MODULE 4:

Strength Theories

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CVEN 305
MECHANICS OF
MATERIALS
Compiled by:

Engr. Y. K. Galadima

January, 2015
 STRENGTH THEORIES
1.0 General Consideration
When structures are loaded beyond certain limit, they fail. The failure of engineering structures
depends chiefly not only on the properties of their constituent materials, but also on the
environmental condition and configuration of loading. The material properties are usually
determined from the result of laboratory experiments in which the test specimens are subjected
to simple stress condition such as the simple tensile test in which the value of the stress at yield
or fracture is determined.

To design members to perform structural functions therefore, the designer must have a clear
understanding of the possible modes of failure of the structural system and establish failure
criteria that is representative of the various modes of failure. Determining the mode of failure
requires an extensive analysis of stress to which the system is subjected to. Once the stress state
of a system is established, comparison is then made with the established failure criteria to
ascertain if the stress state is admissible.

1.1 Modes of Failure

When a structural member is unable to satisfactorily resist further increase in load, the member
is said to have failed. This failure may be due to one of the three general actions or behaviours,
namely;

1. Failure by Elastic Deflection. The maximum load that a structural member may be subjected
to without causing it to cease functioning properly may be limited by permissible elastic
strain or deflection of the member. Failure due to elastic deflection may occur under different
conditions, such as
a. Deflection under condition of stable equilibrium such as the stretch of a tension
member, bending of a beam and the angle of twist of a shaft.
b. Buckling or sudden deflection associated with unstable equilibrium such as occur
when the axial load gradually applied to a slender column at an eccentricity exceed it
Euler critical load
c. Elastic deflections in the form of the amplitude of vibrations. Vibration of structural
members may cause failure due to objectionable noise, shaking forces, collision of
moving parts with stationary parts etc.
2. Failure by General Yielding. This is the condition in which a member fails because a
considerable portion of it is subjected to inelastic (plastic) deformation. General yielding is
used here to differentiate it from localised or yielding of a small portion of a member.
3. Failure by Fracture. Sometimes, structural members ceases to function satisfactorily in
resisting further increase of load by breaking (fracture) even before either excessive elastic
deformation or general yielding occur.

2.0 Theories of Failure

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Engr. Y. K. Galadima Mechanics of Materials-CVEN 305 (Module 1)
Most metal are ductile and fail due to yielding. Hence, the yield strength characterises their
failure. Ceramics and some polymers on the other hand are brittle and rapture or fracture when
they are stresses beyond a certain maximum level. The stress-strain behaviour of brittle materials
is linear up to the point of failure.

Materials that are ductile yield not because of separation1 but sliding of the atoms. Hence, the
stress or energy required for yielding to occur is far less than the theoretical stress of the material.
In brittle materials however, failure occur due to separation of the atoms. Nevertheless, the stress
required to cause this failure is still much less than the theoretical strength of the material. This
is because the high stress value needed is already provided locally by stress concentration due to
small pre-existing cracks. Despite the research effort toward understanding the strength of
materials based on their atomic structure and properties, designing engineering structures on
the basis of the atomistic model of their materials are not practicable. Hence, recourse is made to
the phenomenological failure theories which are based on the laboratory experiments.

Figure 1

Based on the two classes into which metals are generally categorised, two broad class of failure
theories have been developed; those that deal with ductile materials and those that deal with
brittle materials.

𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 (𝑀𝑆𝑆)

𝐷𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑠 { 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 (𝐷𝐸)
𝐹𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝐷𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝐶𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏 − 𝑀𝑜ℎ𝑟 (𝐷𝐶𝑀)
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑁𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 (𝑀𝑁𝑆)
𝐵𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙𝑠 {
{ 𝐵𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑒 𝐶𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏 − 𝑀𝑜ℎ𝑟 (𝐵𝐶𝑀)

1 The stress required to break the atomic bond and separate the atoms of a material is called the theoretical
strength of the material and is demonstrated to be approximately one-third of the Young’s modulus of the
material. (T.L. Anderson, Fracture Mechanics – Fundamentals and Applications, Third Edition, CRC Press,
Boca Raton, FL, 2006)

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Engr. Y. K. Galadima Mechanics of Materials-CVEN 305 (Module 1)
3.0 Theories of Failure for Ductile Materials

Figure 1 shows a typical tensile stress-strain curve for a specimen of ductile steel as obtained
from tensile test. At the instance of yielding, the following six quantities are reached
simultaneously.

