in themselves; in most cases, they open up
forward directions for research. Inviting the research community to follow
your work in a specific way has many advantages. First, it provides researchers
with a rational, defined project, which is more attractive than a vague
suggestion and therefore more likely to be carried out. Second, it encourages
a line of direct continuity from your research. Studies that follow from your
own will cite your paper, which enhances the status of your study. In addition,
a study which responds to difficulties or limitations that you encountered
may provide you with useful data for your current and future work. The
obvious question at this point therefore is: where should the research go
next?
Copyright © 2020. World Scientific Publishing UK Limited. All rights reserved.

In Sentence 9 V2D RNA is known to persist in the bodies of survivors

long after disease onset30,42, and the results of our study provide
compelling evidence that follow-up of all convalescent patients is
warranted for at least 10 months after discharge from hospital. the
writer mentions background factual information in the literature (is
known to persist) to support the conclusions of the study.

Do I really need to add more background information even at this late

stage?
As stated above, paying attention to the function of each citation in the
Discussion section of your target articles, its location, and how it supports the
Discussion will give you a benchmark for current writing in your field. The
number and location of sentences in the Present Simple that cite background
factual information will give you a good idea of how common — and how
necessary — such information is at each point in the Discussion section.

Glasman-deal, Hilary. Science Research Writing: for Native and Non-Native Speakers of English (Second Edition),
w 206
World Scientific Publishing UK Limited, 2020. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/kth/detail.action?docID=6446571.
Created from kth on 2025-03-21 08:56:33.

b3779_Unit-04.indd 206 02-11-2020 3.05.58 PM

 “9x6” b3779 Science Research Writing

How to Write the Discussion

In Sentence 10 In addition the study provides evidence-based guidance

for pragmatic public health recommendations that include age-related
follow-up and treatment of post-V2D complications. the writer closes
strongly with the applications of the study.

4.2.3 A Discussion model

Now compare the sentence descriptions below with the list you made in
Section 4.2.1, Exercise 1:

In Sentence 1, the explicitly identifies the contribution of the study in

writer relation to the existing literature and knowledge.
In Sentence 2, the identifies the specific novel feature of the study in
writer relation to the existing literature, and summarises the
results.
In Sentences 3 revisits the results and comments on them.
and 4, the writer
Copyright © 2020. World Scientific Publishing UK Limited. All rights reserved.

In Sentence 5, the mentions a potential application arising from the

writer results.
In Sentences 6, 7 mentions a limitation of the study that leads to a
and 8, the writer suggestion for future research.
In Sentence 9, the mentions background factual information in the
writer literature to support the conclusions of the study.
In Sentence 10, closes strongly with the applications of the study.
the writer

These can be streamlined to create a basic, generic Discussion model (see

next page). Integrate this model with the list of components you created in
Section 4.2.1 to generate a robust set of model components for the
Discussion section in your own current research area which you will adapt
or update as your research develops. The order of components is reasonably
fluid; however, those at the top of the list tend to occur early in the Discussion
while those at the bottom tend to occur later or towards the end.

Glasman-deal, Hilary. Science Research Writing: for Native and Non-Native Speakers of English (Second Edition),
207 v
World Scientific Publishing UK Limited, 2020. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/kth/detail.action?docID=6446571.
Created from kth on 2025-03-21 08:56:33.

b3779_Unit-04.indd 207 02-11-2020 3.05.58 PM

 “9x6”
b3779 Science Research Writing

Science Research Writing

GENERIC DISCUSSION MODEL

ANNOUNCE THE STRUCTURE OR CONTENT OF THE DISCUSSION SECTION

STATE THE ACHIEVEMENT/CONTRIBUTION OF THE STUDY*

REVISIT BACKGROUND INFORMATION/LITERATURE TO ‘REBOOT’ READER

REVISIT GAP/AIM/METHOD

REVISIT RESULTS AND EXPLORE THEIR IMPLICATIONS

MAP TO LITERATURE/KNOWLEDGE FOR COMPARISON/SUPPORT

IDENTIFY POTENTIAL LIMITATIONS AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE WORK

RESTATE THE ACHIEVEMENT/CONTRIBUTION/IMPACT OF THE STUDY

IDENTIFY POTENTIAL APPLICATIONS

*Note: The ACHIEVEMENT/CONTRIBUTION of the study is the most free-flowing
component — in some cases it occurs both at the start and at the end, as in this model;
in others it occurs throughout the Discussion.

Is there a difference between the ACHIEVEMENT and the CONTRIBUTION?

Sometimes they are the same thing. The achievement is internal to the study
Copyright © 2020. World Scientific Publishing UK Limited. All rights reserved.

and is linked to the success of resolving the specific research question stated
in the Introduction. For example, if the study aimed to identify something,
then identifying it is the achievement of the study. It’s easier for the reader
to track this if the writer uses the same verb, rather than switch to a so-called
synonym such as find or detect. The contribution is more outward-facing,
essentially how the study affects the real or research world in terms of
applications or knowledge.

Glasman-deal, Hilary. Science Research Writing: for Native and Non-Native Speakers of English (Second Edition),
w 208
World Scientific Publishing UK Limited, 2020. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/kth/detail.action?docID=6446571.
Created from kth on 2025-03-21 08:56:33.

b3779_Unit-04.indd 208 02-11-2020 3.05.58 PM

 “9x6” b3779 Science Research Writing

How to Write the Discussion

4.3. Testing and Adjusting the Basic Generic Model

4.3.1 A demonstration of the model

Identify the model components in the Discussion section below. Language

that exemplifies the model components is in bold type. Notice how the model
creates a narrative framework for the Discussion.

Rapid alloy prototyping: compositional and thermo-mechanical

high throughput bulk combinatorial design of structural materials
based on the example of 30Mn–1.2C–xAl triplex steelsp

5. Discussion
5.1 Microstructure and mechanical properties of the 30Mn–1.2C–xAl
steels
The novel bulk RAP approach introduced in this work provides, for
the first time, a systematic evaluation of the compositional and thermo-
mechanical trends associated with a change in the Al content of a group
Copyright © 2020. World Scientific Publishing UK Limited. All rights reserved.

of Triplex steels with high Mn and C concentrations. We observed that

without the addition of Al to the 30Mn–1.2C steels the most favourable
mechanical properties were obtained for the as-homogenised state
(Figs. 2 and 3a). The observed properties are in reasonable agreement
with data reported for Mn–C alloyed TWIP steels of a similar chemical
composition [27, 28]. The observed embrittlement during ageing can
be related to the formation of the coarse, pearlitic particles on the
grain boundaries [27] (Fig. 5a).
High amounts of Al ( ~8 wt.%), on the other hand, result in
pronounced strengthening during ageing, depending on the time and
temperature (Figs. 2 and 3c), and no coarse particles could be observed
in this case (Fig. 5c). In the light of previous results this typical
precipitation hardening behaviour, which allows tuning of the strength
and ductility, can be explained by the formation and growth of j carbides
during ageing [17, 18, 21]. Due to their reportedly small size, which is
of the order of several nanometres, the j carbides could not be reliably
detected or identified in the high throughput RAP OM observations

Glasman-deal, Hilary. Science Research Writing: for Native and Non-Native Speakers of English (Second Edition),
209 v
World Scientific Publishing UK Limited, 2020. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/kth/detail.action?docID=6446571.
Created from kth on 2025-03-21 08:56:33.

b3779_Unit-04.indd 209 05-11-2020 7.19.18 PM

 “9x6”
b3779 Science Research Writing

Science Research Writing

conducted in this study. The darker particles visible in Fig. 5c might be

linked to j carbides.
Alloys with intermediate Al concentrations (about 2–6 wt.%) do
not offer mechanical properties on the same level compared with the
aforementioned extreme cases under their respective optimal
conditions (i.e. after the respective most suitable ageing treatments).
On the other hand, a much smaller influence of the ageing parameters
on tensile behaviour can be observed in these cases (Figs. 2 and 3b).
Within the limitations of this study (confined range of applied
heat treatments, OM investigations, etc.) this improved stability of the
mechanical properties during thermal exposure can be attributed to a
concerted formation of j carbides and grain boundary pearlite, balancing
the strengthening and embrittlement effects of intermediate amounts
of Al.
In general it should be underlined that detailed investigations of
the role of j carbides and pearlite particles on the deformation
mechanisms, as well as the precipitation type and the structural nature
of the j carbides (i.e. spinodal vs. nucleation/growth), require higher
Copyright © 2020. World Scientific Publishing UK Limited. All rights reserved.

resolution techniques, such as TEM or APT. Nonetheless, the mechanical

data on both RAP (Figs. 2 and 3) and conventionally synthesised and
processed alloys (Fig. 6a) are in good agreement with previously
reported values for Fe–Mn–Al–C steels [17,18]. The RAP results suggest
that future efforts regarding more detailed nanostructural investigations
should focus on such high-C triplex steels with high Al concentrations
(>8 wt.%), as they offer the possibility of covering the widest range of
mechanical properties via ageing treatments (scalability, Fig. 2) and
exhibit the lowest possible specific weight of all such steels.

