METALS

Chemistry for Engineers and

Engineering Technologists
Learning Competencies:
1. Describe the metallic bond;
2. Enumerate some of the physical and chemical
properties of metals and their alloys;
3. Relate the properties of metals and their alloys to
their industrial uses;
4. Describe the factors affecting the rate of corrosion.
5. Describe the different methods of preventing
corrosion;
6. Describe the nature of semiconductors; and
7. Different metallurgical processes.
Topics
❑The Metallic Bond
❑Properties and Uses of Metals
❑Compounds and Alloys
❑Corrosion
❑Metallurgy
❑Semiconductor
Divisions
into
Metals
and Non-
Metals
▪ In the periodic table the METALS are at the right side and
in the center of the periodic table. About 80 elements are
classified as metals including some from every group except
for 7A and 8A. Atoms of metal tend to donate electrons
▪ The NON-METALS appear at the far right and toward the
top. This consists of about a dozen relatively common and
important elements with the exceptions of hydrogen. Atoms
of non-metals tend to accept electrons in reaction with
metals.
▪ Borderline elements or METALLOIDS are elements that to
some extent exhibit metallic and non-metallic properties.
They usually act as donor with metals and electron acceptor
with non-metals. These elements lies close to the zigzag line
in the periodic table.
Properties of Metal, Nonmetal and Metalloids Metal
▪ luster & malleable, they conduct heat and electricity
▪ Elements with 3 or fewer electrons in the outer level are considered metal
Nonmetal
▪ are generally gases or brittle solids at room temperature
▪ Poor conductor of heat and electricity
Metalloids
▪ some elements that have properties of both metal and nonmetal.
▪These elements lie at the right and left of the stair step line on the periodic
table
▪ B, Si, Ge, As, Sb, Te
Example: 15P = [Ne]10 3s2 3p3
2 8 5 3e- need 3e- (gain) to be stable

n=1 n=2 n=3 Electron dot symbol: -3

P-3 valence no.

▪ Elements that can gain or lost e- are metalloids
▪ Elements that donate/ give e- are metals
▪ Elements that accept/gain e- are nonmetal
Valence electron – comprises the property of an atom
Metal
▪ Readily gives/donate e-
▪ Have (+) positive valence no.
▪ Found at the left side of the periodic table
Nonmetal
▪ They readily accept/gain e-
▪ Have (-) negative valence no.
▪ Found at the right side of the periodic table
Metalloids
▪ They can give/accept electrons
 What is Metallic Bond?
• Metallic bonds result from the sharing of a variable
number of electrons by a variable number of
atoms.
• Also the electrostatic attraction between the
positively charged atomic nuclei of metal atoms
and the delocalised electrons in the metal.
• Metallic bonding is the principal force holding
together the atoms of a metal.
 What is Metallic Bond?

• The force that binds together the atoms of metals is

called the metallic bond.
• The atoms of metals are all alike therefore they
cannot form ionic bonds.
• The atom of metallic elements contain only 1 to 3
valence electrons, therefore these atoms cannot form
covalent bonds, with noble gas configurations as they
will remain incomplete.
 Electron Sea Model for
Metallic Bonding

• Lorentz(1923) proposed a model known as

electron gas model or electron sea model.
• This model is based on the following
characteristic properties of metals:
• Low ionization energies :
Metals generally have low ionization
energies. (low electronegativity)
 Electron Sea Model for
Metallic Bonding

▪ This implies that the valence electrons of metal

atoms are not strongly held by the nucleus.
▪ Valence electrons can move freely out of the
influence of their kernels (atomic orbit/structure minus
valence electrons). Thus, metals have free mobile
electrons.
 Electron Sea Model for
Metallic Bonding

▪ Large number of empty orbitals:

o It has been observed that in metals a number of
valence orbitals remain empty as the number of
valence electrons in metals is generally less than the
number of valence orbitals.
For example:
Lithium {(Li, Z = 3) 1s22s1} has 2p-orbitals vacant;
Sodium {(Na, Z = 11) 1s22s22p6 3s1} has 3p-and 5d-orbitals vacant;
Magnesium {(Mg, Z = 12) 1s22s22p6 3s2} has 3p-and 3d-orbitals vacant.
Metallic Bonding
 Properties of Metals