1. The principal stress (𝜎 = 𝑃⁄𝐴) reaches the tensile elastic strength (elastic limit or yield
point).
1
2. The maximum shearing stress [𝜏 = 2 (𝑃⁄𝐴)] reaches the shearing elastic limit or yield point
1
𝜏𝑒 of the material. Where 𝜏𝑦 = 𝜎𝑦 .
2
3. The tensile strain 𝜀 reaches the value 𝜀𝑦 .
4. The total strain energy absorbed by the material per unit volume reaches the value
1
𝑈𝑦 = 2 (𝜎𝑦2 ⁄𝐸 ).
5. The strain energy of distortion 𝑈𝑑 (energy accompanying change in shape) absorbed by the
material per unit volume reaches the value 𝑈𝑑𝑦 = [(1 + 𝜇)⁄3𝑒]𝜎𝑌2 .
6. The octahedral shearing stress reaches the value 𝜏𝐺𝑦 = (√2⁄3) 𝜎𝑦 = 0.47𝜎𝑦

As was mentioned above, these six limiting values occurs simultaneously in a uniaxial loading
condition, hence it is impossible to establish in a tensile test which one of the quantities is the
responsible for the onset of inelastic action.

In the case of a biaxial or triaxial loading condition, these quantities do not occur simultaneously
and it is very important for the design engineer to establish which of the limiting quantities is
reached first. This, will in turn determine the limiting load to be applied to a member without
causing inelastic action.

The six failure criteria enumerated above form the basis for the development of six theories of
failure. This implies that these failure theories are predicated on the idea that whatever is
responsible for failure in the standard tensile test will also be responsible for failure under all
other conditions of static loading

As mentioned in the beginning paragraph, the results from these experiments are usually
obtained by subjecting the test specimen to simple tensile compressive or torsion test. In practice
though, often structural elements are subjected to more complex or multi-axial loading
configuration where different stress types are induced. In order to apply the strength values from
these simple uniaxial tests to multi-axial state of stress, different strength/failure theories have
been developed to explain the mechanism of failure in multi-axially loaded structure.

Four theories of failure will be considered in this module. Two of these theories apply to ductile
materials while the other two are applied to brittle materials.

3.1 Maximum Shear Stress Theory

When a ductile material such as a bar is subjected to tensile test, it is observed that the mechanism
responsible for yielding is the slip, which is, shearing along planes of maximum shear stress at
45𝑜 to the axis of the member. If this slip is taken to be the actual mechanism of failure, then the
stress that best characterises this failure is the shear stress on the plane of slip.

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Engr. Y. K. Galadima Mechanics of Materials-CVEN 305 (Module 1)
 Figure 2 shows the Mohr’s circle of this uniaxial stress state,
indicating that the shear stress on the slip has a magnitude
𝜎
of 𝑦⁄2. Following from this, if it is hypothesised that for any state
of stress (uniaxial, biaxial or triaxial), failure occur when shear
𝜎
stress on any plane reaches the value of 𝑦⁄2 then the failure
criterion for the maximum shear stress theory may be stated as

𝜎𝑦
𝜏 𝑎𝑏𝑠 =
Figure 2 𝑚𝑎𝑥 2
1

Where 𝜎𝑦 is the yield stress determined from the simple tension test.

Thus, the maximum shear stress theory (also known as Tresca Theory) states that failure of
structural component occurs when the maximum shear stress in the component is equal to the
maximum shear stress in a uniaxial test at the yield stress. This theory is also known as the Tresca
Theory

It can be shown that the maximum shear stress can also be expressed in terms of the principal
stresses as

𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝜏 𝑎𝑏𝑠 =
𝑚𝑎𝑥 2
2

Combining equations 1 and 2 yields

𝜎𝑦 = 𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑚𝑖𝑛
3

Where 𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 is the maximum principal stress and 𝜎𝑚𝑖𝑛 is the minimum principal stress.