4.3.2 EXERCISE 2: Identifying the model components

Here are two more Discussion sections from research articles in different
disciplines. They have been edited for length, and ellipses are marked as […].
In the first one, identifiers of the model are in bold in the first half of the
Discussion. In some cases, the verb is in bold to draw attention to the function
Glasman-deal, Hilary. Science Research Writing: for Native and Non-Native Speakers of English (Second Edition),
w 210
World Scientific Publishing UK Limited, 2020. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/kth/detail.action?docID=6446571.
Created from kth on 2025-03-21 08:56:33.

b3779_Unit-04.indd 210 02-11-2020 3.05.58 PM

 “9x6” b3779 Science Research Writing

How to Write the Discussion

of the verb tense. Underline the identifiers of the model in the second half
of the Discussion, and then underline the identifiers of the model for the
whole of the second Discussion.
Notice how the way the sentences start reveals the narrative scaffold
containing the information.

1 Sensory nerve induced inflammation contributes to heterotopic

ossificationr

Discussion

Heterotopic ossification is a disorder involving rapid bone formation within

muscle, tendon, and ligaments, adjacent to skeletal bone, and it has been
linked to an elevation in BMP2 signaling [Shore and Kaplan, 2010]. Further,
the incidence of HO appears to be dramatically increased in individuals who
have sustained traumatic injury to the nervous system [Forsberg et al., 2009].
Here we determined whether localized changes in BMP signaling, which lead
to heterotopic bone formation, can also alter peripheral nerve signaling through
induction of neuroinflammation. Our results suggest that in the presence of
Copyright © 2020. World Scientific Publishing UK Limited. All rights reserved.

BMP2, sensory neurons express mediators of neuroinflammation, resulting in

the recruitment of mast cells and remodeling of the nerve structure.
BMP2 has been shown previously to induce the expression of the
neuroinflammatory mediators, substance P and CGRP, in sensory neuron
cultures [Bucelli et al., 2008]. Here we quantified changes in these mediators,
in vivo, after delivery of cells expressing BMP2. We found a significant and
immediate elevation of both proteins, in relation to the control, which received
the same cells transduced with an Adempty virus. Interestingly, we observed
a strong correlation in elevation of these mediators, immediately following
our delivery of BMP2. However, as the process continued over time, we
observed a cyclical pattern in the expression of these mediators, with a
significant decline in expression on day 2, followed by a significant rise in
expression on day 3, and a trend towards another increase in expression by
day 6. Although BMP2 would presumably be expressed for the first 3–4 days,
prior to the rapid clearance of the cells [Fouletier-Dilling et al., 2007], the
kinetics of BMP2 receptor signaling in this model is unclear. Intriguingly, one
of the first steps is the rapid formation of brown adipocytes within the tissues

Glasman-deal, Hilary. Science Research Writing: for Native and Non-Native Speakers of English (Second Edition),
211 v
World Scientific Publishing UK Limited, 2020. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/kth/detail.action?docID=6446571.
Created from kth on 2025-03-21 08:56:33.

b3779_Unit-04.indd 211 02-11-2020 3.05.58 PM

 “9x6”
b3779 Science Research Writing

Science Research Writing

[Olmsted-Davis et al., 2007]. We have previously shown brown adipocytes

to be necessary for patterning of the new bone, by their unique capacity to
regulate the oxygen microenvironment, not only by stimulation of new vessels,
but also by uncoupling of aerobic respiration and ‘‘burning’’ of oxygen
[Olmsted-Davis et al., 2007]. The result of this uncoupling is a release of energy
as heat, which could potentially re-stimulate sensory neurons to respond and
release substance P and CGRP. This could potentially explain the observed
cyclical nature of the response, suggesting secondary or tertiary signaling
events.
Performing the assay in animals lacking TRPV1, we saw a significant
decrease in the volume of heterotopic bone formed, compared to animals with
functional TRPV1. The suppression, rather than complete ablation, suggests
that other TRPV family members present on sensory neurons may also
contribute to the induction of HO. Although we do not rule out alterations in
other peripheral nerve signaling to the central nervous system in these animals,
both substance P and CGRP were found to be significantly decreased in the
TRPV1 mice. We still observed a trend towards an increase in substance P and
CGRP upon addition of the AdBMP2 transduced cells. However, this was not
Copyright © 2020. World Scientific Publishing UK Limited. All rights reserved.

above the normal background levels observed in wild type mice, nor was it
statistically significant for CGRP, and the induction was over three folds lower
for SP, so it is unclear whether this contributes to HO. The result that BMP2
does not induce SP or CGRP in TRPV1 mice is not surprising, as it has been
previously shown that TRPV1 induces SP in response to capsaicin [Theriault
et al., 1979] and that TRPV1 also controls heat- and acid-induced CGRP release
from sensory nerves [Kichko and Reeh, 2009]. In addition, previous studies
have revealed decreased injury-induced neuropeptide release in TRPV1 mice
[Wang and Wang, 2005]. While TRPV1 is unquestionably involved in pain and
neuroinflammation, TRPV has also been found to be involved in diabetes
[Razavi et al., 2006] and obesity [Motter and Ahern, 2008]. Whether this is
by the same mechanism proposed here, or by alternative mechanisms, remains
undetermined. Consequently, deletion of TRPV1 could have additional
pleiotropic effects. TRPV1 mice receiving Adempty transduced cells did not
produce heterotopic bone, which is in line with our previous findings that
Adempty transduced cells have not produced HO in any animal model we have
tested [Olmsted-Davis et al., 2002].

Glasman-deal, Hilary. Science Research Writing: for Native and Non-Native Speakers of English (Second Edition),
w 212
World Scientific Publishing UK Limited, 2020. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/kth/detail.action?docID=6446571.
Created from kth on 2025-03-21 08:56:33.

b3779_Unit-04.indd 212 02-11-2020 3.05.58 PM

 “9x6” b3779 Science Research Writing

How to Write the Discussion

Mast cells are known to be recruited to nerves during times of

neuroinflammation. Upon degranulation, mast cells release a number of
digestive factors, chymases, tryptases, and other enzymes, which can cleave
proproteins, leading to their activation. These factors appear to be essential
for tissue remodeling of not only the nerve, but also other surrounding tissues,
including the vasculature [Johnson et al., 1988; Richardson and Vasko, 2002;
Kleij and Bienenstock, 2005; Schaible et al., 2005; Kulka et al., 2008]. Nerve
remodeling is thought to be part of neurite outgrowth, or the ability to remodel
and extend neurons. Perhaps this process is utilized to innervate the newly
forming HO. Alternatively, Adameyko et al. [2009] recently demonstrated the
presence of a stem cell population residing within peripheral nerves that would
migrate from the nerve to undergo melanocyte differentiation. We quantified
the number of mast cells after induction of HO and found a significant elevation
in this population within 48 h, when compared to tissues receiving the control
cells. We observed an upward trend in the number of mast cells on all days.
However, perhaps due to the immune response evoked to clear the injected
cells, there was also an increase in mast cell numbers in the control tissues,
leading to a significant difference only on day 2. Further, we observed the mast
Copyright © 2020. World Scientific Publishing UK Limited. All rights reserved.

cells, within the first 48 h, associating with the nerves and within the nerves,
as compared to control tissues where the mast cells were usually located
randomly throughout the tissues. It is intriguing that we observed the most
significant difference at these early stages, since this appears to parallel our
findings for the release of SP and CGRP within the tissues, suggesting mast
cells may be recruited after release of these factors.
[…]
We next looked at whether the nerve remodeling was releasing cells that
were essential to bone formation. As noted above, it has been previously
demonstrated that precursors in peripheral nerves are the origin of skin
melanoctyes. Therefore, mast cell degranulation, and subsequent nerve
remodeling, was blocked using cromolyn, and we observed a significant
decrease in HO. We next analyzed the nerves from these animals and found
an increase in cells expressing markers of early stem cells (nanog and Klf4).
These primitive markers were sporadic in the nerves of untreated animals, but
completely covered the nerve in the cromolyn treated animals. This not only
suggests that the early tissue changes lead to expansion of these cells, but also

Glasman-deal, Hilary. Science Research Writing: for Native and Non-Native Speakers of English (Second Edition),
213 v
World Scientific Publishing UK Limited, 2020. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/kth/detail.action?docID=6446571.
Created from kth on 2025-03-21 08:56:33.