Physical Properties
1. Good conductor of electricity
2. Good conductor of heat
3. Ductile and Malleable
4. Shining Luster
5. High Density
6. High Melting Points
 Properties of Metals
Chemical Properties
1. Have the tendency to lose electrons since they
have few valence electrons. This makes them
also good reducing agents.
2. Activity
▪ Reacts with nonmetals to form salts
▪ Combine readily with other metals so that most
metals are not found free in nature
▪ Combine slowly with the oxygen in the
atmosphere forming rust.
 Properties of Metals
Chemical Properties
▪ Metal oxides (basic anhydrides) form bases with
water
▪ Silverwares tarnish when left in egg or mustard
mixtures because of sulfur in the foods form
silver sulfide
▪ Active metals release hydrogen from acids
3. Metal replaces another metal ion from a solution.
 Classifications of Metals

Metals can be classified

as:
1. Alkali metals
2. Alkali earth metals
3. Transitions metals
4. Metals in mixed
group
5. Lanthanides and
actinides
Activity Series
➢ The most active metals are at
the top. These will replace
metals below them.
➢ The nonmetals are also listed in
order of most active at the top to
least active at the bottom.
➢ More active elements replace
less active elements in single
replacement reactions
Single replacement reaction – is one in which a metal replaces
another metal ion from a solution or a nonmetal replaces a less
active nonmetal in a compound. This reaction is also called
displacement or substitution.
General Form: B + AX → BX + Awhere A and B are metals
Y + AX → AY + X where X and Y are nonmetals
element + compound → compound + element

Example: Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) → MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)

(Mg is above H)
 Properties of Metals

▪ Metals have their characteristic properties because of

their giant structure.
▪ In a metal crystal, the atoms are in a regular
arrangement and strongly bonded together.
▪ Strong metallic bonding makes metals hard, but allows
layers of atoms to slide so that the metal is malleable.
▪ The layers of atoms also allow an electric current to pass
through.
 Properties of Metals

• Most metals are very strong. They have high

melting points and they have high heat and
electrical conductivity.
• They are also malleable, which means they can be
beaten or pressed into thin sheets.
 Uses of Metals

▪ Car bodies are made from steel, which is mostly iron,

because it is a very strong material that is easy to press
into the required shape.
▪ Electrical wiring is made from copper because it is a
very good conductor of electricity.
▪ The filament of a light bulb is made from tungsten
because this metal does not melt at the very high
temperature needed to make it white hot.
 Uses of Metals

• Copper is used in making electrical wire cables, sockets,

etc. because copper is good conductor of electricity.
• Iron is used to make iron nails, iron sheets, horseshoes
etc. It is also used for making furnaces, grates, engine
blocks etc.
• Zinc is used in making dry cells, galvanizing iron sheets
to prevent rusting.
 Uses of Metals

• German silver is used in making silver coins.

• Bronze is used in making gears, ships propellers,
bearings etc.
• Brass is used in making gears, ship radders, bearings
and statues.
• Aluminium is used in the manufacture of utensils which
is corrosion resistant. It is also used in making aircraft
parts because it is light.
The extensive use of metals is having an effect on our
environment:
• Strip mining of metal ores creates large areas of barren
and lifeless land.
• Waste material from metal extraction is left in spoil tips that
scar the landscape.
• While some used metals are recycled, many metal articles
are simply dumped.
• Toxic metal compounds leach out of waste material to
pollute the environment, killing wildlife.
 What is an Alloy?

• An alloy can be made by mixing one metal with

another, several metals together or mixing non-metallic
elements with a metal(s).
• Essentially it is defined as a solid solution.
• The main component metal in the alloy is known as the
base metal and is referred to as the solvent within the
solution and the other metals/elements used are referred
to as solutes.
 What is an Alloy?