For the case of plane stress, the maximum shear stress criterion can be stated in terms of the in-
plane principal stresses 𝜎1 and 𝜎2 as follows

|𝜎1 | = 𝜎𝑦 𝑖𝑓 |𝜎1 | ≥ |𝜎2 |

} if 𝜎1 and 𝜎2 have the same sign
|𝜎2 | = 𝜎𝑦 𝑖𝑓 |𝜎2 | ≥ |𝜎1 | 4
|𝜎1 − 𝜎2 | = 𝜎𝑦 if 𝜎1 if 𝜎1 and 𝜎2 have opposite sign

Equation 4 may be represented in a convenient graphical form shown in Figure 3. For a body
undergoing plane stress, the state of stress at any point may be defined by a stress point (𝜎1 , 𝜎2 ) in
the (𝜎1 − 𝜎2 ) plane as shown in Figure 3. If the state of stress at any point in the body corresponds
to a stress point that lies outside the hexagon of Figure 3 or on its boundary, failure is said to have
occurred according to the maximum shear stress theory.

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Engr. Y. K. Galadima Mechanics of Materials-CVEN 305 (Module 1)
 Figure 3

For design purposes, the failure relation can be modified to include a factor of safety (𝑛):

𝜎𝑦
𝑛=
𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑚𝑖𝑛
5

3.2 Maximum Distortion Energy Theory

This theory (also called Von Mises theory) provides a better correlation with test data. In this
theory, failure is assumed to occur when the strain energy associated with the change of shape of
a body undergoing multiaxial loading is equal to the energy of distortion in a tensile specimen
when yielding occur at the uniaxial yield stress 𝜎𝑦 .

Consider the elemental volume shown in Figure 4-a. if we denote the strain energy density, that is,
strain energy per unit volume as 𝑢̅, then the strain energy stored in the element of volume 𝑑𝑉 is

𝑑𝑈 = 𝑢̅𝑑𝑉
6

For the triaxial state of stress shown in Figure 4, the strain energy stored in the element is given
by

1
𝑑𝑈 = [(𝜎1 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 × 𝜀1 𝑑𝑥) + (𝜎2 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑧 × 𝜀2 𝑑𝑦) + (𝜎3 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 × 𝜀3 𝑑𝑧)]
2
7

Comparing equations 6 and 7 shows that the total strain energy density is given by

1
𝑢̅ 𝑇 = [𝜎1 𝜀1 + 𝜎2 𝜀2 + 𝜎3 𝜀3 ]
2
8

Combining 8 with Hook’s law2 yields

1 1 1
2 Hook’s law:𝜀1 = [𝜎1 − 𝜗(𝜎2 + 𝜎3 )], 𝜀2 = [𝜎2 − 𝜗(𝜎1 + 𝜎3 )], 𝜀3 = [𝜎3 − 𝜗(𝜎1 + 𝜎2 )]
𝐸 𝐸 𝐸

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Engr. Y. K. Galadima Mechanics of Materials-CVEN 305 (Module 1)
 1 2
𝑢̅ 𝑇 = [𝜎 + 𝜎22 + 𝜎32 − 2𝜗(𝜎1 𝜎2 + 𝜎1 𝜎3 + 𝜎2 𝜎3 )]
2𝐸 1
9

A portion of this strain energy can be associated with the change of volume of the element (Figure
4-b)3 and the reminder of the strain energy is associated with change in the shape of the element
(Figure 4-c). Thus the total strain energy density 𝑢̅ 𝑇 is given by

Figure 4

𝑢̅ 𝑇 = 𝑢̅ℎ + 𝑢̅𝑑
10

Where 𝑢̅ℎ and 𝑢̅𝑑 are the hydrostatic strain energy density and the distortion strain energy
density respectively.