b3779_Unit-04.indd 213 02-11-2020 3.05.58 PM

 “9x6”
b3779 Science Research Writing

Science Research Writing

that the pool size of these cells within the nerve of untreated animals is
extremely low, due to concomitant and rapid migration and differentiation.
However, blockade of these latter steps with cromolyn leads to accumulation
of these cells expressing primitive markers within the nerve. We note here,
however, that the mechanisms of cromolyn action are incompletely understood.
Although cromolyn is widely characterized as a ‘‘mast cell-stabilizer’’ (i.e., an
agent that blocks the release of mast cell mediators following appropriate
activation of the cell) that can suppress mouse mast cell function in vivo, its
molecular targets are neither fully defined nor restricted to mast cells [Galli
et al., 2008]. Moreover, while the mechanism of action of cromolyn mainly
involves mast cell degranulation [Cox, 1967], other mechanisms, such as
inhibition of neutrophils and eosinophil induced chemotaxis [Bruijnzeel et al.,
1990], have also been described.
To our surprise, we observed osterix positive cells on the nerve as early
as day 2, in the presence of cromolyn. There were also cells that expressed
primitive stem cell factors, which appeared to simultaneously express osterix,
suggesting that these cells are osteoblast precursors. The majority of osterix
positive expression was associated with the nerve. We also observed Klf-4+ and
Copyright © 2020. World Scientific Publishing UK Limited. All rights reserved.

nanog+ cells that were not associated with osterix, suggesting that these cells
may have other potentials. Besides osteoblasts, another possible fate of these
cells may be brown adipocytes, which we have shown previously to be critical
for reduction of the oxygen tension in the microenvironment for cartilage
formation [Olmsted-Davis et al., 2007] and for secreting VEGF for vessel
formation [Dilling et al., 2010]. It has recently been noted that the Misty mouse
phenotype [Sviderskaya et al., 1998], which is deficient in brown fat, is caused
by a mutation in dock 7 [Blasius et al., 2009], a neuronal factor that regulates
Schwann cell migration and neuronal polarity. It is intriguing to speculate that
brown fat progenitors may also reside in peripheral nerves, particularly since
TRPV1 responds to heat [Szallasi et al., 2007]. Additionally, it is interesting that
the mutation in a single neuronal protein, dock7, not only dramatically increases
HO in the Misty mouse [Olmsted-Davis et al., 2007], but also causes severe
osteoporosis in the skeletal bone (Rosen C., unpublished). Further, we previously
demonstrated the rapid formation of new vessels early after BMP2 induction
[Dilling et al., 2010], suggesting that several types of tissues are being assembled
simultaneously during this period. Osterix has previously been suggested to

Glasman-deal, Hilary. Science Research Writing: for Native and Non-Native Speakers of English (Second Edition),
w 214
World Scientific Publishing UK Limited, 2020. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/kth/detail.action?docID=6446571.
Created from kth on 2025-03-21 08:56:33.

b3779_Unit-04.indd 214 02-11-2020 3.05.58 PM

 “9x6” b3779 Science Research Writing

How to Write the Discussion

play a role in osteoblast lineage commitment of progenitors, suppressing the

adipose phenotype [Cheng et al., 2003]. Perhaps the early osterix expression,
4 days prior to the appearance of osteoid matrix, may be part of a regulatory
mechanism to preserve these cells for future osteogenic fate. Finally, although
not highlighted in this manuscript, we did observe osterix positive cells,  at later
times, in vessel-like structures that co-aligned with early endothelial markers,
such as flk 1, which we have previously identified as characteristic of this early
vasculogenesis [Dilling et al., 2010]. This notion supports the work of Lounev
et al. [2009], suggesting that osteoblast progenitors reside within the newly
forming vessels, have a Tie 2 marker, and are not derived from marrow [Kaplan
et al., 2007]. Other investigators have also provided evidence for this concept
of osteoblast progenitors being associated with the vasculature [Kolf et al.,
2007; Medici et al., 2010].
This study is the first step in identifying a potential direct role for the
peripheral nervous system in the induction of heterotopic ossification. The data
suggest that early neuroinflammation, elicited in the presence of BMP2, may
be capable of expanding a population of cells within the nerve, which can
migrate and potentially contribute to a number of structures, rapidly assembling
Copyright © 2020. World Scientific Publishing UK Limited. All rights reserved.

to produce HO. Suppression of these steps significantly decreases HO formation.

Although it is unclear what effects this may have on the adjacent skeletal bone,
the data suggest that there is direct communication with the hypothalamus,
which could, in part, signal to impact bone remodeling. Understanding these
earliest steps of HO will, for the first time, provide us novel targets for
therapeutic intervention, which may ultimately lead to effective treatments.
Finally, it is conceivable that such a mechanism could play a role in many other
disease states, including neurofibromatosis and vascular calcification.

2 Supervised learning in spiking neural networks with FORCE trainings

Discussion

We have shown that FORCE training can take initially chaotic networks of spiking
neurons and use them to mimic the natural tasks and functions demonstrated
by populations of neurons. For example, these networks were trained to learn

Glasman-deal, Hilary. Science Research Writing: for Native and Non-Native Speakers of English (Second Edition),
215 v
World Scientific Publishing UK Limited, 2020. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/kth/detail.action?docID=6446571.
Created from kth on 2025-03-21 08:56:33.

b3779_Unit-04.indd 215 02-11-2020 3.05.58 PM

 “9x6”
b3779 Science Research Writing

Science Research Writing

low-dimensional dynamical systems, such as oscillators which are at the heart

of generating both rhythmic and non rhythmic motion45. We found FORCE
training to be robust to the spiking model employed, initial network states,
and synaptic connection types.
Additionally, we showed that we could train spiking networks to display
behaviors beyond low-dimensional dynamics by altering the supervisor used
to train the network. For example, we trained a statistical classifier with a
network of Izhikevich neurons that could discriminate its inputs. Extending the
notion of an oscillator even further allowed us to store a complicated sequence
in the form of the notes of a song, reproduce the singing behavior of songbirds,
and encode and replay a movie scene. These tasks are aided by the inclusion
of a high-dimensional temporal signal (HDTS) that discretizes time by
segregating the neurons into assemblies.
FORCE training is reminiscent of how songbirds learn their stereotypical
learned songs35,46. Juvenile songbirds are typically presented with a species
specific song or repertoire of songs from their parents or other members of
their species. These birds internalize the original template song and
subsequently use it as an error signal for their own vocalization35–37,39,46–49.
Copyright © 2020. World Scientific Publishing UK Limited. All rights reserved.

Our model reproduced the singing behavior of songbirds with FORCE training
as the error correction mechanism. Both the spiking statistics of area RA and
the song spectrogram were accurately reproduced after FORCE training.
Furthermore, we demonstrated that altering the balance between excitation
and inhibition post training degrades the singing behavior post-training. A
shift to excess excitation alters the spectrogram in a highly non-linear way
while a shift to excess inhibition reduces the amplitude of all frequencies.
Inspired by the clock-like input pattern that songbirds use for learning and
replay35,36 we used a similar HDTS to encode a longer and more complex
sequence of notes in addition to a scene from a movie. We found that these
signals made FORCE training faster and the subsequent replay more accurate.
Furthermore, by manipulating the HDTS frequency we found that we could
speed up or reverse movie replay in a robust fashion. We found that compressing
replay resulted in higher frequency oscillations in the mean population activity.
Attenuating the HDTS decreased replay performance while transitioning the
mean activity from a 4–8Hz oscillation to a slower (≈2Hz) oscillation. Finally,
replay of the movie was robust to lesioning neurons in the replay network.

Glasman-deal, Hilary. Science Research Writing: for Native and Non-Native Speakers of English (Second Edition),
w 216
World Scientific Publishing UK Limited, 2020. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/kth/detail.action?docID=6446571.
Created from kth on 2025-03-21 08:56:33.

b3779_Unit-04.indd 216 02-11-2020 3.05.58 PM

 “9x6” b3779 Science Research Writing

How to Write the Discussion

While our episodic memory network was not associated with any
particular hippocampal region, it is tempting to conjecture on how our results
might be interpreted within the context of the hippocampal literature. In
particular, we found that the HDTS conferred a slow oscillation in the mean
population activity reminiscent of the slow theta oscillations observed in the
hippocampus. The theta oscillation is strongly associated to memory; however,
its computational role is not fully understood, with many theories proposed50–53.
For example, the theta oscillation has been proposed to serve as a clock for
memory formation50,54.
Here, we show a concrete example that natural stimuli that serve as proxies
for memories can be bound to an underlying oscillation in a population of
neurons. The oscillation forces the neurons to fire in discrete temporal
assemblies. The oscillation (via the HDTS) can be sped up, or even reversed
resulting in an identical manipulation of the memory. Additionally, we found
that reducing the HDTS input severely disrupted replay and the underlying
mean population oscillation. This mirrors experimental results that showed
that theta power was predictive of correct replay55. Furthermore, blocking the
HDTS prevents learning and prevents accurate replay with networks trained
Copyright © 2020. World Scientific Publishing UK Limited. All rights reserved.

with an HDTS present. Blocking the hippocampal theta oscillation

pharmacologically56 or optogenetically57 has also been found to disrupt learning.
The role of the HDTS is reminiscent of the recent discovery of time cells,
which also serve to partition themselves across a time interval in episodic
memory tasks58–60. How time cells are formed is ongoing research however they
are dependent on the medial septum, and thus the hippocampal theta
oscillation61. Time cells have been found in CA158, CA362 and temporally selective
cells occur in the entorhinal cortex63.
In a broader context, FORCE trained networks could be used in the future
to elucidate hippocampal functions. For example, future FORCE trained
networks can make use of biological constraints such as Dale’s law in an effort
to reproduce verified spike distributions for different neuron types with regards
to the phase of the theta oscillation64. These networks can also be explicitly
constructed to represent the different components of the well studied
hippocampal circuit.
FORCE training is a powerful tool that allows one to use any sufficiently
complicated dynamical system as a basis for universal computation. The primary