• This mixing is generally done at very high

temperatures where the elements and metals are
melted, mixed, and left to cool.
• When these metal-metal or metal-non-metal mixtures
are formed, there is no occurrence of chemical bond
formation between the various elements used.
• In general, alloys are tougher, stronger and heat
durable than their component counterparts.
 What is an Alloy?

• Other properties such as less corrosiveness, can also

be achieved depending on the type and amount of
metals/elements used in the mixture.
• Alloys are usually produced to achieve specific
requirements. When only two types of
metals/elements are used to prepare an alloy, it is
called a binary alloy, and when three different types
are use we call it a tertiary alloy.
Some commonly used alloys are steel,
brass, bronze, nichrome etc.

Alloy of metals
Bronze = copper + tin
Brass = copper + zinc
 Compound

✓Definite and constant composition

✓Elements that make up the compound
lose their identity due to chemical
change taking place
✓Cannot be broken down into simpler
substances by ordinary means.
 The Difference Between
Alloys Compounds
• mixture of metals/elements (no • several elements are bonded
chemical reaction involved) together through chemical
• at least would contain a metal reactions.
in it • from a non-metallic origin
• completely different enhanced • carry traces of elemental
properties than individual characteristics
elements • do have strict proportions in
• do not have strict proportions elemental composition
in elemental composition • do have chemical bonds
• do not have chemical bonds between the elements
between the elements
 Compounds & Alloys

1. Oxides 6. Iron and Steel

Example: Na2O and K2O - Iron recovered from iron
2. Hydroxides oxides
Example: Mg(OH)2 7. Alloy Steel
3. Halides - Iron + carbon + Mn/V/Cr
Example: NaCl and KCl 8. Galvanized Iron and Steel
4. Carbonates - iron can be protected by
Example: CaCO3 paint or by coating it with
layer of zinc to produce
5. Sulfates galvanized iron.
Example: Na2SO4 and
K2SO4
 What is Corrosion?
• Corrosion is the chemical attack on the metal or
deterioration of metal through oxidation by its
environment. It is a galvanic process wherein the metal
that corrode at act as the anode.
• Corrosion is the deterioration of a metal as a result
of chemical reactions between it and the
surrounding environment.
 Do all Metals Corrode?
• All metals can corrode. Some, like pure iron, corrode
quickly. Stainless steel, however, which combines
iron and other alloys, is slower to corrode and is
therefore used more frequently.
• All small group of metals, called the Noble Metals,
are much less reactive than others.
• As a result, they corrode rarely.
• Only metals that can be found in nature in their pure
form.
 Do all Metals Corrode?

• They include palladium, silver, platinum, and

gold.

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Noble metals are a
group of metals that are
resistant to oxidation
and corrosion when
exposed to air. Due to
relativistic effects
exhibited by these
metals, they have the
ability to be stable in
different conditions.

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 Mechanism or Steps Involved
in Corrosion
1. A metal in contact with a solution will
corrode if there are chemical species in
the solution which can reduced at a
potential more positive than the reduction
potential of the metal
2. The metal then becomes anodic usually
at local spots due to irregularities in the
surface or in the solution.
Example: Fe(s) Fe+2(aq) + 2e-
 Mechanism or Steps Involved
in Corrosion
3. Typical cathodic reaction which occurs
on the other reactions of the metals or on a
less active metal attracted to M are the
following:
2 H+ + 2e- H2
O2 + 4 H+ + 4e- 2H2O
Fe+3 + e- Fe+2
 The rusting of iron exposed
to the weather even support
iron underneath concrete is an
example of uniform corrosion.
▪ Iron is oxidized, and
oxygen from the air is
reduced.
▪ Water is needed for ion
mobility between the anodic
and cathodic regions, and
the presence of ionic salts
speeds the reaction
considerably.
@Copyright 2011 – Brown - Brooks/Cole - Cengage Learning
@Copyright 2011 – Brown - Brooks/Cole - Cengage Learning
 Types of Corrosion

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 Types of Corrosion

Pitting Corrosion Crevice Corrosion Filiform Corrosion

Types of Corrosion

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Types of Corrosion

Stress
Corrosion
Cracking
(SCC)