Substituting 𝜎1 = 𝜎2 = 𝜎3 = 𝜎ℎ into 9 yields

1 2
𝑢̅ℎ = [𝜎 + 𝜎ℎ2 + 𝜎ℎ2 − 2𝜗(𝜎ℎ 𝜎ℎ + 𝜎ℎ 𝜎ℎ + 𝜎ℎ 𝜎ℎ )]
2𝐸 ℎ
11

Simplify and substituting 3𝜎ℎ = 𝜎1 + 𝜎2 + 𝜎3 into equation 11 gives

3𝜎ℎ2 (𝜎1 + 𝜎2 + 𝜎3 )2
𝑢̅ℎ = (1 − 2𝜗) = (1 − 2𝜗)
2𝐸 6𝐸
12

The distortion strain energy density is determined from

1+𝜗
𝑢̅𝑑 = 𝑢̅ 𝑇 − 𝑢̅ℎ = [(𝜎1 − 𝜎2 )2 + (𝜎1 − 𝜎3 )2 + (𝜎2 − 𝜎3 )2 ]
6𝐸
13

The distortion strain energy density in a tensile test specimen at the yield stress 𝜎𝑦 is4

3 Figure 4 represents a hydrostatic state of stress, where the change in volume is produced by the average
stress 𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒 = 𝜎ℎ .

4 Since 𝜎1 = 𝜎𝑦 and 𝜎2 = 𝜎3 = 0
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Engr. Y. K. Galadima Mechanics of Materials-CVEN 305 (Module 1)
 1+𝜗 2
(𝑢̅𝑑 )𝑦 = 𝜎
3𝐸 𝑦
14

Therefore yielding occur when the distortion strain energy density given by equation 13 equals
or exceed the value of (𝑢̅𝑑 )𝑦 given in equation 14. Thus the maximum distortion energy failure
criterion can be stated in terms of the three principal stresses as

1
[(𝜎 − 𝜎2 )2 + (𝜎1 − 𝜎3 )2 + (𝜎2 − 𝜎3 )2 ] = 𝜎𝑦2
2 1
15

In term of the normal stresses and shear stresses on three arbitrary mutually orthogonal planes,
the maximum distortion energy failure criterion can be shown to be

1 2 2 2 2 2 2
[(𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 ) + (𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 ) + (𝜎𝑦 − 𝜎𝑧 ) + 6(𝜏𝑥𝑦 + 𝜏𝑥𝑧 + 𝜏𝑦𝑧 )] = 𝜎𝑦2
2
16

For the case of plane stress, the maximum distortion energy criterion is obtained by setting 𝜎𝑦 =
𝜎𝑧 = 𝜏𝑥𝑧 = 𝜏𝑦𝑧 = 0 in equation16. Thus in terms of principal stresses,

𝜎12 − 𝜎1 𝜎2 + 𝜎22 = 𝜎𝑦2

17

Equation 17 is the equation of an ellipse in the 𝜎1 − 𝜎2 plane as shown Figure 5. For the purpose of
comparison, the failure hexagon of the maximum shear stress failure theory is also shown in
dashed lines.

Figure 5

A convenient way of applying the maximum distortion energy theory is to take the square root of
both side of equation 15 to yield an equivalent stress quantity called the Mises equivalent
stress 𝜎𝑀 which is defined as the uniaxial tensile stress that creates the same distortion energy as
any actual combination of applied stresses.

𝜎𝑀 can be computed using any of the expressions of

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Engr. Y. K. Galadima Mechanics of Materials-CVEN 305 (Module 1)
 √2 1
𝜎𝑉𝑀 = [(𝜎1 − 𝜎2 )2 + (𝜎1 − 𝜎3 )2 + (𝜎2 − 𝜎3 )2 ] ⁄2 or
2
√2 2 2 2 2 2 2
𝜎𝑉𝑀 = [(𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 ) + (𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 ) + (𝜎𝑦 − 𝜎𝑧 ) + 6(𝜏𝑥𝑦 + 𝜏𝑥𝑧 + 𝜏𝑦𝑧 )]
2
18

By comparing the value of the Mises equivalent stress 𝜎𝑀 at any point with the value of the tensile
yield stress 𝜎𝑦 , it can be determined if yielding has occurred or not.