Glasman-deal, Hilary. Science Research Writing: for Native and Non-Native Speakers of English (Second Edition),
217 v
World Scientific Publishing UK Limited, 2020. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/kth/detail.action?docID=6446571.
Created from kth on 2025-03-21 08:56:33.

b3779_Unit-04.indd 217 02-11-2020 3.05.58 PM

 “9x6”
b3779 Science Research Writing

Science Research Writing

difficulty in implementing the technique in spiking networks appears to be

controlling the orders of magnitude between the chaos inducing weight matrix
and the feedback weight matrix. If the chaotic weight matrix is too large in
magnitude (via the G parameter), the chaos can no longer be controlled by the
feedback weight matrix1. However, if the chaos inducing matrix is too weak,
the chaotic system no longer functions as a suitable reservoir. To resolve this,
we derived a scaling argument for how Q should scale with G for successful
training based on network behaviors observed in ref. 1. Interestingly, the balance
between these fluctuations could be related to the fading memory property,
a necessary criterion for the convergence of FORCE trained rate networks65.
Furthermore, while we succeeded in implementing the technique in other
neuron types, the Izhikevich model was the most accurate in terms of learning
arbitrary tasks or dynamics. This is due to the presence of spike frequency
adaptation variables that operate on a much slower time scale than the
neuronal equations. There may be other biologically relevant forces that can
increase the capacity of the network to act as a reservoir through longer time
scale dynamics, such as synaptic depression and NMDA mediated currents for
example66–68.
Copyright © 2020. World Scientific Publishing UK Limited. All rights reserved.

Furthermore, we found that the inclusion of a high-dimensional temporal

signal increased the accuracy and capability of a spiking network to reproduce
long signals. In ref. 2, another type of high-dimensional supervisor is used to
train initially chaotic spiking networks. Here, the authors use a supervisor
consisting of O(N2) components (see ref. 2 for more details). This is different
from our approach involving the construction of an HDTS, which serves to
partition the neurons into assemblies and is of lower dimensionality than O(N2).
However, from ref. 2 and our work here, increasing the dimensionality of the
supervisor does aid FORCE training accuracy and capability. Finally, it is possible
that an HDTS would facilitate faster and more accurate learning in networks
of rate equations and more general reservoir methods as well.
Although FORCE trained networks have dynamics that are starting to
resemble those of populations of neurons, at present all top-down procedures
used to construct any functional spiking neural network need further work to
become biologically plausible learning rules1,5,8. For example, FORCE trained
networks require non-local information in the form of the correlation matrix
P(t). However, we should not dismiss the final weight matrices generated by

Glasman-deal, Hilary. Science Research Writing: for Native and Non-Native Speakers of English (Second Edition),
w 218
World Scientific Publishing UK Limited, 2020. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/kth/detail.action?docID=6446571.
Created from kth on 2025-03-21 08:56:33.

b3779_Unit-04.indd 218 05-11-2020 5.48.55 PM

 “9x6” b3779 Science Research Writing

How to Write the Discussion

these techniques as biologically implausible simply because the techniques

are themselves biologically implausible.
Aside from the original rate formulation in ref. 1, FORCE trained rate
equations have been recently applied to analyzing and reproducing experimental
data. For example, in ref. 69, the authors used a variant of FORCE training
(referred to as Partial In-Network Training, PINning) to train a rate network to
reproduce a temporal sequence of activity from mouse calcium imaging data.
PINning uses minimal changes from a balanced weight matrix architecture to
form neuronal sequences. In ref. 70, the authors combine experimental
manipulations with FORCE trained networks to demonstrate that preparatory
activity prior to motor behavior is resistant to unilateral perturbations both
experimentally, and in their FORCE trained rate models. In ref. 71, the authors
demonstrate the dynamics of reservoirs can explain the emergence of mixed
selectivity in primate dorsal Anterior Cingulate Cortex (dACC). The authors use
a modified version of FORCE training to implement an exploration/exploitation
task that was also experimentally performed on primates. The authors found
that the FORCE trained neurons had a similar dynamic form of mixed selective
as experimentally recorded neurons in the dACC. Finally, in ref. 72, the authors
Copyright © 2020. World Scientific Publishing UK Limited. All rights reserved.

train a network of rate neurons to encode time on the scale of seconds. This
network is subsequently used to learn different spatio-temporal tasks, such as
a cursive writing task. These FORCE trained networks were able to account for
psychophysical results such as Weber’s law, where the variance of a response
scales like the square of the time since the start of the response. In all cases,
FORCE trained rate networks were able to account for and predict experimental
findings. Thus, FORCE trained spiking networks can prove to be invaluable for
generating novel predictions using voltage traces, spike times, and neuronal
parameters.
Top-down network training techniques have different strengths and uses.
For example, the Neural Engineering Framework (NEF) and spike-based coding
approaches solve for the underlying weight matrices immediately without
training5,6,8,9,11. The solutions can be analytical as in the spike based coding
approach, or numerical, as in the NEF approach. Furthermore, the weight matrix
solutions are valid over entire regions of the phase space, where as FORCE
training uses individual trajectories as supervisors. Multiple trajectories have
to be FORCE trained into a single network to yield a comparable level of global

Glasman-deal, Hilary. Science Research Writing: for Native and Non-Native Speakers of English (Second Edition),
219 v
World Scientific Publishing UK Limited, 2020. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/kth/detail.action?docID=6446571.
Created from kth on 2025-03-21 08:56:33.

b3779_Unit-04.indd 219 02-11-2020 3.05.58 PM

 “9x6”
b3779 Science Research Writing

Science Research Writing

performance over a region. Both sets of solutions yield different insights into
the structure, dynamics, and functions of spiking neural networks. For example,
brain scale functional models can be constructed with NEF networks8. Spike-
based coding networks demonstrate how higher order error scaling is possible
by utilizing spiking sparsely and efficiently through balanced network solutions.
While the NEF and spike based coding approaches provide immediate weight
matrix solutions, both techniques are difficult to generalize to other types of
networks or other types of tasks. Both the NEF and spike based coding
approaches require a system of closed form differential equations to determine
the static weight matrix that yields the target dynamics.
In summary, we showed that FORCE can be used to train spiking neural
networks to reproduce complex spatio-temporal dynamics. This method could
be used in the future to mechanically link neural activity to the complex
behaviors of animals.
Copyright © 2020. World Scientific Publishing UK Limited. All rights reserved.

Glasman-deal, Hilary. Science Research Writing: for Native and Non-Native Speakers of English (Second Edition),
w 220
World Scientific Publishing UK Limited, 2020. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/kth/detail.action?docID=6446571.
Created from kth on 2025-03-21 08:56:33.

b3779_Unit-04.indd 220 02-11-2020 3.05.58 PM

 “9x6” b3779 Science Research Writing

How to Write the Discussion

4.4. Useful Words and Phrases

This section lists words and phrases for the Discussion section from analysis of
over 2,500 published research articles in different disciplines. The list only includes
words and phrases which appear frequently and are therefore considered normal
and acceptable by writers and editors. The list will also keep the flow of writing
moving. Underneath each list there are examples of how the words and phrases
are used in sentences, so look at the list and the sentence examples when you
are feeling stuck and can’t think of what to write or how to continue.
Language suggestions for many of the components of the Discussion
have appeared in previous Units. For example:

• A NNOUNCE STRUCTURE OR CONTENT OF see Unit 1

DISCUSSION SECTION
• [REVISIT] LITERATURE see Unit 1
• [REVISIT] GAP/AIM OF STUDY see Unit 1
• [SUMMARISE/REVISIT] KEY FEATURES OF RESULTS/ see Units 2 and 3
METHOD
• RESULTS + EXPLANATION see Unit 3
Copyright © 2020. World Scientific Publishing UK Limited. All rights reserved.

• RESULTS + INTERPRETATION/IMPLICATION see Unit 3

• LIMITATIONS see Units 2 and 3
When you revisit previous sections, don’t change the language or the
sentence for the sake of style. Your aim is to create an echo that will remind
the reader of what was said before, so repeating the same words and phrases
is advantageous. By contrast, changing the language can be a disadvantage,
since it places a burden on the reader to work out whether it refers to the
same thing. For example, if the aim of the study as stated in the Introduction
was to identify something, it is helpful to the reader if the same verb is used
in the Discussion to describe the achievement of the study.