Corrosion
fatigue
Types of Corrosion
 Types of Corrosion

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Types of Corrosion

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Types of Corrosion
Types of Corrosion
 Factors Affecting Rate of
Corrosion
1. Presence of corrosion agent
2. Position of electrochemical series
3. Type of film or coating formed on the
surface of metal
4. Presence of water and salt
 Prevention of Corrosion

▪ Coatings
o coating the metal with other metals
o coating the metal with metallic compounds and
lacquers
▪ Alloying the metal with other metals
▪ By using chemical to form a surface coating
▪ By attaching a more active metal (cathodic protection)

@Copyright 2011 – Brown - Brooks/Cole - Cengage Learning

 Semiconductors

• Semiconductors are solids whose conductivity lies

between the conductivity of conductors and insulators.
• Due to exchange of electrons - to achieve the noble
gas configuration - semiconductors arrange as lattice
structure.
• Unlike metals, the conductivity increases with
increasing temperature.
• Increasing temperatures leads to broken bonds and
free electrons are generated.
• At the location at which the electron was placed, a so-
called defect electron ("hole") remains.
Band Theory
 Band Theory

▪ In a conductor like metals, the valence band is close to the

conduction band, negligible amount of energy needed to
transfer valence electrons to the conduction band.
▪ In an insulator like rubber, there is a great gap between the
conduction band and the valence band; hence a considerable
amount of energy to excite electron into the conduction band.
▪ In semiconductor, the energy gap between the conduction
band and the valence band is much smaller than that for
insulators.
▪ An increased in temperature will decrease the conductivity of
metals since the increased in vibration will disrupt the flow of
electrons.
Comparison of N-type & P-type
semiconductor
Doping in Semiconductors
 Metallurgy
• Metallurgy is used to separate metals from their ore.
• Also the technology of metals: the way in which
science is applied to the production of metals, and the
engineering of metal components for usage in products
for consumers and manufacturers.
• The production of metals involves the processing
of ores to extract the metal they contain, and the
mixture of metals, sometimes with other elements, to
produce alloys.
 Metallurgy
• Metallurgy is distinguished from
the craft of metalworking, although metalworking
relies on metallurgy, as medicine relies on medical
science, for technical advancement.
• The science of metallurgy is subdivided into chemical
metallurgy and physical metallurgy.
 Metallurgy

• Metallurgy is subdivided into ferrous metallurgy (also

known as black metallurgy) and non-ferrous
metallurgy (also known as colored metallurgy).
• Ferrous metallurgy involves processes and alloys
based on iron while non-ferrous metallurgy involves
processes and alloys based on other metals.
• The production of ferrous metals accounts for 95
percent of world metal production.
 The Different Metallurgical
Processes
A. Preliminary Treatment/Concentration
1. Settling
2. Floatation
3. Magnetic Separation
4. Liquation
5. Amalgation
6. Chemical Separation
7. Reduction
 The Different Metallurgical
Processes
7.1 Smelting
7.2 Displacement
7.3 Hydrogen Reduction
7.4 Hydrometallurgy
8. Leaching
9. Solution concentration and purification
1. Precipitation
2. Froth flotation
2. Metal Recovery
 Physical Metallurgy

• A field of study within metallurgy where the focus is on

the physical properties and structure of metals and
alloys.
• It is important to know the effect of for instance the
chemical composition, heat treatment and production
process on the final component in order to achieve
components with optimal properties.
 Chemical Metallurgy

• Chemical metallurgy is the science of obtaining

metals from their ores, and of considering reactions of
metals which are usually considered with an approach of
disciplines belonging to chemistry.
• As such, it involves reactivity of metals which are also
dealt in detail by electrochemistry and corrosion.
 What is an Ore?

• An ore is a type of rock that contains minerals with

important elements such as metals.
• Ores are extracted through mining; they are then
refined to extract the valuable element(s).
• The grade or concentration of an ore mineral, or
metal, as well as its form of occurrence, will directly
affect the costs associated with mining it.
 What is an Ore?