For design purposes, the Von Mises failure relation can be modified to include a factor of safety
(𝑛) such that
𝜎𝑦
𝑛=𝜎
𝑉𝑀

4.0 Theories of Failure for Brittle Materials

4.1 Maximum Principal Stress Theory

This theory, sometimes called Rankin’s theory states that the inelastic action at any point in a
material at which any state of stress exists begins only when the maximum principal stress at the
point reaches a value equal to the tensile (or compressive) elastic limit or yield strength as found
in a simple tension (or compression) test, regardless of the normal or shearing stresses that occur
on other planes through the point.

According to this theory when the maximum principal stress induced in a material under complex
load condition exceeds the maximum normal strength in a simple tension test the material fails.
So the failure condition can be expressed as

𝜎1 ≥ 𝜎𝑢𝑙𝑡 19

This theory is reasonably accurate for materials which produce brittle fracture both in the test
specimen and in actual service such as: Cast iron, concrete, hardened tool steel, glass.

The theory cannot predict failure under hydrostatic compression (the state of stress in which all
three principle stresses are equal). Also, it cannot accurately predict strengths where a ductile
failure occurs.

4.2 Mohr’s Theory

The theory predicts that a material will fail if a stress state is on the envelope that is tangent to
the three Mohr’s circles corresponding to

 Uniaxial ultimate stress in tension

 Uniaxial ultimate stress in compression, and
 Pure shear

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Engr. Y. K. Galadima Mechanics of Materials-CVEN 305 (Module 1)
Example 1

A steel beam is statically loaded and has a yield strength of 320 𝑀𝑃𝑎. The state of stress at the
most critical point 𝑄 is given as

𝜎𝑥 = 70 𝑀𝑃𝑎, 𝜎𝑦 = −40 𝑀𝑃𝑎, 𝜎𝑧 = −20𝑀𝑃𝑎, 𝜏𝑥𝑦 = 30𝑀𝑃𝑎

Determine the factor of safety (𝑛) using

a. Maximum shear stress theory

b. Maximum distortion energy theory

Solution

Before proceeding with the task at hand, we first determine the principal stresses from

𝜎𝑝3 − 𝐼1 𝜎𝑝2 + 𝐼2 𝜎𝑝 + 𝐼3 = 0

Where
𝐼1 = 𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 + 𝜎𝑧

2 2 2
𝐼2 = 𝜎𝑥 𝜎𝑦 + 𝜎𝑥 𝜎𝑧 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑧 − 𝜏𝑥𝑦 − 𝜏𝑥𝑧 − 𝜏𝑦𝑧 , and

2 2 2
𝜎𝑥 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑧 + 2𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝜏𝑥𝑧 𝜏𝑦𝑧 − 𝜎𝑥 𝜏𝑦𝑧 − 𝜎𝑦 𝜏𝑥𝑧 − 𝜎𝑧 𝜏𝑥𝑦

Thus,

𝐼1 = 70 + (−40) + (−20) = 10

𝐼2 = 70 × (−40) + 70 × (−20) + (−40) × (−20) − 302 = −4300

𝐼3 = 70 × (−40) × (−20) − (−20) × 302 = 74000

Thus the cubic equation from whence the principal stresses are determined becomes

𝜎𝑝3 − 10𝜎𝑝2 − 4300𝜎𝑝 + 7400 = 0

To compute the principal stress, let

3𝑐−𝑏2 27𝑑−9𝑏𝑐+2𝑏3 𝑝 3 𝑞 2
𝑝= 3
, 𝑞= 27
and 𝑅 = (3) + (2)

Where 𝑎 = 1, 𝑏 = 10, 𝑐 = −4300 and 𝑑 = 74000

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Engr. Y. K. Galadima Mechanics of Materials-CVEN 305 (Module 1)
Thus