4.4.1 Language task

EXERCISE 3 The following five model components occur for the first time in
the Discussion:

1 MAP TO LITERATURE/KNOWLEDGE
2 REFINE/EXPLORE IMPLICATIONS
Glasman-deal, Hilary. Science Research Writing: for Native and Non-Native Speakers of English (Second Edition),
221 v
World Scientific Publishing UK Limited, 2020. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/kth/detail.action?docID=6446571.
Created from kth on 2025-03-21 08:56:33.

b3779_Unit-04.indd 221 02-11-2020 3.05.58 PM

 “9x6”
b3779 Science Research Writing

Science Research Writing

3 ACHIEVEMENT/CONTRIBUTION TO LITERATURE/KNOWLEDGE
4 CURRENT AND FUTURE WORK
5 APPLICATIONS/USE/APPLICABILITY/IMPLEMENTATION

Look through the Discussion sections in this unit and in your target research
articles. Underline or highlight words or phrases that you think could be used
in these five areas, and compare your suggestions with the lists in Section 4.4.2.

4.4.2 Language for the Discussion section

1 MAP TO LITERATURE/KNOWLEDGE

an alternative scheme/strategy Verbs:

analogous to This study/These results
comparable to
consistent with challenge
contrary to compare well (with)
distinct from complement
entirely different confirm
Copyright © 2020. World Scientific Publishing UK Limited. All rights reserved.

equivalent to conflict (with)

except for contradict
fundamentally the same as correspond to
identical to corroborate
in accordance with differ from
in agreement with disprove
in conflict with expand
in contrast to extend
in good agreement (with) improve
in line with mirror
new/novel modify
previously described/reported/suggested pave the way for
rather than prove
recently provide insight into
significantly different (to/from) provide support for
similar refute
the first time/first of its kind resemble

Glasman-deal, Hilary. Science Research Writing: for Native and Non-Native Speakers of English (Second Edition),
w 222
World Scientific Publishing UK Limited, 2020. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/kth/detail.action?docID=6446571.
Created from kth on 2025-03-21 08:56:33.

b3779_Unit-04.indd 222 02-11-2020 3.05.58 PM

 “9x6” b3779 Science Research Writing

How to Write the Discussion

to the best of our knowledge, shed new light on

unlike substantiate
support
verify
Note: A simple comparative (e.g. stronger/more accurate/quicker) is also effective here,
and the GAP/PROBLEM language from Unit 1 is useful to recall previous/current knowledge
or show how the gap in the literature has been filled.

Here are some examples of how these are used:

· Rather than being excluded as is often suggested, the sulfate reducers

seemed to be thriving.
· The frequency domain algorithm proposed here resembles the so–called
Frisch Scheme approach.
· Unlike existing control schemes, in this scheme the parameters can be
freely changed during operation.
· This is in agreement with results from recent studies which suggest that
iron reducers can modify their rate of respiration.
· Our data therefore provide support for the theory proposed by Stephen
Copyright © 2020. World Scientific Publishing UK Limited. All rights reserved.

Robbins [Robbins et al., 2013].

· The presented structure-based approach complements existing
experimental methods.
· This study extends previous research by analysing corporate brand and
industry image simultaneously.
· These results are consistent with the theory that fungal infection leads
to plant death.
· The current study therefore both confirmed and expanded prior
research into these mechanisms.
· On the basis of these results, we challenge the assumptions made by
existing physical-layer security systems.

2 REFINE/EXPLORE IMPLICATIONS
A full list of language to communicate implications can be found on page 182
IMPLICATIONS AND EXPLANATIONS OF RESULTS. The list reflects the fact
that in the Discussion the implications are sometimes expressed in a more

Glasman-deal, Hilary. Science Research Writing: for Native and Non-Native Speakers of English (Second Edition),
223 v
World Scientific Publishing UK Limited, 2020. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/kth/detail.action?docID=6446571.
Created from kth on 2025-03-21 08:56:33.

b3779_Unit-04.indd 223 02-11-2020 3.05.59 PM

 “9x6”
b3779 Science Research Writing

Science Research Writing

abstract, general or theoretical way, or by using language that permits

evidence-based speculation.

plausible modal verbs (esp. may/might/could) Clearly,

potential Indeed,
tentative it is conceivable that… Perhaps
it is reasonable to assume that…
to hypothesise this is reinforced by…
to postulate this is substantiated by…
to speculate this points to…
to theorise we cannot rule out…

Here are some examples of how these are used:

· It is conceivable that such a mechanism could play a role in many other

disease states.
· We postulate that Brownian motion of nanoparticles in nanofluids
produces convectionlike effects at the nanoscale.
· A tentative explanation is that the colloidal system may be agglomerated
Copyright © 2020. World Scientific Publishing UK Limited. All rights reserved.

at that treatment level.

· We hypothesize that our work could serve as a catalyst for new forms of
real-time interventions.
· It is intriguing to speculate that brown fat progenitors may also reside in
peripheral nerves.
· However, we do not rule out the possibility of a reaction with
hemicellulose and lignin.

3 ACHIEVEMENT/CONTRIBUTION
It is essential to communicate the value of your study explicitly, and a
range of options is given in (i) Positive language (‘happy’ words). In some
cases, the achievement or contribution is extremely exciting or highly
significant. Science writing does not generally permit the use of the
exclamation mark (!), but there are many acceptable ways of communicating
that ‘wow!’ feeling, and these are listed in (ii) !-substitutes (‘very happy’
words).

Glasman-deal, Hilary. Science Research Writing: for Native and Non-Native Speakers of English (Second Edition),
w 224
World Scientific Publishing UK Limited, 2020. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/kth/detail.action?docID=6446571.
Created from kth on 2025-03-21 08:56:33.

b3779_Unit-04.indd 224 02-11-2020 3.05.59 PM

 “9x6” b3779 Science Research Writing

How to Write the Discussion

(i) Positive language (‘happy’ words)

accurate efficient reliable Verbs/verb prove
advantage encouraging robust phrases: provide a first
appealing entirely significant step
appropriate exact simple allow provide a
attractive fast smooth avoid framework
beneficial favourable stable compare well provide
clear feasible straightforward with evidence of
comprehensive flexible strong confirm provide insight
convenient important successful enable into
convincing intuitive superior enhance remove the
correct low-cost systematic ensure need for
cost-effective new unambiguous explain resolve
direct novel useful facilitate reveal
easy practical valid help to solve
economical precise valuable improve streamline
effective productive versatile is able to succeed in
realistic viable offer support
relevant outperform validate
Copyright © 2020. World Scientific Publishing UK Limited. All rights reserved.

yield

(ii) !-substitutes (‘very happy’ words)

compelling exciting powerful undeniable

crucial extraordinary remarkable unique
dramatic ideal superb unusual
excellent invaluable surprising unprecedented
exceptional outstanding striking unquestionably
perfect vital

Here are some examples of how these are used:

· This results in a cost-effective approach which significantly improves
scalability.
· We were able to demonstrate a striking difference between neonates at
high and at low risk of atopy.
· This work demonstrates that multimodel predictions can provide a
more reliable estimate of uncertainty.
Glasman-deal, Hilary. Science Research Writing: for Native and Non-Native Speakers of English (Second Edition),
225 v
World Scientific Publishing UK Limited, 2020. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/kth/detail.action?docID=6446571.
Created from kth on 2025-03-21 08:56:33.

b3779_Unit-04.indd 225 02-11-2020 3.05.59 PM

 “9x6”
b3779 Science Research Writing

Science Research Writing

· We describe not only neutral but also ionized systems with unprecedented
accuracy.
· The system described here enables fast and easy analysis of LRRC8
proteins.
· The study provides a first step towards a better representation of
southern African dust sources in dust emission models.
· We achieved outstanding performance compared to similar catalysts
reported in the literature.
· The rapid, easy-to-perform mRNA-based method presented here is a
robust approach to detect rare coding.
· The system described here provides novel means to systematically
study this in diseased tissues.
· A straightforward analysis procedure is presented which enables accurate
prediction.
· The model is thus both realistic and flexible, taking advantage of both
types of computational phantoms.
· The analytical method described here removes the need for difficult
and time‐consuming pre‐treatment.
Copyright © 2020. World Scientific Publishing UK Limited. All rights reserved.

4 CURRENT AND FUTURE WORK

a/the need for holds promise should be explored

at present possible direction should be investigated
currently research opportunities should be replicated
encouraging include… should be validated
fruitful starting point
promising the next stage further work is planned*
urgent we recommend future work/studies will*
we suggest is being investigated*
further work is worthwhile work is (currently)
needed would be beneficial/ underway*
future work/ useful work is in progress*
studies should would be of interest
*Note: These indicate that the writer is currently working on this; they are NOT suggestions
for research by others, or invitations to other researchers.