• The cost of extraction must be weighed against the

metal value contained in the rock to determine which
ores should be processed and which ores are of too low a
grade to be worth mining.
• Metal ores are generally oxides, sulfides and silicates of
“native” metals (such as native copper) that are not
commonly concentrated in the Earth’s crust.
• Ore bodies are formed by a variety of geological
processes. The process of ore formation is called ore
genesis.
 What is an Ore?

Gold Ore: High-grade gold ore from a quartz vein near Alma,
Colorado. The appearance is typical of very good gold-quartz
ore.
 Ore Preparation

❖ It takes multiple steps to extract the “important”element from

the ore:
▪ First, the ore must be separated from unwanted rocks.
▪ Then, the minerals need to be separated out of the ore
▪ Since most minerals are not pure metals, further separation
methods are required.
✓ Most minerals are chemical compounds that contain metalsand
other elements.
 Extractive Metallurgy

• Extractive metallurgy is the practice of removing

valuable metals from an ore and refining the extracted
raw metals into a purer form.
• In order to convert a metal oxide or sulfide to a purer
metal, the ore must be reduced physically, chemically,
or electrolytically.
• Extractive metallurgists are interested in three
primary streams: feed, concentrate (valuable metal
oxide/sulfide), and tailings (waste).
 Extractive Metallurgy

• After mining, large pieces of the ore feed are broken

through crushing and/or grinding. This step creates
particles that are either mostly valuable or mostly waste.
• Concentrating the particles of value in a form supporting
separation enables the desired metal to be removed from
waste products.
• Ore bodies often contain more than one valuable metal.
 Extractive Metallurgy

• Tailings of a previous process may be used as a feed in

another process to extract a secondary product from the
original ore.
• Additionally, a concentrate may contain more than one
valuable metal. That concentrate would be processed to
separate the valuable metals into individual constituents.
 Hydrometallurgy

• Hydrometallurgy is concerned with processes that use

aqueous solutions to extract metals from ores.
• The most common hydrometallurgical process is
leaching, which involves dissolution of the valuable
metals into the aqueous solution.
• After the solution is separated from the ore solids, the
solution is often subjected to various processes of
purification and concentration before the valuable metal
is recovered, either in its metallic state or as a chemical
compound.
 Hydrometallurgy

• The solution purification and concentration processes

may include precipitation, distillation, adsorption, and
solvent extraction.
• The final recovery step may involve precipitation,
cementation, or an electrometallurgical process.
 Pyrometallurgy
• Pyrometallurgy involves high temperature
processes where chemical reactions take place
among gases, solids, and molten materials.
• Solids containing valuable metals are either
reacted to form intermediate compounds for
further processing, or they are converted into their
elemental or metallic state.
• Pyrometallurgical processes that involve gases and
solids are typified by roasting operations.
• Processes that produce molten products are
collectively referred to as smelting operations.
 Pyrometallurgy
• The energy required to sustain the high temperature
pyrometallurgical processes may come entirely from the
exothermic nature of the chemical reactions taking place,
usually oxidation reactions.
• Often, however, energy must be added to the process by
combustion of fuel or, in the case of some smelting
processes, by the direct application of electrical energy.
 Electrometallurgy
• Electrometallurgy involves metallurgical processes that take
place in some form of electrolytic cell.
• The most common types of electrometallurgical processes are
electrowinning and electro-refining.
• Electrowinning is an electrolysis process used to recover
metals in aqueous solution, usually as the result of an ore
having undergone one or more hydrometallurgical processes.
• The metal of interest is plated onto a cathode, while an anode
is composed of an inert electrical conductor.
 Electrometallurgy

• Electro-refining is used to dissolve an impure metallic

anode (typically from a smelting process) and produce a
high purity cathode.
• Fused salt electrolysis is another electrometallurgical
process whereby the valuable metal is dissolved into a
molten salt, which acts as the electrolyte, and the
valuable metal collects on the cathode of the cell.
 References
Chemistry by Raymond Chang 11th Edition
Chemistry for Engineers by Brown
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