3×(−4300)−102
𝑝= = −4333.33
3

27×74000−9×10×(−4300)+2×103
𝑞= = 88407.4
27

−4333.33 3 88407.4 2
𝑅=( 3
) +( 3
) = −2145280646.98

Since 𝑅 < 0, the root of the cubic equation is obtained from

𝑝 𝜃 𝑏
𝑥𝑛 = [−2 × 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛(𝑞)√− ] cos [ + 120𝑛] − , 𝑛 = 0,1,2
3 3 3

Where

𝑞 2
( ⁄2) +1 𝑖𝑓 𝑞 > 0
𝜃 = cos−1 (√ ) , 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛(𝑞) = } and 𝜃 is in degrees
𝑝 3 −1 𝑖𝑓 𝑞 < 0
−( ⁄3)

Thus

2
(88407.4⁄2)
𝜃 = cos−1 (√ 3) = 36.4𝑜 and 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛(𝑞) = +1
−(−4300⁄3)

Hence

−4333.33 36.4 10
𝑥0 = [−2 × 1√− 3
] cos [ 3 + 120 × 0] − 3
= −77.65

−4333.33 36.4 10
𝑥1 = [−2 × 1√− ] cos [ + 120 × 1] − = 47.65
3 3 3

−4333.33 36.4 10
𝑥2 = [−2 × 1√− 3
] cos [ 3 + 120 × 2] − 3
= 20

Thus

𝜎1 = 47.65 𝑀𝑃𝑎, 𝜎2 = 20 𝑀𝑃𝑎, 𝜎3 = −77.65 𝑀𝑃𝑎,

Maximum shear stress theory

The theory states that failure of structural component occurs when the maximum shear stress
in the component is equal to the maximum shear stress in a uniaxial test at the yield stress.

The factor of safety based on this theory is given by

𝜎𝑦 320
𝑛= = = 2.5
𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 −𝜎𝑚𝑖𝑛 47.65−(−77.65)

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Engr. Y. K. Galadima Mechanics of Materials-CVEN 305 (Module 1)
Maximum distortion energy theory

(Theory states that yielding occurs whenever the distortion energy in a unit volume reaches the
distortion energy in the same volume corresponding to the yield strength in tension or
compression)

The factor of safety based on this theory is

𝜎
𝑛=𝜎𝑦
𝑉𝑀

The von Mises stress is

√2 1⁄
𝜎𝑉𝑀 = 2
[(𝜎1 − 𝜎2 )2 + (𝜎1 − 𝜎3 )2 + (𝜎2 − 𝜎3 )2 ] 2

1⁄
√2 2 2 2
𝜎𝑉𝑀 = 2
[(47.65 − 20)2 + (47.65 − (−77.65)) + (20 − (−77.65)) ]

𝜎𝑉𝑀 = 110 𝑀𝑃𝑎

320
∴ 𝑛 = 110 = 2.9

TUTORIAL QUESTIONS
1. A steel 𝐿𝑃𝐺 tank is shown in figure. The wall thickness of the tank is 15 𝑚𝑚 and has a yield
strength of 340 𝑀𝑃𝑎. The full weight of the tank is 6500 𝑘𝑔 and the internal pressure is 3𝑀𝑃𝑎.
Calculate the factor of safety of the tank according to the distortion energy theory
𝑡 15 3 1
Note: since 𝑟 = 1000 = 200 < 20 the tank can be treated as thin-walled pressure vessel)

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Engr. Y. K. Galadima Mechanics of Materials-CVEN 305 (Module 1)
 MAJOR REFERENCES
Boresi, A. P, O. M Sidebottom, F. B Seely, and J. O Smith. Advanced Mechanics of Materials. Third
ed. New York: John Wiley and Sons 1978.

Seely, B. S, and J. O Smith. Advanced Mechanics of Materials. Second ed.: John Wiley and Sons, Inc.,
1932.

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Engr. Y. K. Galadima Mechanics of Materials-CVEN 305 (Module 1)