Glasman-deal, Hilary. Science Research Writing: for Native and Non-Native Speakers of English (Second Edition),
w 226
World Scientific Publishing UK Limited, 2020. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/kth/detail.action?docID=6446571.
Created from kth on 2025-03-21 08:56:33.

b3779_Unit-04.indd 226 02-11-2020 3.05.59 PM

 “9x6” b3779 Science Research Writing

How to Write the Discussion

Here are some examples of how these are used:

· Future studies should investigate whether reducing household air

pollution may lead to improvement in cardiac morbidity.
· Developing a model able to answer all these questions is an exciting
challenge for future studies.
· Future work should focus on a qualitative analysis of patient-reported
benefits of group therapy.
· Further work is in progress to determine whether a different drought
response could help these trees to survive.
· In the future, it would be of interest to develop a more efficient
numerical method for simulating these system dynamics.
· To support these findings, variations in cfDNA test performance should
be investigated further.
· Recommendations for future studies include an investigation of
polysaccharide redundancy during cell wall assembly.
· Work is currently underway to determine the extent of this genetic
control.
· Future research opportunities include improving the measurement of
Copyright © 2020. World Scientific Publishing UK Limited. All rights reserved.

sustainability indicators.

5 APPLICATIONS/USE/APPLICABILITY/IMPLEMENTATION

eventually to apply applicable

in due course to enable appropriate
in future to facilitate feasible
soon to generalise operable
to generate practicable
to implement practical
to lead to realistic
to operate/put into operation suitable
to produce viable
to realise
to serve as
to use
to utilise

Glasman-deal, Hilary. Science Research Writing: for Native and Non-Native Speakers of English (Second Edition),
227 v
World Scientific Publishing UK Limited, 2020. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/kth/detail.action?docID=6446571.
Created from kth on 2025-03-21 08:56:33.

b3779_Unit-04.indd 227 02-11-2020 3.05.59 PM

 “9x6”
b3779 Science Research Writing

Science Research Writing

Here are some examples of how these are used:

· The study provides evidence-based guidance for realistic public health

recommendations.
· The dissection protocol outlined here is appropriate for all long bone
analyses including ex vivo imaging.
· The approach presented here is also suitable for problems where
structural information is incomplete.
· The experimental paradigm outlined here could be used to evaluate
future robotic social agents.
· The proposed technique could be implemented widely within the
bioprocess industry, including in the production of antibiotics.
· Although it focuses on the specific case of supernovae, the concepts
presented here are applicable to other astrophysical cases.
· Our protocol will enable the transport and storage of samples, thereby
facilitating mitochondrial function analysis of liver biopsies.
· We see miR-CLIP as a broadly applicable approach that can be used in
conjunction with others.
· This work shows that low-cost air quality sensor networks are feasible
Copyright © 2020. World Scientific Publishing UK Limited. All rights reserved.

for widespread use.

· The data reported in this study could eventually lead to recommendations
to guide optimal Clozapine use.

Glasman-deal, Hilary. Science Research Writing: for Native and Non-Native Speakers of English (Second Edition),
w 228
World Scientific Publishing UK Limited, 2020. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/kth/detail.action?docID=6446571.
Created from kth on 2025-03-21 08:56:33.

b3779_Unit-04.indd 228 02-11-2020 3.05.59 PM

 “9x6” b3779 Science Research Writing

How to Write the Discussion

4.5. Language and Writing Skills: Modal Verbs

Section 4.5 deals only with modal verb usage that is relevant for STEMM research
writing or formal academic writing. Modal verb usage in informal or spoken
communication, such as the use of may for permission, is not included.
To find out how reliable your current use of modal verbs is, match the
modal verbs in Column A to their meanings in Column B. Most modal verbs
can be used to communicate more than one meaning, so fill in the blank
spaces with as many options as you can.

COLUMN A COLUMN B
The model is able to predict a wide range of experimental
data.
= The model ___________ predict a wide range of
experimental data.
It is possible that these interactions are the same for each
1 should species.
= These interactions ___________ be the same for each
Copyright © 2020. World Scientific Publishing UK Limited. All rights reserved.

2 must species.
The ratio is expected to remain constant if the expansion is
3 can
uniform.
= The ratio ___________ remain constant if the expansion
4 may
is uniform.

5 could It is obvious that this is the result of direct collision

between the electron and the nucleus.
6 need to = This _________ be the result of direct collision between
the electron and the nucleus.
7 might It is advisable to centrifuge the tubes before the
experiment.
8 have to = The tubes __________ be centrifuged before the
experiment.
It is necessary to centrifuge the tubes before the
experiment.
= The tubes _________ be centrifuged before the
experiment.
Glasman-deal, Hilary. Science Research Writing: for Native and Non-Native Speakers of English (Second Edition),
229 v
World Scientific Publishing UK Limited, 2020. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/kth/detail.action?docID=6446571.
Created from kth on 2025-03-21 08:56:33.

b3779_Unit-04.indd 229 02-11-2020 3.05.59 PM

 “9x6”
b3779 Science Research Writing

Science Research Writing

Now check your answers with this Key:

The model is able to predict a wide range of experimental data.

The model can/could predict a wide range of experimental data.
It is possible that these interactions are the same for each species.
These interactions may/might/could be the same for each species.
The ratio is expected to remain constant if the expansion is uniform.
The ratio should remain constant if the expansion is uniform.

It is obvious that this is the result of direct collision between the electron
and the nucleus.
This must be the result of direct collision between the electron and the
nucleus.
It is advisable to centrifuge the tubes before the experiment.
The tubes should be centrifuged before the experiment.
It is necessary to centrifuge the tubes before the experiment.
The tubes must/need to/have to be centrifuged before the experiment.
Copyright © 2020. World Scientific Publishing UK Limited. All rights reserved.

4.5.1 Using modal verbs in research writing

Science research is rarely conclusive; studies generally aim at achieving a

high level of certainty rather than irrefutable proof. Modal verbs such as may,
might, could, can, should, need to and must are used throughout the research
article to express levels of certainty and commitment. They are used in the
Introduction to offer hypotheses (could be due to…) and identify gaps (may
provide valuable insight into…); in the Methods section to validate choices
(this meant that we could measure …); and in the Results section to explain
results (this might have been affected by…).
In the Discussion section, modal verbs are used to perform a range of
functions, for example to communicate the writer’s belief that something is
a possible explanation, a potential application, an obvious interpretation, a
recommended direction for future work, or a probable implication. Here are
two short extracts from Discussion sections which show the prevalence of
modal verbs:
Glasman-deal, Hilary. Science Research Writing: for Native and Non-Native Speakers of English (Second Edition),
w 230
World Scientific Publishing UK Limited, 2020. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/kth/detail.action?docID=6446571.
Created from kth on 2025-03-21 08:56:33.

b3779_Unit-04.indd 230 02-11-2020 3.05.59 PM

 “9x6” b3779 Science Research Writing

How to Write the Discussion

… In the light of previous results this typical precipitation hardening

behaviour, which allows tuning of the strength and ductility, can be explained
by the formation and growth of κ carbides during ageing [17, 18, 21]. Due to
their reportedly small size, which is of the order of several nanometres, the
κ carbides could not be reliably detected or identified in the high throughput
RAP OM observations conducted in this study. The darker particles visible in
Fig. 5c might be linked to κ carbides.
Extract from Rapid alloy prototyping: compositional and thermo-
mechanical high throughput bulk combinatorial design of structural materials
based on the example of 30Mn–1.2C–xAl triplex steelsp

… Although it is unclear what effects this may have on the adjacent

skeletal bone, the data suggest that there is direct communication with the
hypothalamus, which could, in part, signal to impact bone remodeling.
Understanding these earliest steps of HO will, for the first time, provide us
novel targets for therapeutic intervention, which may ultimately lead to
effective treatments. Finally, it is conceivable that such a mechanism could
play a role in many other disease states, including neurofibromatosis and
vascular calcification.
Copyright © 2020. World Scientific Publishing UK Limited. All rights reserved.

Extract from Sensory nerve induced inflammation contributes to

heterotopic ossificationr

Using the appropriate modal verb in the appropriate tense is essential.

Incorrect, inconsistent, indiscriminate or careless choices make the take-home
message of the study unclear or ambiguous at this crucial point.

If you write:
The drop in pressure may have been caused by a crack in the pipe.
you are offering a possible cause for the drop in pressure; perhaps it was
caused by a crack in the pipe — and perhaps not.

If you write:
The drop in pressure must have been caused by a crack in the pipe.
you are saying that you are certain that the drop in pressure was caused by
a crack in the pipe, but you do not have evidence to prove it, perhaps because
evidence is impossible to obtain, or because it is so obvious that you don’t
need to provide evidence.
Glasman-deal, Hilary. Science Research Writing: for Native and Non-Native Speakers of English (Second Edition),
231 v
World Scientific Publishing UK Limited, 2020. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/kth/detail.action?docID=6446571.
Created from kth on 2025-03-21 08:56:33.

b3779_Unit-04.indd 231 02-11-2020 3.05.59 PM

 “9x6”
b3779 Science Research Writing

Science Research Writing

Being certain that something is true and knowing that it is true are not the
same. For example, we do not look at a clock and say I’m certain it is ten o’clock
or It must be ten o’clock; we simply say it is ten o’clock. Interestingly, we only
say It must be ten o’clock if we cannot see a clock — in other words, when we
lack empirical evidence. Although must seems to give the verb more power, it
also communicates an absence of proof because when we say we are ‘sure’
that something is true, we are also involuntarily communicating that we don’t
actually know that it is true.
The grammar and usage of modal verbs is complex and does not follow
regular grammar rules. For example, most modal verbs have more than one
meaning: should can mean either ‘advisable’ or ‘likely’. In addition some
modal verbs change their meaning in the negative: He must go home and He
has to go home both mean that it is essential or necessary that he goes home.
However, He must not go home means that it is essential that he does not
go home, whereas He does not have to go home means that it is not essential
that he does go home.
An analysis of current research writing suggests that using alternative
structures, e.g. it is possible rather than it may, is becoming increasingly
common, perhaps because of these complexities and the risk of communicating
Copyright © 2020. World Scientific Publishing UK Limited. All rights reserved.

the wrong message. Therefore, in the examples below alternative structures

with the same or similar meaning are given where possible.

1 ABLE

Present CAN The model can predict a wide range of

Simple experimental data.
= The model is able to predict a wide range of
experimental data.
Present CANNOT This system cannot identify other pathogenic
Simple bacteria.
negative = This system is not able to identify other
pathogenic bacteria.

Glasman-deal, Hilary. Science Research Writing: for Native and Non-Native Speakers of English (Second Edition),
w 232
World Scientific Publishing UK Limited, 2020. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/kth/detail.action?docID=6446571.
Created from kth on 2025-03-21 08:56:33.

b3779_Unit-04.indd 232 02-11-2020 3.05.59 PM

 “9x6” b3779 Science Research Writing

How to Write the Discussion

Past COULD The algorithm could convert unstructured data

Simple into spreadsheet format.
= The algorithm was able to convert
unstructured data into spreadsheet format.
COULD With a larger sample size, the method could
HAVE have identified more infections.
= With a larger sample size, the method would
have been able to identify more infections.
Past COULD NOT The robot could not react dynamically to
Simple (was not changes in the environment.
negative able to) = The robot was not able to react dynamically to
changes in the environment.
COULD NOT Without this data, we could not have detected
HAVE the contamination.
(would not = Without this data, we would not have been
have been able to detect the contamination.
able to)
Copyright © 2020. World Scientific Publishing UK Limited. All rights reserved.

· If you’re not sure whether to use can or be able to, use be able to — it’s
safer and less likely to be misinterpreted.
· If you need the future tense, use will be able to: The model will
eventually be able to predict a wide range of experimental data.
· could means possible as well as able, so consider whether using could
makes the meaning ambiguous.
· could also refers to conditional/hypothetical ability: If there was a 100%
uptake of the vaccine, this could (would be able to) prevent infection.
· be capable of is an alternative to can/could in some contexts.

2 POSSIBLE/OPTIONAL

Present MAY These interactions may/could/might be

Simple MIGHT the same for each species.
COULD = It is possible that these interactions
are the same for each species.

Glasman-deal, Hilary. Science Research Writing: for Native and Non-Native Speakers of English (Second Edition),
233 v
World Scientific Publishing UK Limited, 2020. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/kth/detail.action?docID=6446571.
Created from kth on 2025-03-21 08:56:33.

b3779_Unit-04.indd 233 02-11-2020 3.05.59 PM

 “9x6”
b3779 Science Research Writing

Science Research Writing

This intervention may/could/might lead

to effective treatments.
= It is possible that this intervention will
lead to effective treatments.
CAN The method presented here can/could/
may be extended to other systems.
= It is possible to extend the method
presented here to other systems.
Present MAY NOT These interactions may not/might not
Simple MIGHT NOT be the same for each species.
negative (but not COULD = It is possible that these interactions
NOT or are not the same for each species.
CANNOT; see
This intervention may not/might not
page 236)
lead to effective treatments.
= It is possible that this intervention will
not lead to effective treatments.
Past MAY HAVE This response may have/might have/
Copyright © 2020. World Scientific Publishing UK Limited. All rights reserved.

Simple MIGHT HAVE could have caused the reduction in the

COULD HAVE noise level.
(but not CAN = It is possible that this response caused
HAVE) the reduction in the noise level.
Past MAY NOT HAVE This response may not have/might not
Simple MIGHT NOT have caused the reduction in the noise
negative HAVE level.
(but not COULD = It is possible that this response did not
NOT HAVE or cause the reduction in the noise level.
CANNOT HAVE;
see page 236)

· The examples above show that in the Present Simple, may/might/could

refer to future possibilities (It is possible that this intervention will lead
to effective treatments) as well as current/permanent possibilities (It is
possible that these interactions are the same for each species).
Glasman-deal, Hilary. Science Research Writing: for Native and Non-Native Speakers of English (Second Edition),
w 234
World Scientific Publishing UK Limited, 2020. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/kth/detail.action?docID=6446571.
Created from kth on 2025-03-21 08:56:33.

b3779_Unit-04.indd 234 02-11-2020 3.05.59 PM

 “9x6” b3779 Science Research Writing

How to Write the Discussion

· might is slightly weaker than may, and it is less common in research

writing.
· Don’t use may/might/could just to stay safe or cover your back — if
you’re pretty sure about something and your results support your
interpretation, upgrade to phrases such as highly likely/probable/
almost certain.
· can is ambiguous and therefore risky. A sentence such as Particle
formation can occur in the boundary layer could mean any of the
following:
 Particle formation may [possibly] occur in the boundary layer.
 Particle formation is able to occur in the boundary layer.
 Particle formation sometimes occurs in the boundary layer.
Where there is a potential ambiguity, replace can with one of these.
· can is good for communicating options or choices: An X or a Y can be
used = It is possible to use either an X or a Y.
· can not does not mean the same as cannot! can not means possibly not
in the same way as may not or might not. It is used in structures such as
This can not only damage the sample, it may even destroy it completely.
Copyright © 2020. World Scientific Publishing UK Limited. All rights reserved.

By contrast, cannot means impossible (see page 236).

· could not, cannot have and could not have also mean impossible:
 This cannot be due to a change in pressure. (impossible)
 This could not be due to a change in pressure. (impossible)
 This cannot have been due to a change in pressure. (impossible)
 This could not have been due to a change in pressure. (impossible)

3 EXPECTED/LIKELY/PROBABLE

Present SHOULD The ratio should remain constant if the expansion is

Simple uniform.
= The ratio is expected to/is likely to/will probably
remain constant if the expansion is uniform.
Present SHOULD The ratio should not change unless the expansion
Simple NOT changes.
negative = The ratio is not expected to/is not likely to/will
probably not change unless the expansion changes.

Glasman-deal, Hilary. Science Research Writing: for Native and Non-Native Speakers of English (Second Edition),
235 v
World Scientific Publishing UK Limited, 2020. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/kth/detail.action?docID=6446571.
Created from kth on 2025-03-21 08:56:33.

b3779_Unit-04.indd 235 02-11-2020 3.05.59 PM

 “9x6”
b3779 Science Research Writing

Science Research Writing

Past SHOULD Our data suggest that the decrease should have
Simple HAVE occurred during the first year.
= Our data suggest that the decrease was expected
to occur during the first year.
Past SHOULD Our data suggest that corrosion should not have
Simple NOT occurred for at least two years.
negative HAVE = Our data suggest that corrosion was not expected
to occur for at least two years.

· should have often refers to something that didn’t happen, whereas

should not have often refers to something that did happen.
· was likely/probable and was not likely/probable do not refer to
whether something did or did not happen; they refer to the level of
certainty about a past event.
· ought to is the same as should, but it is becoming less common in
science writing, so examples are not given.

4 OBVIOUS/IMPOSSIBLE
Copyright © 2020. World Scientific Publishing UK Limited. All rights reserved.

Present MUST This must be the result of direct collision

Simple HAVE TO between the electron and the nucleus.
= It is obvious that this is the result of direct
collision between the electron and the nucleus.
Present CANNOT This cannot be a result of direct collision
Simple between the electron and the nucleus.
negative = It is impossible that this is the result of direct
collision between the electron and the nucleus.
Past MUST HAVE This effect must have been due to the
Simple increased rate of synthesis.
= It is obvious that this effect was due to the
increased rate of synthesis.
Past CANNOT This effect cannot have been/could not have
Simple HAVE been due to the increased rate of synthesis.
negative COULD NOT = It is impossible that this effect was due to the
HAVE increased rate of synthesis.

Glasman-deal, Hilary. Science Research Writing: for Native and Non-Native Speakers of English (Second Edition),
w 236
World Scientific Publishing UK Limited, 2020. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/kth/detail.action?docID=6446571.
Created from kth on 2025-03-21 08:56:33.

b3779_Unit-04.indd 236 02-11-2020 3.05.59 PM

 “9x6” b3779 Science Research Writing

How to Write the Discussion

· OBVIOUS/IMPOSSIBLE modals are used when you mean that no other

explanation is possible.
· must not means not allowed, it doesn’t mean impossible.
· have to is only used in spoken communication.

To understand the difference between POSSIBLY, PROBABLY and OBVIOUS/

IMPOSSIBLE, imagine that it normally takes a colleague about 20 minutes to
walk home from the lab. Has she arrived home yet? Well, without checking,

if she left the lab 18 minutes ago, she may/might/could be home

by now (possibly),
if she left 30 minutes ago, she should be home by now (probably),
if she left 50 minutes ago, she must be home by now (obviously),
…but if she left only 5 minutes ago she cannot be home yet
(impossible).

5 ADVISABLE/RECOMMENDED

Present SHOULD The tubes should be centrifuged before the

Copyright © 2020. World Scientific Publishing UK Limited. All rights reserved.

Simple experiment.
= It is advisable to centrifuge the tubes before the
experiment.
Present SHOULD The tubes should not be centrifuged before the
Simple NOT experiment.
negative = It is not advisable to centrifuge the tubes before
the experiment.
Past SHOULD We later realised that the samples should have
Simple HAVE been diluted with water.
= We later realised that it would have been
advisable/a good idea to dilute the samples with
water.
Past SHOULD The samples should not have been diluted with
Simple NOT water.
negative HAVE = We later realised that it was not advisable/not a
good idea to dilute the samples with water.

Glasman-deal, Hilary. Science Research Writing: for Native and Non-Native Speakers of English (Second Edition),
237 v
World Scientific Publishing UK Limited, 2020. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/kth/detail.action?docID=6446571.
Created from kth on 2025-03-21 08:56:33.

b3779_Unit-04.indd 237 02-11-2020 3.05.59 PM

 “9x6”
b3779 Science Research Writing

Science Research Writing

· should have often refers to something that didn’t happen, and should
not have often refers to something that did happen.
· ought to is the same as should, but it is becoming less common in
science writing, so examples have not been given.

We see from the above that should has two completely different meanings.
It can be used to communicate that something is EXPECTED/LIKELY/PROBABLE
and it can also be used to communicate that something is ADVISABLE/
RECOMMENDED. Here are some examples of each — can you separate them
into EXPECTED/LIKELY/PROBABLE and ADVISABLE/RECOMMENDED?

1. Each phial of cells should only be used once.

2. Vegetation productivity in tundra should increase if shrubs become
more abundant.
3. To avoid errors, the calibrated hygrometers should be kept at a
particular humidity.
4. Theorem 1 should not be used unless it is apparent that the
conventional assumptions are invalid.
5. This data should improve the accuracy of geophysical parameter
Copyright © 2020. World Scientific Publishing UK Limited. All rights reserved.

estimation techniques.
6. If extraction of the plasma cannot be performed immediately, the
sample should be stored in a deep-freeze.
7. An oil with added antioxidant should be used to prevent rancidity.
8. The introduction of carbon nanotubes as a structure element in
nanocomposites should improve the material properties.
9. Very alkaline soils should be washed thoroughly before using them for
analysis.
10. This data suggests that the birth rate should remain close to 50/1000
for the rest of the 20th century.
11. The bias is the same for all groups, and therefore should not change
the statistical results.
12. Graphical passwords should only be used with handheld devices.
13. All final solutions should be filtered through a fine-grain paper.

Glasman-deal, Hilary. Science Research Writing: for Native and Non-Native Speakers of English (Second Edition),
w 238
World Scientific Publishing UK Limited, 2020. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/kth/detail.action?docID=6446571.
Created from kth on 2025-03-21 08:56:33.

b3779_Unit-04.indd 238 02-11-2020 3.05.59 PM

 “9x6” b3779 Science Research Writing

How to Write the Discussion

6 NECESSARY/ESSENTIAL

Present MUST The tubes must/need to/have to be

Simple NEED TO centrifuged before the experiment.
HAVE TO = It is necessary to centrifuge the tubes
before the experiment.
Present DO NOT NEED TO The tubes do not need to/do not have
Simple DO NOT HAVE TO to/need not be centrifuged before the
negative NEED NOT experiment.
= It is not necessary to centrifuge the
tubes before the experiment.
Past NEEDED TO We found that the samples needed to/
Simple HAD TO had to be diluted with water.
= We found that it was necessary to
dilute the samples with water.
Past DID NOT NEED TO We found that the samples did not
Simple NEED NOT HAVE need to be/did not have to be/need
negative DID NOT HAVE TO not have been diluted with water.
= We found that it was not necessary to
Copyright © 2020. World Scientific Publishing UK Limited. All rights reserved.

dilute the samples with water.

· must not means not allowed, it doesn’t mean not necessary.

· did not need to usually means it wasn’t necessary, and we didn’t do it,
whereas need not have usually means it wasn’t necessary but we did do it.
· did not have to is less common in formal science research writing.

4.5.2 Modal sentences exercise

Rewrite these sentences using could, must, may, have to, should, can, might
or need to in the appropriate tense.

1. T his software is capable of distinguishing between different viruses.

This software _____________________________________________
2. It is possible that the fall in pressure was due to a gas leak.
The fall in pressure _________________________________________

Glasman-deal, Hilary. Science Research Writing: for Native and Non-Native Speakers of English (Second Edition),
239 v
World Scientific Publishing UK Limited, 2020. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/kth/detail.action?docID=6446571.
Created from kth on 2025-03-21 08:56:33.

b3779_Unit-04.indd 239 02-11-2020 3.05.59 PM

 “9x6”
b3779 Science Research Writing

Science Research Writing

3. It is essential to disconnect the equipment during repairs.

The equipment _____________________________________________
4. T his material will probably remain stable if it is kept below 30°C.
This material ______________________________________________
5. It is impossible that the contamination was caused by the presence of salt.
The contamination _________________________________________
6. Children
 are not able to use symbols to represent objects until the age
of 18 months.
Children __________________________________________________
7. It
 is possible that using a rubber seal will not prevent contamination.
Using a rubber seal _________________________________________
8. T he use of antioxidant compounds is not advised.
Antioxidant compounds _____________________________________
9. T his material is not likely to decompose if it is kept below 30°C.
This material ______________________________________________
10. It was obvious that the bicarbonate was produced by the mineralisation
of carbon.
Copyright © 2020. World Scientific Publishing UK Limited. All rights reserved.

The bicarbonate ___________________________________________

11. W
 e realised later that it was not necessary to expose the composite to heat.
We realised later that the composite ___________________________
12. I f we had extended the time period, it would have been possible to
produce more crystals.
If we had extended the time period, we _________________________

4.5.3 Key

1. This software can distinguish between different viruses.

2. The fall in pressure may have been/might have been/could have been
due to a gas leak.
3. The equipment must be disconnected during repairs.
4. This material should remain stable if it is kept below 30°C.
5. The contamination cannot have been/could not have been caused by
the presence of salt.

Glasman-deal, Hilary. Science Research Writing: for Native and Non-Native Speakers of English (Second Edition),
w 240
World Scientific Publishing UK Limited, 2020. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/kth/detail.action?docID=6446571.
Created from kth on 2025-03-21 08:56:33.

b3779_Unit-04.indd 240 02-11-2020 3.05.59 PM

 “9x6” b3779 Science Research Writing

How to Write the Discussion

6. Children cannot use symbols to represent objects until the age of

18 months.
7. Using a rubber seal may not/might not prevent contamination.
8. Antioxidant compounds should not be used.
9. This material should not decompose if it is kept below 30°C.
10. The bicarbonate must have been produced by the mineralization of
carbon.
11. We realised later that the composite need not have been/did not
have to be/did not need to be exposed to heat.
12. If we had extended the time period, we could have produced more
crystals.
Copyright © 2020. World Scientific Publishing UK Limited. All rights reserved.

Glasman-deal, Hilary. Science Research Writing: for Native and Non-Native Speakers of English (Second Edition),
241 v
World Scientific Publishing UK Limited, 2020. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/kth/detail.action?docID=6446571.
Created from kth on 2025-03-21 08:56:33.

b3779_Unit-04.indd 241 02-11-2020 3.05.59 PM

 “9x6”
b3779 Science Research Writing

Science Research Writing

4.6. Summary Discussion Exercise

Analyse the Discussion sections of your target research articles to determine

all of the following:

· The function of the first sentence.

· The extent to which the structure corresponds to or deviates from the
generic Discussion model on page 208.
· The amount and location of background factual information in the
Present Simple tense.
· The proportion of the Discussion that repeats/revisits the results.
· Whether the method is revisited in detail.
· Whether there is a clear link between the aim/gap stated in the
Introduction and the achievement of the study.
· The use of ‘happy’ language to explicitly identify the value/achievement
of the study.
· Whether there is a clear link between the literature/knowledge
presented in the Introduction and the contribution of the study to that
literature/knowledge.
Copyright © 2020. World Scientific Publishing UK Limited. All rights reserved.

· The number of citation references that map the study onto the existing
literature/knowledge.
· The use of risk-reducing language, including modals such as may.
· The extent to which limitations, weaknesses and discrepancies are
mentioned, the location of these, and the language used.

Glasman-deal, Hilary. Science Research Writing: for Native and Non-Native Speakers of English (Second Edition),
w 242
World Scientific Publishing UK Limited, 2020. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/kth/detail.action?docID=6446571.
Created from kth on 2025-03-21 08:56:33.

b3779_Unit-04.indd 242 02-11-2020 3.05.59 PM